International Journal of
Environmental Research
and Public Health
Article
Urban Form and Function Optimization for Reducing Carbon
Emissions Based on Crowd-Sourced Spatio-Temporal Data
Fangjie Cao 1 , Yun Qiu 1 , Qianxin Wang 1, *
Citation: Cao, F.; Qiu, Y.; Wang, Q.;
Zou, Y. Urban Form and Function
Optimization for Reducing Carbon
Emissions Based on Crowd-Sourced
Spatio-Temporal Data. Int. J. Environ.
Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph191710805
Academic Editors: Antonis A. Zorpas
and María Belén Almendro-Candel
Received: 7 July 2022
Accepted: 23 August 2022
Published: 30 August 2022
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710805
and Yan Zou 2
1 School of Environment and Spatial Informatics, China University of Mining and Technology,
Xuzhou 221116, China
2 School of Humanity and Law, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 102616, China
* Correspondence: wqx@cumt.edu.cn
Abstract: The low-carbon city has become an important global urban development-oriented goal.
One important aspect of urban space is low-carbon urban planning, which has a vital role in urban
carbon emissions. Which types of urban form and function allocations are conducive to reducing
carbon emissions is therefore a key issue. In this study, the Futian and Luohu Districts of Shenzhen,
Guangdong Province, China, are taken as an example to investigate this issue. Firstly, a “head/tail”
breaks method based on the third fractal theory is adopted to obtain the minimum evaluation parcel of
urban space. Then, the Landscape Shape Index (LSI), Fragmentation Index (C), Shannon’s Diversity
Index (SHDI), and Density of Public Facilities (Den) are used to evaluate the form and function
allocation of each parcel. In addition, the CO2 concentration distribution in this study area is acquired
from remote sensing satellite data. Finally, the relationships between urban form, function allocation,
and CO2 concentration are obtained. The results show that the lower the urban form index or the
higher the urban function index, the less the CO2 concentration. To verify this conclusion, three
experiments are designed and carried out. In experiment A, the CO2 concentration of the tested area
is reduced by 14.31% by decreasing the LSI and C by 6.1% and 9.4%, respectively. In experiment B,
the CO2 concentration is reduced by 15.15% by increasing the SHDI and Den by 16.3% and 12.1%,
respectively. In experiment C, the CO2 concentration is reduced by 27.72% when the urban form and
function are adjusted in the same was as in experiments A and B.
Keywords: low-carbon urban planning; Landscape Shape Index; POI; OSM; CO2 concentration
1. Introduction
Global warming has become a serious challenge to mankind, leading to sea level rise,
the loss of coral reefs, and a variety of natural disasters. CO2 makes up approximately
70% of the greenhouse gases, which are considered to be one of the greatest causes of
global warming [1]. However, due to rapid global urbanization, more than 76% of CO2
emissions come from cities [2]. Therefore, low-carbon urban planning and development
has attracted more and more attention in recent years [3,4]. In general, current research
on urban carbon emissions focuses on two aspects. One is the calculation of models of
urban carbon emissions, such as the multi-regional input–output (MRIO) model, the single-
regional input–output model (SRIO) [5], the multi-scale input–output model (MSIO), and
the IPCC carbon emission calculation method [6]. The other is analysis of the leading factors
of urban carbon emissions, such as index decomposition analysis [7], Kaya identity [8],
and the environmental input–output analysis framework [9]. These studies show that
population size, investment intensity, and land use change have significant effects on urban
emissions [10–12].
In addition, urban spatial structure, function allocation, and social organization also
have an important impact on carbon emissions. Therefore, they have become important
issues in low-carbon urban planning. For example, Fang [13] investigated the relation-
ship between landscape index and CO2 emissions by the remote sensing image data of
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805 2 of 17

30 provinces in China from 1999 to 2019. The results showed that urban expansion leads
to an increase in CO2 emissions, and that the CO2 emissions of irregular urban expansion
are more than those of aggregated and continuous urban expansion. For another example,
Ou [14] analyzed the impact of different urban development models on carbon emissions.
It was verified that the multi-core urban model has less carbon emissions than the single
core urban model. In addition, Yang [15] discussed the relationship between the urban mor-
phology and the carbon emissions and pointed out that urban traffic carbon emissions can
be reduced by cutting down the population density, the built-up area, and the road density.
These studies are helpful for revealing the leading factors of urban carbon emissions
and optimizing the urban development model. However, they only focus on the influencing
factors and mechanisms of urban carbon emissions at a large scale (e.g., province and city),
and there is a lack of research at smaller scales (e.g., district, street). One of the key
limiting factors is the difficulty of data acquisition for small-scale carbon emission research,
especially the fine statistical data of social economy and carbon emissions. However,
the increase in crowd-sourced spatio-temporal big data provides a good opportunity to
alleviate this problem [16]. They are easier to obtain, faster to update, finer in scale, and
lower in cost than traditional statistical data [17,18]. For example, OpenStreetMap (OSM)
has been widely used to divide the minimum evaluation parcel in urban quantitative
research, due to the accuracy and integrity of road network data [19,20]. For another
example, Points of Interest (POI) has often been used to identify urban function zones
by marking the attribute information of each parcel [21,22]. In addition, mobile phone
signaling data [23], bus card data [24], taxi trajectory data [25], and other crowd-sourced
spatio-temporal data [26] have also been used to study the characteristics of urban structure,
function, and operation.
In this study, OSM data are used to divide minimum evaluation parcels, and a
“head/tail” breaks method is adopted to improve the rationality and practicality of the
parcel division results. POI data are used to determine the function of each parcel, and the
CO2 concentration distribution is also acquired from Landsat-8 remote sensing image data.
The spatial form and function allocation of each parcel is evaluated by the Landscape Shape
Index (LSI), Fragmentation Index (C), Shannon’s Diversity Index (SHDI), and Density of
Public Facilities (Den). Finally, the relationships between urban morphology and CO2
concentration are constructed. The results indicate that regular form, low fragmentation,
and perfect function all benefit the reduction of urban carbon emissions. Furthermore,
several simulation experiments are designed and carried out to compare the effects of
different planning schemes on urban emissions. It is verified that the CO2 concentration of
tested areas can be reduced by decreasing the LSI and C or increasing the SHDI and Den.

2. Study Area and Data Sources

2.1. Study Area
This study was carried out in the Futian District and Luohu District of Shenzhen City,
which is located in the Guangdong Province in southern China, adjacent to Hong Kong,
with an area of 11.541 km2 and a population of approximately 270 million (Figure 1). It
covers 0.2% of the country and was established as the first special economic zone and
contributes 2.7% of China’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Moreover, Futian District is
the administrative, financial, cultural, and commercial center of Shenzhen.
The research area is expected to transform into a sustainable area. In the past few years,
energy structural changes, industrial structural improvement, and green city construction
occurred in Shenzhen. Today, Shenzhen’s carbon intensity has continued to decline. In
particular, the green coverage area in Luohu District is 51.66 km2 , and the green coverage
rate is 64.5%, which makes Luohu District an important carbon sink area in Shenzhen.
Thus, Futian District and Luohu District could be an ideal research area to provide reference
samples of low-carbon urban planning to analyze the change of CO2 concentration under
the adjustment of landscape pattern.
 coverage rate is 64.5%, which makes Luohu District an important carbon sink area in Shen-
zhen. Thus, Futian District and Luohu District could be an ideal research area to provide
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805
reference 3 of 17
samples of low-carbon urban planning to analyze the change of CO2 concentra-
tion under the adjustment of landscape pattern.

Figure
Figure 1. Schematic
1. Schematic diagram
diagram of the
of the study
study area.
area.

2.2.2.2.
DataData Sources
Sources
In In
thisthis study,there
study, therearearethree
threetypes
types of
of data collected
collectedand
andused:
used:oneoneisisthe POI
the data
POI from
data
2022,
from which
2022, whichareare
usedusedto calculate
to calculatelandscape
landscape index; thethe
index; second
second is the road
is the roadnetwork
network data
from
data from2022, which
2022, which areare
usedusedto delineate landscape
to delineate landscape parcels; andand
parcels; the the
third is Landsat-8
third image
is Landsat-8
data,data,
image which are used
which to estimate
are used CO2 CO
to estimate concentration distribution.
2 concentration Considering
distribution. Consideringthe season
the
season and cloud cover, the Landsat-8 image data from 2021 were collected (a list of sources
and cloud cover, the Landsat-8 image data from 2021 were collected (a list of data data
is shown
sources in Table
is shown 1). 1).
in Table
Table 1. List of data sources.
Table 1. List of data sources.

Type of Data
Type of Data Data SourcesData Sources DataData
UsageUsage Time of
Time of Data
Data
https://lbs.amap.com/ Dominant function identification
Dominant functionand land-
POIs data https://lbs.amap.com/ 2022
POIs data (accessed on 1(accessed
Januaryon 2022) identification
scape index and landscape
calculation 2022
1 January 2022)
index calculation
https://www.openhistoricalmap.org/
OpenStreetMap https://www.openhistoricalmap.org/
OpenStreetMap (accessed on 1 January 2022)
Division of evaluation parcels
Division of evaluation parcels
2022
2022
(accessed on 1 January 2022)
https://www.nasa.gov/
https://www.nasa.gov/
Landsat-8 image image
Landsat-8 CO2 concentration calculation
CO2 concentration calculation 2021
2021
(accessed on 20 (accessed
Februaryon 20 February 2021)
2021)

2.2.1. POIs
2.2.1. Data
POIs from
Data fromAmap
Amap
POIs generally
POIs generally refer toto
refer allallgeographical
geographicalobjects
objectsthat
thatcan
can be
be abstracted
abstracted asas points
pointsand
andare
aremainly
mainlyused
usedto
torepresent
representvarious
variousservice
service facilities
facilities in
in urban
urban spaces.
spaces. POI data cover spa-
POI data cover spatial
tialdistribution
distributionandandattribute
attribute thethe information
information of geographical
of geographical objects,
objects, which which are widely
are widely used in
usedurban spatial structure and function analysis [27–29], vitality evaluation [30,31],[30,31],
in urban spatial structure and function analysis [27–29], vitality evaluation and land
andcover
landverification
cover verification
[32,33].[32,33].
POIs can POIsbe can beobtained
easily easily obtained by a special
by a special software software de-
development
velopment
kit (SDK)kitprovided
(SDK) provided
by the Amap by theopen
Amap open platform
platform (https://lbs.amap.com/,
(https://lbs.amap.com/, ac- on
accessed
cessed on 1 January
1 January 2022), the 2022), the acquisition
acquisition methodsmethods
of whichofinclude
which key-word
include key-word search,
search, peripheral
peripheral search,
search, ID IDetc.
search, search, etc.study,
In this In thisthe
study, the polygon
polygon retrievalretrieval
method is method
adoptedis adopted
to obtaintoPOI
obtain POI data. Finally, a total of 248,968 POI data are obtained, the spatial
data. Finally, a total of 248,968 POI data are obtained, the spatial distribution of which is distribution
of which
shownisinshown
Figurein2a. Figure 2a.
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(a) (b)
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of data distribution in the study area. (a) POIs spatial distribution. (b)
Figure 2. Schematic diagram of data distribution in the study area. (a) POIs spatial distribution.
OSM spatial distribution.
(b) OSM spatial distribution.

2.2.2.
2.2.2. OpenStreetMap
OpenStreetMap Road Road Network
Network DataData
The
The urban
urban roadroad network
network is is aa vector
vector structure
structure composed
composed of of items
items of
of aa certain
certain density
density
and
and appropriate form. It is also an important way of separating urban space parcels. The
appropriate form. It is also an important way of separating urban space parcels. The
road networkdata
road network dataareare provided
provided by OpenStreetMap
by OpenStreetMap (OSM,(OSM, https://www.openhistori-
https://www.openhistoricalmap.
calmap.org/,
org/, accessed accessed on 1 January
on 1 January 2022), is
2022), which which is an open-source
an open-source project project
createdcreated free of
free of charge.
charge. OSM is one of the most accurate and complete vector geographic
OSM is one of the most accurate and complete vector geographic datasets and includes datasets and
includes user-generated
user-generated maps of everymapspart
of every
of thepart of the
world. Theworld. The road
road network network
data in thisdata
studyinwere
this
study were
obtained obtained
from OSM fromin theOSM in the
Futian Futian
District District
and Luohu and Luohuof
District District of Shenzhen
Shenzhen and
and include
include
12 types12of types of road The
road grades. grades. Thedistribution
spatial spatial distribution
is shownisinshown
Figurein2b.
Figure 2b.

Landsat-8 Remote
2.2.3. Landsat-8 Remote Sensing Image Data
The remote sensing image data used used in
in this
this study
study areare Landsat-8
Landsat-8 remoteremote sensing
sensing data,
data,
which areareprovided
providedbyby thethe
National
National Aeronautics
Aeronauticsand and
Space Administration
Space Administration (NASA, https:
(NASA,
//www.nasa.gov/,
https://www.nasa.gov/, accessed on 20
accessed onFebruary 2021).
20 February Landsat-8
2021). Landsat-8 is the eighth
is the eighthsatellite of the
satellite of
US Landsat program (Landsat). The Landsat-8 satellite payload consists
the US Landsat program (Landsat). The Landsat-8 satellite payload consists of two instru- of two instruments:
Operational
ments: Land Imager
Operational Land (OLI)
Imager and Thermal
(OLI) Infrared Infrared
and Thermal Sensor (TIRS).
SensorThe OLI provides
(TIRS). nine
The OLI pro-
bandsnine
vides at a spatial
bands at resolution
a spatial of 30 m. TIRS
resolution provides
of 30 m. TIRS two separate
provides thermal
two separateinfrared
thermalbands
in-
at a resolution
frared bands atofa 100 m. Landsat
resolution of 100 series data areseries
m. Landsat currently
datawidely used inwidely
are currently many research
used in
fields, research
many such as natural resource
fields, such protection
as natural [34], protection
resource energy exploration
[34], energy [35],exploration
environmental [35],
management [36], and natural disaster monitoring [37].
environmental management [36], and natural disaster monitoring [37].
The monitoring
The monitoringof ofurban
urbanCO CO concentration
concentration
2 2
changes
changes is based
is based on on satellite
satellite thermal
thermal in-
infrared datasets. It has low spatial resolution based on the current
frared datasets. It has low spatial resolution based on the current data from Advanced data from Advanced
Very-High-Resolution Radiometers
Very-High-Resolution Radiometers (AVHRR).
(AVHRR). In In addition,
addition, it it is
is impossible
impossible to to describe
describe the
the
refined surface
refined surface temperature
temperature of of aa small
small area.
area. Therefore,
Therefore, this
this study
study chooses
chooses Landsat-8
Landsat-8 datadata
and uses the single-window algorithm to estimate the change of Land
and uses the single-window algorithm to estimate the change of Land Surface Tempera- Surface Temperature
(LST).
ture Through
(LST). the analysis,
Through the relationship
the analysis, between
the relationship LST and
between LSTactual CO2 concentration
and actual CO2 concentra- is
obtained, and then the distribution characteristics of CO 2 concentration
tion is obtained, and then the distribution characteristics of CO2 concentration are re- are revealed.
vealed.
3. Methods
The proposed framework is displayed in Figure 3. The framework consists of three
3. Methods
components. First, the third fractal theory is introduced to divide the urban space and
The proposed
establish a new urban framework is displayed
evaluation in Figure
parcel, which 3. The framework
is described in Section consists of open-
3.1. Then, three
components. First, the third fractal theory is introduced to divide the
source datasets (including POI and OSM road networks) are used to characterize urbanurban space and
establish a new urban evaluation parcel, which is described in Section
landscapes morphology in Section 3.2. Third, in Section 3.3, urban CO2 concentration 3.1. Then, open-
source datasets
is extracted (including
using Landsat-8POIdata,
and and
OSMtheroad networks) between
relationship are used urban
to characterize
form andurban
CO2
landscapes morphology in Section 3.2. Third, in
concentration is analyzed based on a contribution model. Section 3.3, urban CO 2 concentration is

extracted using Landsat-8 data, and the relationship between urban form and CO2 con-
centration is analyzed based on a contribution model.
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Figure3.3.Overall
Figure Overallframework.
framework.

3.1.
3.1.Head/Tail
Head/TailBreaks
BreaksRuleRuleunder
underthetheThird
ThirdGeographical
GeographicalFractal
FractalTheory
Theory
There
Thereare
aretwotwoimportant
importantscientific
scientificproblems
problemsin inthe
thedivision
divisionof ofranking
rankingof oftraditional
traditional
urban
urban research
research datasets.
datasets. One One isis the
the number
number of of ranks,
ranks, andand the
the other
other isis the
the width
width of of the
the
interval
intervalnumber.
number.Most Mostof ofthe
thecurrent
currentclassification
classificationmethods
methodsare areonly
onlysuitable
suitablefor
fordata
datathat
that
conform
conformto tolinear
lineardistribution
distributioncharacteristics,
characteristics,suchsuchas asequal
equalinterval,
interval,quantile,
quantile,geometric
geometric
interval, and standard deviation [38]. However, the urban
interval, and standard deviation [38]. However, the urban development pattern development pattern is not
is not lin-
linear and is characterized by a power-law distribution. For example,
ear and is characterized by a power-law distribution. For example, the size of cities, the size of cities,
the
the characteristics
characteristics of urban
of urban population
population clusters,
clusters, andthe
and even even the primacy
primacy of largerofurban
largeragglom-
urban
agglomerations
erations all follow all follow
a unique a unique
patternpattern
of heavy of “tail”
heavydistribution
“tail” distribution
[39,40].[39,40].
To
To solve the above problem, we introduced a third fractal approach(head/tail
solve the above problem, we introduced a third fractal approach (head/tailbreaks
breaks
method
method [41,42]) under the natural city theory, which helps to divide the landscapeparcels
[41,42]) under the natural city theory, which helps to divide the landscape parcels
without
withoutdestroying
destroyingthe theexisting
existingstructure
structureof ofthe
thecity.
city.This
Thisisisaabottom-up
bottom-upurban urbanstructure
structure
detection method, which can automatically detect all the smallest
detection method, which can automatically detect all the smallest substructures substructures and merge and
them
merge into a larger
them into parcel.
a largerThus, theThus,
parcel. head/tail breaks method
the head/tail breaksismethod
adoptedistoadopted
obtain theto evalu-
obtain
ation parcels in this
the evaluation study
parcels in (Figure 4). Firstly,
this study (Figurewe 4).build a natural
Firstly, we buildstreet networkstreet
a natural model based
network
on OSM streets, choosing all roads and treating each one as an independent individual.
model based on OSM streets, choosing all roads and treating each one as an independent
Secondly, the outermost ring-road is regarded as the most important element for dividing
individual. Secondly, the outermost ring-road is regarded as the most important element
the study area. Then, sub-periphery roads are considered as sub-important elements for
for dividing the study area. Then, sub-periphery roads are considered as sub-important
continued segmentation of the study area, and this is continued until the smallest evalua-
elements for continued segmentation of the study area, and this is continued until the
tion parcel is divided. In other words, when there are roads of the same importance level
smallest evaluation parcel is divided. In other words, when there are roads of the same
in a certain induction, the division of evaluation parcels is stopped immediately.
importance level in a certain induction, the division of evaluation parcels is stopped im-
mediately.
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(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 4. Induction
Figurepattern of natural
4. Induction street
pattern of parcels.
natural (a) initial
street state. (a)
parcels. (b)initial
1st breaks.
state.(c)
(b)2nd
1st breaks.
breaks. (c) 2nd breaks.
(d) final state.(d) final state.

3.2. Description
3.2.ofDescription
Urban Landscape Based
of Urban on Open-Source
Landscape Datasets
Based on Open-Source Datasets
3.2.1. Identification
3.2.1. Identification of Dominantof Dominant
Function Function
with with
Semantic Semantic and
Association Association and LSTM Model
LSTM Model
There problems
There are several are several inproblems
using POIs in to
using POIsdominant
identify to identifyfunction.
dominant function.
First, the First, the
word count ofword count
POIs that of POIs that
attribute attribute information
information (a type of
(a type of Extremely Extremely
Short Text) isShort Text) is limited;
limited;
second, the model is easy to disturb, which results in poor classifier performance; third, third, the
second, the model is easy to disturb, which results in poor classifier performance;
the POI dataPOI data
types aretypes are complex,
complex, and the and the classification
classification standardsstandards
are notare not unified;
unified; last, thelast, the name
name and type in the POI attribute are inconsistent; for example, the parcel whose namename ends in
and type in the POI attribute are inconsistent; for example, the parcel whose
a garden
ends in a garden is classified
is classified as a park.
as a park.
To problems,
To solve these solve thesea problems,
multi-levelashortmulti-level short text classification
text classification model that integrates
model that integrates
semantic association and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM)
semantic association and Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) [43] is adopted in this study. [43] is adopted in this study. We
use semantic association to extract the name information of
We use semantic association to extract the name information of POIs, establish its rela- POIs, establish its relationship
tionship with function classification to identify the urban function (classification criteria is shown in
with function classification to identify the urban function (classification criteria
Table 2),
is shown in Table 2), and
and apply
applyLSTMLSTMfor forsupervised
supervisedclassification.
classification.InInaddition,
addition,thethe training set and
train-
validation set are divided according to the ratio of 4:1; the deep
ing set and validation set are divided according to the ratio of 4:1; the deep learning frame- learning framework is
pytorch1.7.0 and the GPU is GeForce
work is pytorch1.7.0 and the GPU is GeForce RTX 3070. RTX 3070.

Table 2. POIs function classification table.

Table 2. POIs function classification table.

Function Type Function Type Corresponding POI Classification

Corresponding POI Classification
Restaurant, cafe, bar, tea house, hotel, cinema,
Restaurant, cafe, bar,shopping
tea house, mall,
hotel, shopping center,mall,
cinema, shopping wholesale
shopping center,
wholesale market,
market, monopoly store, supermarket, monopoly
convenience store,
store, supermarket,
home buildingconvenience store, home
materials store,
building materials store, digital appliance, market, shop, beauty salon, barbershop,
digital appliance, market, shop, beauty salon, barbershop, manicure, resort, KTV, theater,
Commercial Commercial manicure, resort, KTV, theater, dance hall, internet bar, playground, bathing and
dance hall, internet bar, playground, bathing
massage, leisure andcompany,
plaza, massage,bank,leisure plaza, company,
insurance, business hall,bank,
training
insurance, business hall, training institution,
institution, bookstore,
bookstore, gasdriving
gas station, station, driving
school school (regis-
(registration offices), pet hospital,
tration offices), pet hospital, printing
printingshopshop
Residential Residence,
Residential apartment, dormitory, villaapartment, dormitory, villa
Residence,
Government, fire department, police station,
Government, court, industry
fire department, policeand commerce
station, bureau,and
court, industry taxcommerce
vernment and sports lei-
Government bureau,
and sports leisurebureau,
finance service customs,
bureau, tax bureau,
embassy, finance bureau,
association, customs,welfare
foundation, embassy, association, foundation,
institution,
sure service welfare institution, stadium, swimming pool, basketball court, badminton court
stadium, swimming pool, basketball court, badminton court
Kindergarten, nursery school, Kindergarten, nursery
primary school, school,school,
middle primaryhigh
school, middle
school, school, high school,
university,
ucation and cultural fa- and cultural facilities
Education university, adult education, vocational school, special education school, private
adult education, vocational school, special education school, private school, scientific
cilities school, scientific research institution, museum, library, conference center
research institution, museum, library, conference center
Hospital, children’s hospital, clinic, emergency center, psychiatric hospital,
MedicalHospital,
and healthchildren’s
service hospital, clinic, emergency center, psychiatric hospital, infectious
dical and health service infectious disease hospital, tuberculosis, eye hospital
disease hospital, tuberculosis, eye hospital
Park Square Park, green space, botanical garden, water
Park Square Park, green space, botanical garden, water
Bus station, high-speed trainBus
Transportation
station, high-speed train station, railway station, subway station, driving
station, railway station, subway station, driving school
Transportation school (training field)
(training field)
Industrial Factory, processing plant, logistics, warehousing, water purification plants
Industrial Factory, processing plant, logistics, warehousing, water purification plants
Graveyard, Graveyard,
public toilet, parking public
lot, water toilet, parking
supply, lot, water
electricity, garbagesupply, electricity,
disposal site,garbage disposal
Other
Other site, temple
temple
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3.2.2. Urban Form Description Using Landscape Index

In this section, urban landscape pattern is used to describe urban morphology. Land-
scape metrics analysis is a widely used method to describe the structure of landscapes.
From the scale of measurement, the landscape indices are generally divided into patch-level
indices, class-level indices, and landscape-level indices. To measure the morphological and
function characteristics of the entire study area, LSI, C, SHDI, and Den are selected. LSI
and C are calculated to describe urban spatial form.
Notably, we cluster POI data of the same type in each landscape parcel and outline
its range line to form the region of interest (AOI), then calculate the indices based on AOI.
In addition, SHDI and Den can reflect the function diversity and spatial agglomeration
characteristics and measure the service capacity of the evaluation parcel. The calculation
formula is shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Landscape index calculation.

Landscape Index Calculation Formula Description

It reflects the fractal dimension and morphological
Landscape Shape Index LSI = Sum_L
√ i
2 πA i characteristics of urban landscape elements.
Fragmentation Index Ni ki It reflects the degree of fragmentation of landscape elements
C= Ai × K
k  
Shannon’s Diversity Index SHDI = − ∑ Pij ln Pij It reflects the diversity of urban public facilities.
j =1
Density of Public Facilities Fi It reflects the density of urban public facilities.
Den = Abi
LSI is the Landscape Shape Index of parcel i; Sum_Li is the sum of the boundary lengths of landscape patches in
parcel i; Ai is the area of AOI in parcel i; C is the Fragmentation Index of parcel i; Ni is the number of patches in
parcel i; k i is the number of POI types in parcel i; K is the total number of POI categories; SHDI is the Shannon’s
Diversity Index of parcel i; Pij is the proportion of the number of type j POIs in all POIs in parcel i; k is the number
of POI types in parcel i; Den is the Density of Public Facilities in parcel i; Fi is the number of public facility POIs in
parcel i; Abi is the area of the building in parcel i; i is the ID of the evaluation parcel.

3.3. Spatial Description of Urban CO2 Distribution and Contribution Indices

3.3.1. Spatial Distribution of Urban CO2 Concentration
The single-window algorithm is used to estimate the LST. In addition, to verify the
accuracy of the inversion results, we compare the measured air temperature at 31 test
points with the inversion LST. After analysis, it is found that the inversion LST has a very
high correlation with the measured temperature, and the correlation coefficient, R, is 0.831,
which means that the LST is basically consistent with the actual situation.
For establishing the relationship between CO2 concentration and LST, we measure the
CO2 concentration at 20 test points, the relationship equation is established by regression
analysis [44], and the fitting effect reaches 0.896.

3.3.2. Description of Spatial Distribution of Urban CO2 Concentration

Carbon emissions are related to urban form, but small-scale carbon emissions cannot
be finely spatially measured. Therefore, we consider the CO2 concentration instead of
carbon emissions. In order to quantitatively analyze the contribution of each landscape
index to CO2 concentration, the contribution indices of different landscape indices to CO2
concentration are calculated [45,46]. The formula is as follows:

Iij
CIij = Ti × (1)
Ij

where CIij is the contribution index of landscape index j to CO2 concentration in parcel
i; Ti is the difference between the average CO2 concentration in parcel i and the average
CO2 concentration in the study area; Iij is the value of landscape index j in parcel i; Ij is the
average value of the landscape index j in the study area; i is the ID of the evaluation parcel.
 where 𝐶𝐼 is the contribution index of landscape index 𝑗 to CO2 concentration in parcel
𝑖; 𝑇 is the difference between the average CO2 concentration in parcel 𝑖 and the average
CO2 concentration in the study area; 𝐼 is the value of landscape index 𝑗 in parcel 𝑖; 𝐼
is the
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, average value of the landscape index 𝑗 in the study area; 𝑖 is the ID of the evalua-
19, 10805 8 of 17
tion parcel.

4. Experiments and Analysis

4. Experiments and Analysis
4.1. Main
4.1. Main Plot Division
Plot Division Based
Basedonon Head/Tail
Head/TailBreaks
BreaksRule
Rule
InIn
this section, a new method for detecting
this section, a new method for detecting the the minimum
minimum evaluation
evaluation parcel
parcel forfor
urban
urban
planning is applied. The “Head/tail” breaks method is proposed
planning is applied. The “Head/tail” breaks method is proposed for the segmentation for the segmentation of
urban landscapes, and the results are shown in Figure 5a. Figure
of urban landscapes, and the results are shown in Figure 5a. Figure 5 also presents the 5 also presents the com-
parison between
comparison the head/tail
between the head/tailbreaks method
breaks and and
method the the
traditional
traditional segmentation
segmentation method.
method.
Figure
Figure 5a represents the scaling form under the head/tail breaks method, where theeval-
5a represents the scaling form under the head/tail breaks method, where the evalu-
uation
ationparcel
parcelcancanbebeautomatically
automaticallydetected; detected;Figure
Figure5b5brepresents
representsthe theminimum
minimum evaluation
evaluation
parcel
parcelpresented
presented with
with thethe
traditional
traditional “thinning expansion”
“thinning expansion”segmentation
segmentation method. It is dif-
method. It is
ferent from the traditional separation parcel, which only relies
different from the traditional separation parcel, which only relies on the road networkon the road network forfor
“thinning
“thinningexpansion”,
expansion”,and andthe theresults
resultsarearemore
morefragmented.
fragmented.The Theresult
resultofofthe
thehead/tail
head/tail
breaks
breaksmethod
methodintegrates
integratesmore more and smaller “substructures”,
and smaller “substructures”,which whichmakes makes thethe research
research area
area
formform a structured
a structured whole.whole. In other
In other words,
words, in this
in this research,
research, an evaluation
an evaluation parcelparcel con-of
consists
sists of small
small substructures
substructures rather rather
than thanlargelarge
ones.ones.
The The
studystudy
areaarea is divided
is divided intointo
285285 land-
landscape
scape parcels (the traffic and transportation dominated by roads
parcels (the traffic and transportation dominated by roads are connected in series into a are connected in series
into a complete
complete landscape
landscape parcel). parcel).
UnderUnder the head/tail
the head/tail breaksbreaks
method, method, each functional
each functional subject is
subject is basically
basically completely
completely divided divided in a landscape
in a landscape parcel. Inparcel. In contrast
contrast to the mechanical
to the mechanical segmenta-
segmentation
tion method,method, the “head/tail”
the “head/tail” breaks used
breaks method method used
in this in this
study allowsstudy
for allows
the directforuse
theof
direct
major use of major
roads roadstraffic
to divide to divide trafficareas.
functional functional areas.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. Evaluation
Figure parcel
5. Evaluation under
parcel two segmentation
under methods.
two segmentation (a) the (a)
methods. scaling form under
the scaling formtheunder the
head/tail breaks method. (b) the minimum evaluation parcel presented with the traditional “thin-
head/tail breaks method. (b) the minimum evaluation parcel presented with the traditional “thinning
ning expansion” segmentation method.
expansion” segmentation method.

4.2.
4.2.Identification
Identification of of
Main
MainFunctional
Functional Areas and
Areas and CO 2 Concentration Distribution
CO 2 Concentration Distribution
With the primary aim of distinguishing the
With the primary aim of distinguishing the functions functions in in
each
each urban
urban landscape
landscape parcel,
parcel,
wewe reclassify
reclassifythethe2323one-level
one-leveltypes
typesof ofAmap
Amap POI POI data into nine
data into nine types,
types,including
includingcommercial,
commer-
cial, residential,
residential, government
government and and sports
sports leisure
leisure service,
service, education
education and cultural
and cultural facilities,
facilities, medical
medical
and healthand health
service, service, park squares,
park squares, transportation,
transportation, industrial,
industrial, and other.
and other. In thisInpaper,
this pa-the
per, the LSTM Extremely Short Text classification network is used
LSTM Extremely Short Text classification network is used to extract elements. The networkto extract elements. The
network
trainingtraining
learning learning
rate is rate is 0.00003,
0.00003, the number
the number of iterations
of iterations is 150,isand
150,batch
and batch
size issize
64.isIn
64.particular,
In particular, the prediction
the prediction accuracy
accuracy of the
of the POI POI classification
classification function
function modelisisasashigh
model highas
as85.39%.
85.39%.Figure
Figure66showsshowsthethetraining
trainingand andtesting
testingefficiencies
efficiencies (In(In Figure
Figure 6a,6a,
thethe x repre-
x represents
sents the training
the training period period andythe
and the y represents
represents the accuracy
the accuracy and lossandfunction
loss function
value of value of the
the network
network in the training
in the training stage. stage. In Figure
In Figure 6b, y verifies
6b, y verifies the accuracy
the accuracy and lossandfunction
loss function
valuevalue
of the
ofnetwork
the network in theinnetwork
the network performance
performance stage).stage).
The The red curve
red curve represents
represents the training
the training stage,
stage,
and and the the
blueblue curve
curve represents
represents thethe verificationstage.
verification stage. The
The weight file filewith
withthethehighest
highest
accuracy in the training process is used to generalize more than 240,000 dataset files, so as
to obtain the classification results of all POI data in the study area (the classification results
of POIs are shown in Table 4), thus providing a database for the subsequent analysis.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 17

accuracy in the training process is used to generalize more than 240,000 dataset files, so as
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, to
19, obtain
10805 the classification results of all POI data in the study area (the classification results
9 of 17
of POIs are shown in Table 4), thus providing a database for the subsequent analysis.

(a) (b)
Figure6.6.Training
Figure Trainingand
andtesting
testingefficiencies.
efficiencies.(a)
(a)training
trainingefficiencies.
efficiencies.(b)
(b)testing
testingefficiencies.
efficiencies.

Table 4. Statistics of POI and landscape dominant function parcel.

Table 4. Statistics of POI and landscape dominant function parcel.
Number of Functional Functional Parcel
ID Type POI Number Weight Number of Functional Parcel
ID Type POI Number Weight Parcels Area/km2 2
Functional Parcels Area/km
1 Commercial 194,970 1.834312 65 17.4
1 Commercial 194,970 1.834312 65 17.4
2 2 Residential
Residential 25,569
25,569 1.640193
1.640193 100 100 55.27
55.27
3 3 Government andand
Government sports leisure
sports leisureservice
service 5811
5811 2.648612
2.648612 10 10 3.13
3.13
4 4 Education andand
Education cultural
culturalfacilities
facilities 7506
7506 2.438533
2.438533 21 21 6.81
6.81
5 5 Medical
Medical andand health
health service
service 2710
2710 2.461524
2.461524 2 2 0.81
0.81
6 Park Square 971 2.158362 67 54.43
6 Park Square 971 2.158362 67 54.43
7 Transportation 5841 2.306906 8 16.78
7 8 Transportation
Industrial 5841
4234 2.306906
1.539243 8 10 16.78
3.91
8 9 Industrial
Other 4234
1254 1.539243
2.153471 10 4 3.91
2.47
9 Other 1254 2.153471 4 2.47
The Term Frequency–Inverse Document Frequency (TF–IDF) algorithm combines
spatialThe Term Frequency–Inverse
correlation Document
and linear regression methodsFrequency
and is utilized (TF–IDF) algorithm
to improve combines
the traditional
spatial correlation and linear regression methods and is utilized to
models [47,48]. Compared with the traditional models, such as determining the typeimprove the traditional
models [47,48].
according to theCompared
number ofwith theusing
POIs, traditional models,algorithm
the TF–IDF such as determining the leading
to deduce the type ac-
cording to the number of POIs, using the TF–IDF algorithm to deduce the leading
function of a landscape parcel through frequency density has certain advantages, because it function
of ajudge
can landscape parcel through
the dominant frequency
function of density
the landscape haswith
parcel certain advantages,
mixed functions because it can
by calculating
judge the dominant function of the landscape
the weight of POIs. The model structure is as follows: parcel with mixed functions by calculating
the weight of POIs. The model structure is as follows:
ni,j 1
TFIDF = 𝑛 , × log 1 (2)
𝑇𝐹𝐼𝐷𝐹 =i ∑k k,j
A n × log
| i ∈ Ai |
j : t (2)
𝐴 ∑ 𝑛 , |𝑗: 𝑡 ∈ 𝐴 |
whereTFIDF
where 𝑇𝐹𝐼𝐷𝐹isisthe
theweighted
weightedvaluevalueofofPOI typei in
POItype landscape
𝑖 in parcel
landscape parcelj; i 𝑗;
is 𝑖POI j is
type;type;
is POI
the landscape parcel;
𝑗 is the landscape parcel;n i,j is the number of occurrences of POI type i in landscape
𝑛 , is the number of occurrences of POI type 𝑖 in landscape parcel j;
∑parcel
n k,j is the total
𝑗; ∑ 𝑛 number of POI occurrences for landscape parcel j;
is the total number of POI occurrences for landscape parceland | j : t i ∈ A | is the
i 𝑗 ; and
k ,
|𝑗: 𝑡 number
total ∈ 𝐴 | is the total number
of landscape of landscape
parcels containingparcels
a certaincontaining a certain type of POI.
type of POI.
Thespatial
The spatialdistribution
distributionofofthe
theresults
resultsof
ofthe
thedominant
dominantfunctional
functionaldivision
divisionofofthe
thestudy
study
areaisisshown
area shownin inFigure
Figure7.7. From
From thethe perspective
perspective ofof the
the proportion
proportion of of functional
functional parcels,
parcels,
residential,
residential,commercial,
commercial,and andpark
parksquares
squaresrank
rankininthe
thetoptop three
threeof
of the
the dominant
dominant functions,
functions,
accounting
accounting forfor 34.84%, 23.34%,
23.34%, and
and22.56%,
22.56%,respectively.
respectively.From From thethe perspective
perspective of of area
area ra-
ratio, theranking
tio, the rankingisisresidential—park
residential—parksquare—commercial,
square—commercial, and and park square and and the
the first
first
dominant
dominant function
function (residential)
(residential) parcel
parcel area
area ratio
ratio isis very
very close,
close, respectively,
respectively,33.81%
33.81%and and
34.33%.
34.33%.TheThecommercial
commercialfunctional
functionalareaareaaccounts
accountsforfor10.81%
10.81%of ofthe
thearea,
area,only
only0.39%
0.39%more
more
than the fourth-ranked traffic functional area. In general, the study area has a complete
urban function, a high proportion of open spaces, and a well-connected transportation
network. In other words, the study area is efficiently and intensively utilized with minimum
Int. J. Environ.
Int. Res.
J. Environ. Public
Res. Health
Public 2022,
Health 19,19,
2022, x FOR PEER
x FOR REVIEW
PEER REVIEW 1010ofof1717

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19,

than
than10805
the
thefourth-ranked
fourth-rankedtraffic
trafficfunctional
functionalarea.
area.InIngeneral,
general,the
thestudy
studyarea
areahas 10 of 17
hasa acomplete
complete
urban
urbanfunction,
function,a ahigh
highproportion
proportionofofopen
openspaces,
spaces,and
anda awell-connected
well-connectedtransportation
transportation
network.
network.InInother
otherwords,
words,thethestudy
studyarea
areaisisefficiently
efficientlyand
andintensively
intensivelyutilized
utilizedwith
withmini-
mini-
mum
mum
area area
area
and and
andtime
time timecost,
cost, cost,which
which which provides
the the
provides
provides theconditions
conditions
conditions totoensure
to ensure thethe
ensure thegreen
greengreen development
development
development of
ofofthe
the city.
the city.
city.

Figure
Figure7.7.7.Dominant
Figure Dominantfunction
Dominant functionpartition
function partitionof
partition ofofstudy
studyarea.
study area.
area.

According
According
Accordingto totothe
the calculation
thecalculation method
calculationmethodmethodin ininSection
Section
Section3.3, 3.3,
3.3,aaalinear
linear regression
linearregression analysis
regressionanalysis
analysisof ofofCO
CO
CO 22 2
concentration,
concentration,
concentration,Y, Y, and
Y,and surface
andsurface temperature,
surfacetemperature,
temperature,X, X,
X,isisisperformed.
performed.
performed.We We calculate
Wecalculate
calculatethethe regression
theregression
regression
coefficients
coefficients
coefficientsof ofof46.53
46.53
46.53 and
and
and −−639,
639,
−639,respectively,
respectively,
respectively, and
and
and thethe correlation
the correlation
correlation coefficient
coefficientR isR0.896.
coefficient Finally,
Risis0.896.
0.896. Fi-
Fi-
the
nally,regression
nally,the equation
theregression
regressionequation obtained
equationobtained is Y = 46.53X
obtainedisisYY= =46.53X − 639. The
46.53X− −639. CO
639.The concentration
TheCO
2 CO2 concentrationis
2 concentration
calculated
isiscal-
cal-
by substituting
culated
culated the LSTthe
bybysubstituting
substituting into the
theLST formula,
LSTintointothe as shownasas
theformula,
formula, inshown
Figure
shownin8. At the 8.
inFigure
Figure same time,
8.AtAtthe
thesame we time,
same judge
time,
the
we accuracy
wejudge
judgethe of the
theaccuracy results
accuracyofofthe by random
theresults verification.
resultsbybyrandom
randomverification. There is
verification.There only one abnormal
Thereisisonly
onlyone value
oneabnormal
abnormal of
CO
value concentration
2 ofofCO
value CO in
2 concentration
2 concentration
the study
ininthe area
thestudy(the
studyareaarea
area(thewithin
(thearea the
areawithinyellow
withinthe dotted
theyellow line
yellowdotted in Figure
dottedline 8).
lineinin
This
Figure is the landfill treatment plant. After landfilling, a series
Figure 8). This is the landfill treatment plant. After landfilling, a series of chemicalreac-
8). This is the landfill treatment plant. After landfilling, of chemical
a series reactions
of chemical will take
reac-
place,
tions
tionswillresulting
willtake in
takeplace, a large
place,resulting amount of
resultinginina alarge CO and
largeamount
2 heat.
amountofofCO Therefore,
CO 2 and
2 and heat. from a global
heat.Therefore,
Therefore,from perspective,
froma aglobal
global
the derivation
perspective,
perspective, the ofderivation
the CO 2 concentration
derivation ofofCOCO is relatively is
2 concentration
2 concentration
referential.
isrelatively
relativelyreferential.
referential.

Figure
Figure8.8.8.Distribution
Distributionof CO 2 concentration inin
the
thestudy
studyarea (the
(theyellow
yellowdotted
dottedline
lineis isthe
theabnor-
Figure Distribution ofofCO
CO 2 concentration area abnor-
2 concentration in the study area (the yellow dotted line is the abnormal
mal
malvalue
valuearea).
area).
value area).

4.3.
4.3.Landscape
4.3. LandscapeIndex
Landscape Indexand
Index andIts
and ItsRelationship
Its Relationshipwith
Relationship withCO
with 2 Spatial
CO
CO Concentration
2 Spatial Concentration
2 Spatial Concentration
AAAstructured
structuredurban
structured urbanform
urban formisisisthe
form thebasis
the basisof
basis ofofurban
urbandevelopment.
urban development.Urban
development. Urbanstructure
Urban structuredeter-
structure deter-
deter-
mines
minesurban
mines urbanfunction,
urban function,and
function, andurban
and urbanform
urban formisisisthe
form theexternal
the externalexpression
external expressionofof
expression ofurban
urbanspatial
urban spatialstructure.
spatial structure.
structure.
A complete urban plan should include three aspects: urban structure, urban function,
and urban form. In order to facilitate the unified calculation of the landscape index, the
landscape indices are normalized to analyze the characteristics of urban form and urban
 phenomenon is a result of the western part of the study area being the central business
district of Shenzhen, which mainly serves the functions of finance and trade services.
It has a large number of amenities such as business offices, hotels, shopping centers,
cultural facilities, and high-density public amenities. However, other areas consist
mainly of residential, park plazas, and a few commercial functions. Compared11toofthe
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805 17
CBD, they have fewer amenities and therefore have a relatively low Den. It should be
noted that there is an orange area in the western part of the study area, which is a
relatively
function. Figureindependent group
9 presents the with internal
contribution facilities
rate of that can indexes
four landscape meet theand
needs of the
measures
residents.
and reveals the contribution of different landscape indexes to CO concentration.
2

Index Landscape Index Measurement CO2 concentration contribution

𝐿𝑆𝐼

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 17

𝑆𝐻𝐷𝐼

𝐷𝑒𝑛

Figure9.9.Landscape
Figure LandscapeIndex
IndexMeasurement
Measurementand
andCO
CO22 concentration
concentration contribution.
contribution

(1) From the perspective

According to the four of urban form,
landscape indexasmeasures
seen in the spatial
(Figure distribution
9) and the main of the LSI
functional
index
zoning in Figure
of the study area9, the urban7),
(Figure form
it isisbelieved
regular that
in the
anwestern region of the
evenly distributed andstudy area.
intercon-
In landscape
nected other words, the fractal
structure dimensionperform
can effectively is low, the
which verifiesand
ecological the social
characteristics
functions ofof
openheavy
space.“tail” distribution
The analysis shows of urban
that indevelopment.
the urban core, The relatively
a green space high LSI indices
structure with ainhigh
the
eastern
degree part of the study
of fragmentation area are apenetrate
can effectively result of thethe diversity
urban space of urban green areas
and mitigate that
the nega-
can be regarded as open spaces. Therefore, it can be seen that the study
tive ecological effects of the city. Negative ecological effects such as urban heat island and area has good
aestheticcan
air pollution characteristics
be minimized in urban form design.
by increasing As the
the patch core area and
uniformity of the city, density.
patch the west of
the study area has a wide coverage of public facilities and a low C index.
The analysis concludes that the stability of the overall ecological quality of the city However, in
themaintained
can be central partby of appropriately
the study area,increasing
the C index theisnumber
higher because
of smallthe layout
open of public
spaces in the
facilities is less regular than in other areas.
urban center. At the same time, by reducing traffic commuting between individual land-
scape plots, complete public facilities can be established, thus achieving the goal of reduc-
ing greenhouse gas emissions. In conclusion, the overall situation of the study area is a
low-carbon sustainable development model with low energy consumption, low pollution,
and low emissions. However, regional differences and spatial heterogeneity still exist. Es-
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805 12 of 17

(2) From the perspective of urban function, most of the SHDI indices in the study area
are high, indicating that the overall land use types in the region are diversified. This
phenomenon is a result of the western part of the study area being the central business
district of Shenzhen, which mainly serves the functions of finance and trade services.
It has a large number of amenities such as business offices, hotels, shopping centers,
cultural facilities, and high-density public amenities. However, other areas consist
mainly of residential, park plazas, and a few commercial functions. Compared to the
CBD, they have fewer amenities and therefore have a relatively low Den. It should
be noted that there is an orange area in the western part of the study area, which
is a relatively independent group with internal facilities that can meet the needs of
the residents.
According to the four landscape index measures (Figure 9) and the main functional
zoning of the study area (Figure 7), it is believed that an evenly distributed and intercon-
nected landscape structure can effectively perform the ecological and social functions of
open space. The analysis shows that in the urban core, a green space structure with a high
degree of fragmentation can effectively penetrate the urban space and mitigate the negative
ecological effects of the city. Negative ecological effects such as urban heat island and air
pollution can be minimized by increasing the patch uniformity and patch density.
The analysis concludes that the stability of the overall ecological quality of the city can
be maintained by appropriately increasing the number of small open spaces in the urban
center. At the same time, by reducing traffic commuting between individual landscape
plots, complete public facilities can be established, thus achieving the goal of reducing
greenhouse gas emissions. In conclusion, the overall situation of the study area is a low-
carbon sustainable development model with low energy consumption, low pollution,
and low emissions. However, regional differences and spatial heterogeneity still exist.
Especially in some areas of Luohu District, the efficiency of low-carbon urban development
still needs to be improved.

5. The Planning Strategy of Low-Carbon Urban

The purpose of shaping “low-carbon urban form” is to reduce urban carbon emissions,
which is achieved by shaping and constructing spatial form elements and coordinating
and optimizing the interaction mechanisms between them. In order to achieve this goal,
we design the urban form to reduce CO2 concentration without changing the dominant
function. We design the planning scheme from the three aspects of optimal form, optimal
function, and comprehensive development, and estimate the possible characteristics of
CO2 concentration changes caused by each simulation scheme.
Based on the CO2 spatial concentrations plotted in Section 4, the red-boxed area in
Figure 10, located near the central business district of Futian District, is selected as the
sample area. This region is characterized by a complete urban function and low CO2
concentration. Similarly, the other part of the continuous landscape parcels with high total
CO2 in Luohu District is selected as the simulation area (blue frame area in Figure 10). This
region still has high CO2 emissions in the case of more green space. Without changing the
dominant function, the detailed schemes are described as follows.
The four low-carbon landscape indices are depicted in Figure 11 as a reference for the
subsequent calculation of the optimal planning scheme. Our scheme is divided into three
modes: optimal morphology, optimal function, and comprehensive development.
 Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 17
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805 13 of 17

Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 17

Figure10.
Figure Currentsituation
10.Current situationof
oflandscape
landscapeindices
indicesin
insample
samplearea
areaand
andsimulation
simulationarea.
area.

The four low-carbon landscape indices are depicted in Figure 11 as a reference for
the subsequent calculation of the optimal planning scheme. Our scheme is divided into
three modes: optimal morphology, optimal function, and comprehensive development.
(1) Optimal morphology: The LSI and C are effective indicators to reflect the urban mor-
phology. The lower these values are, the more regular and stable the urban form is.
Therefore, according to the requirements of reducing LSI and C, the industrial layout
modes of different business types have been adjusted. Through homogenization and
(a) (b) of facility layout, landscape
standardization (c) fragmentation in the(d)simulation area is
Figure reduced.
11.11. The
Optimized lower the
landscape mixing
index. degree
(a)(a)
LSI. of
(b)(b) regional
C. C.
(c) (c)
SHDI. functions,
(d)(d)
Den. the more obvious is the
Figure Optimized landscape index. LSI. SHDI. Den.
improvement of landscape compactness after the regulation. Therefore, this scheme
(1) can locallymorphology:
Optimal reduce the CO 2 concentration and is more suitable for areas with a low
The LSI and C are effective indicators to reflect the urban
functional mixing degree. By reducing
morphology. The lower these values are, LSIthebymore
6.1%regular
and C and
by 9.4%,
stablethe
thecarbon
urban reduc-
form is.
tion ratio of this scheme is 14.31% (Figure 12b).
Therefore, according to the requirements of reducing LSI and C, the industrial layout
modes of
(2) Optimal differentSHDI
function: business
and types have been
Den reflect adjusted.
function Through and
diversification homogenization
spatial agglom- and
standardization
eration of facility
characteristics, layout, landscape
respectively. Therefore,fragmentation
by increasinginthe thelow-energy
simulationcon- area
is reduced.
sumption The lower
business typestheandmixing
addingdegree of regional
public facilities functions, the
appropriately more
in the obvious
simulation
is the improvement of landscape compactness after the regulation.
area, SHDI and Den can be increased. Notably, this scheme is suitable for old urban Therefore, this
(a) scheme can(b)locally reduce
areas that cannot be demolished and the CO (c) (d)
2 built, and which can reduce CO2 concentrationa
concentration and is more suitable for areas with
low functional mixing degree. By reducing LSIandby C
6.1% and C by 9.4%,
12.1%,the carbon
Figure globally. In this
12. Simulation scheme,
diagram of LSI
CO2is reduced
concentration by distribution
16.3% is reduced
under byschemes.
different resulting
(a) cur-
reduction
in a 15.15% ratio
carbonof this scheme
reduction is
ratio 14.31%
(Figure (Figure
rent situation. (b) experiment A. (c) experiment B. (d) experiment C.12c). 12b).
(2) Optimal function: SHDI and Den reflect function diversification and spatial agglom-
(3) Comprehensive development: To achieve the goal of comprehensive development,
eration characteristics,
6. Conclusions and Discussions respectively. Therefore, by increasing the low-energy con-
the morphology and function of the simulation area are regulated and adjusted sim-
sumption business types and adding public facilities appropriately in the simulation
ultaneously. In this scheme, this is carried out by rebuilding existing buildings and
6.1. Conclusions
area, SHDI and Den can be increased. Notably, this scheme is suitable for old urban
improving
The Low-carbon infrastructure
development to adjust
of citiesLSI, C,played
SHDI, an and den at the same time. Itcarbon
is suit-
areas that cannot be demolished andhas built, and which important role
can reduce in global
CO 2 concentration
emissionable for new
reduction, urban
and districts
urban LSI with
morphologyunused land or suburban areas, and its CO 2 concen-
globally. In this scheme, is reducedcan by affect
16.3% carbon
and C isemissions
reduced by through
12.1%, energy
resulting
tration reduction
use, transportation, and efficiency
other is the
factors. highest,
Thus, which reaching
types of27.72%
urban (Figure
form and12d).
function com-
in a 15.15% carbon reduction ratio (Figure 12c).
binations can reduce carbon emissions is a question worth discussing.
(3) Comprehensive development: To achieve the goal of comprehensive development, To explore this is-
sue, thethe
following
morphologyresearch and was carried of
function out: the simulation area are regulated and adjusted
simultaneously. In this scheme,
(1) Based on the unique law of heavy “tail” this is carried out byin
distribution rebuilding existing buildings
urban development, the
and improving infrastructure to adjust LSI, C,
head/tail breaks method under the third fractal theory came into being.SHDI, and den at the We
sameusetime.
this It
method to divide the evaluation parcels of Futian District and Luohu District, which
ensures the integrity of the landscape morphology.
(2) To identify urban functions, semantic association and the LSTM model are integrated.
Then, landscape ecological theory is introduced to calculate the landscape index based
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805 14 of 17

(a) (b) (c) (d)

is Optimized
Figure 11. suitable for new urban
landscape districts
index. (a) LSI. with
(b) C.unused
(c) SHDI.land or suburban areas, and its CO2
(d) Den.
concentration reduction efficiency is the highest, reaching 27.72% (Figure 12d).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 12.12.
Simulation diagram
Simulation diagramofofCO
CO2 concentration distribution under different schemes. (a) cur-
Figure 2 concentration distribution under different schemes. (a) current
rent
situation. (b) experiment A. (c) experiment B.B.
situation. (b) experiment A. (c) experiment (d)(d) experiment
experiment C.C.

6. Conclusions and
6. Conclusions Discussions
and Discussions
6.1.6.1.
Conclusions
Conclusions
TheTheLow-carbon
Low-carbondevelopment
development of of
cities hashas
cities played anan
played important
importantrole in in
role global carbon
global carbon
emission
emission reduction, and
reduction, urban
and urbanmorphology
morphology cancan
affect carbon
affect emissions
carbon emissions through energy
through energy
use, transportation,
use, andand
transportation, other factors.
other Thus,Thus,
factors. whichwhich
types of urban
types of form
urbanandformfunction com-
and function
combinations
binations can reduce
can reduce carboncarbon emissions
emissions is a question
is a question worthworth discussing.
discussing. To explore
To explore this
this is-
issue,
sue, the following
the following research
research waswas carried
carried out:out:
(1)(1)BasedBased
on onthe the unique
unique lawlaw
of of heavy
heavy “tail”
“tail” distribution
distribution in in urban
urban development,
development, thethe
head/tail
head/tail breaks
breaks method
method underunder
the the
thirdthird fractal
fractal theory
theory camecameintointo being.
being. WeWe useuse this
this
methodmethod to divide
to divide the the evaluation
evaluation parcels
parcels of Futian
of Futian District
District andand Luohu
Luohu District,
District, which
which
ensures
ensures the the integrity
integrity of the
of the landscape
landscape morphology.
morphology.
(2) To identify urban functions, semantic association andand
(2) To identify urban functions, semantic association thethe
LSTM LSTM model
model areare integrated.
integrated.
Then, landscape ecological theory is introduced to calculate the landscape index based
Then, landscape ecological theory is introduced to calculate the landscape index based
on POI and OSM data, and this is used to measure the urban morphology. It is found
on POI and OSM data, and this is used to measure the urban morphology. It is found
that urban form design is regular and urban land use types are diverse in the study
that urban form design is regular and urban land use types are diverse in the study
area, and the spatial distribution pattern of urban public service facilities is reasonable,
area, and the spatial distribution pattern of urban public service facilities is reasona-
which makes the study area a livable city.
ble, which makes the study area a livable city.
(3) The LST is inversed by Landsat-8 remote sensing data, and the relationship equa-
(3) Thetion LSTbetween
is inversed by Landsat-8
it and the actual remote sensing data,
CO2 concentration is and the relationship
established equation
to estimate the CO2
between it and theinactual
concentration CO2 area.
the study concentration
Then, weisquantitatively
established to analyze
estimatethe thecontribution
CO2 con-
centration in thelandscape
of different study area. Then,towe
indices quantitatively
carbon emissions.analyze the contribution
The analysis shows thatofa dif-
green
ferent landscape indices to carbon emissions. The analysis shows that
space structure with uniform distribution and close connection can give full play to a green space
structure with uniform
the ecological distribution
and social functions andof close
greenconnection
space. It is can give fullthat
considered play toopen
the the eco-
space
logical and social functions of green space. It is considered that
structure, with strong accessibility and high density, penetrates into the urbanthe open space struc-
core
ture,area
withtostrong accessibility
alleviate the negativeandecological
high density, penetrates
effects into In
of the city. theaddition,
urban coreat area to
the outer
alleviate
edge the negative
of the ecologicalgreen
city, large-scale effects of the
space cancity. In addition,
strengthen at the outer
its ecological edge of the
function.
city,Inlarge-scale green space can strengthen its ecological function.
summary, regular form and perfect infrastructure are conducive to reducing
In summary,
carbon regular
emissions. form and
Therefore, theperfect infrastructure
relationship betweenare conducive
urban spatialtoform
reducing car-
and carbon
bon emissions.
emissions Therefore,
is an thebasis
important relationship between
for spatial urban
planning, spatial form
government and carbon emis-
decision-making, and
sions is an important
sustainable basis for spatial planning, government decision-making, and sus-
development.
tainable development.
6.2. Discussions
To build a low-carbon city, spatial planning needs to add new carbon neutralization
dimensions and weights for considering and evaluating spatial planning schemes. Tradi-
tional data sources have the disadvantages of poor real-time effect, they are difficult to
obtain, and have low accuracy, and they cannot meet this goal. Therefore, the multi-source
spatio-temporal data represented by POI and OSM data is applied to describe the urban
landscape morphology. However, this study inevitably has many limitations, and further
investigation is needed:
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2022, 19, 10805 15 of 17

(1) The CO2 concentration cannot completely fit the carbon flux in the region. Hence, it is
necessary to explore the relationship between CO2 concentration and carbon flux.
(2) Owing to the different plant types and climates in different regions, the experimen-
tal results may be different. Therefore, regional factors need to be considered in
future research.
(3) Other factors, such as population distribution and energy consumption demand, may
have a significant impact on carbon dioxide emissions. Therefore, social impact factors
need to be considered in future research.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, funding acquisition and writing—review & editing, Q.W.;
Data acquisition, data modeling, algorithm and writing—original draft preparation, F.C. and Y.Q.;
Experimental improvements and language embellishment, Y.Z.; All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by the “Research on Compatibility, Interoperability and Model
Refinement of Beidou 3rd and 2nd Generation Satellite Data” from Natural Science Foundation of
Jiangsu Province (BK20191342), and the “Research on Optimal Allocation of Urban Public Resources
Based on Population Size and Spatial Distribution Information” from MOE (Ministry of Education in
China) Liberal arts and Social Sciences Foundation (No. 19YJC840067).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank Fang Huang, Caiyu Luo, and Fenqi Zhao for
their help in data collection, data preprocessing, and preliminary analysis.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

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