International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development

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Seeking low carbon urban design through

modelling of carbon emission from different
sources in urban neighbourhoods, case study:
Semnan

Elahe Sadat Mousavi Sarvine Baghi & Ehsan Ranjbar

To cite this article: Elahe Sadat Mousavi Sarvine Baghi & Ehsan Ranjbar (2021) Seeking low
carbon urban design through modelling of carbon emission from different sources in urban
neighbourhoods, case study: Semnan, International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development,
13:3, 546-568, DOI: 10.1080/19463138.2021.1904245

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
2021, VOL. 13, NO. 3, 546–568
https://doi.org/10.1080/19463138.2021.1904245

ARTICLE

Seeking low carbon urban design through modelling of carbon emission

from different sources in urban neighbourhoods, case study: Semnan
Elahe Sadat Mousavi Sarvine Baghia and Ehsan Ranjbarb
a
Master of Urban Design, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; bAssistant Professor of Urban
Design, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Today, low carbon policies are more important in developing countries such as Iran Received 18 January 2019
with an oil-based economy. The present study addresses Semnan as a major Iranian Accepted 7 March 2021
city and attempts to examine carbon emissions from residential buildings, industrial KEYWORDS
plants and motor vehicles with new methodology to analyse the interaction of urban Semnan; low carbon urban
design and carbon emissions. design; air pollutant;
First, carbon emission sources were examined; then, the summarised models and industrial activity;
methods based on background researches have been divided into two general automobile
categories of carbon emission calculation and simulation to be used in softwares
based on the level of accuracy and nature of their sources.
The results show that the increased penetration of carbon emissions into residential
areas can be reduced by designs that conform to climate changes (such as block
arrangements and orientations) to avoid the pollutant to enter and to reduce the
need for energy consumption.

1. Introduction the CO2 emission reached 1.7% and achieved its high­
est level at all times (Gt 33) (Wang et al. 2019). In this
Climate changes are an unprecedented challenge for
respect, the rapid development of the global econ­
a human generation (Wang et al. 2019). With the rapid
omy intensified environmental problems, and the
development of the world economy, environmental
excess emission of CO2 gas in the atmosphere of the
problems become increasingly severe. Excessive CO2
earth due to the greenhouse effect converted the
emissions resulting from the greenhouse effect have
concern of the scientists of the world (Aihuaa and
become a concern shared by world scientists (Aihuaa
Mingjuna 2010). The pressure due to the interrelation­
and Mingjun, 2010). This phenomenon has firstly been
ship between energy consumption and carbon emis­
influenced by various human activities, particularly
sion has forced policymakers to perform activities to
the use of fossil fuels, deforestation, and changing
relieve the effects of climate changes and achieving
land usage (Rogner et al. 2007). Any delay in fixing
low carbon economy development (Wang et al. 2019).
and reducing CO2 density in the atmosphere intensi­
During the recent 100 years, the economic growth
fies the global warming crisis and increases the pro­
and urbanisation and the emission of greenhouse
blems in dealing with disasters due to it in the future
gases have moved parallel to each other. As economic
(Stern et al. 2006). According to the International
activities have been concentrated in urban areas,
Energy Agency (IEA) report, the latest statistics show
cities have a key role in climate changes. The fre­
that energy consumption and CO2 emission due to
quency and changes in lifestyle have been effective
energy consumption in 2018 has reached its fastest
in greenhouse gases emission (Livingstone 2007).The
growth. Energy demand in 2018 increased by 2.3%,
cities include less than 1% of the Earth surface, but
and the consumption growth of energies related to

CONTACT Ehsan Ranjbar e_ranjbar@modares.ac.ir Assistant Professor of Urban Design, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat
Modares University, Tehran, Iran
© 2021 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
they are the concentration point of more than half of
the pollutions of the world and consume almost 75%
of the energies of the world, and contribute in the
emission of more than 70% to 80% of greenhouse gas
emission at the global level (O’Neill et al. 2010).
Nowadays, urban areas have a tendency to access
fuels with more energy such as electricity more easily
and often face with high a density of population and
spatial restriction and are worried about the emission
of pollutant sources (Sovacool and Brown 2009). In
such circumstances, the vulnerability of cities against
climate changes will increase by the restrictions gov­
erning the government and planning, particularly in
developing countries (Su et al. 2016). The pressure
due to the interrelationship between energy con­
sumption and carbon emission has forced policy­
makers to perform activities to relieve the effects of
climate changes and achieving low carbon economy
development (Wang et al. 2019). Thus, developing
low carbon cities is an inevitable measure for all
countries to deal with climate challenges and promot­
ing the development of a sustainable city (Luo et al.
2019; United Nations Human Settlements
programme (Un-habitat), 2011). Many countries have
made efforts to reduce carbon emission by creating
development plans and doing measures in respect of
energy, transportation, and industrial and so on (Su
et al. 2012), and a lot of studies have been conducted
in this respect. Studies indicate that there are three
carbon emission sources in cities. The residential sec­
tor is one of the most influential sectors in greenhouse
gas emissions in the cities. Since the building sector is
involved in more than one-third of the greenhouse
gas emissions in the world, it will have an undeniable
role in reducing greenhouse gases in case of proper
energy consumption management (Monahan and
Powell 2011). On the other hand, the traffic pattern
is also influential in the use of private vehicles. The use
of personal vehicles is also linked to fuel consumption
and carbon emissions, and carbon emissions contri­
bute to global warming. Thus, there is a significant
relationship between traffic flow and carbon emission
(Abeydeera et al. 2019). Also, carbon emission of the
industrial sector includes 40% of the carbon emission
in the world. It is expected that by 2050, the demand
for consumer goods be doubled. In case of not con­
trolling, overall carbon emissions will increase by
about 90% by 2050 compared to 2007 (Brown et al.
2013). One of the most important research gaps in the
study of carbon distribution in urban environments is
547
the lack of a comprehensive view of carbon emission
sources. It means that many studies have been con­
ducted on carbon emissions from each of the sources
in the building sector, traffic flow, and the industrial
sector separately, while the carbon produced in urban
residential areas is affected by all three sources.
Therefore, in this paper, the effect of three main
sources of carbon emissions on highways, industrial
factories, and residential houses on carbon distribu­
tion in a residential neighbourhood is simultaneously
investigated.
Another gap in the present studies is the lack of
attention to the role of urban design in reducing air
pollutants, which form of the urban block arrange­
ment can reduce the carbon entry to the residential
neighbourhoods has been less studied. Therefore, the
current study aims to achieve an integrated and com­
prehensive approach to study the amount of the
transferred carbon from three main sources of carbon
in a residential texture. Then, it focuses on the role of
the block arrangement in reducing the carbon entry
inside the texture. Also, in terms of methodology,
there is no certain methodology that investigates
the impact of various carbon sources in the residential
area despite the numerous analysis models of carbon
emission and production. The current research
attempts to explain a new process in this regard.
On this basis, this article by investigating a suitable
sample case intends to examine the field of analysing
carbon ratio in designing urban spaces and how the
shape of the city affects this issue in three main parts
of carbon emission. To achieve this goal, one of the
cities (Semnan) in Iran that have been affected by air
pollution and polluting industries in recent years has
been investigated. The Semnan city is the centre of
Semnan Province, considered as one of the most
important provinces of Iran.
Through studies in the area, the north-eastern part
of Semnan, which is located near the main suburban
highway and has the closest distance to Iran
Ferrosilice Co., was identified as the region under
study. This region is one of the recent developments
in Semnan, and its constructions lack climatic consid­
erations. Buildings are constructed in tabular form
with 5 to 6 floors in a row adjacent to each other.
This area has no vegetation and the orientation of
passages is along the wind direction from pollution
centres (Iran Ferrosilice Co. and suburban highway).
Having studied the methods used to analyse carbon
level in urban environments in a variety of studies, the
548 E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR
modelling of the region under study was conducted,
and the level of carbon transferred from industrial
area and highway, as well as the carbon produced
from residential houses, were studied using Gaussian
model, plus Fluent, and Caline4 programs.
Then, in order to answer the other research ques­
tion ‘how can air pollution caused by carbon in urban
environments, be reduced using new arrangement of
blocks?’, the arrangement of residential blocks was
changed and re-modelled, and the distribution of
incoming pollutants in the area was explored. In this
regard, it has been assumed that the type of blocks
arrangement and the orientation of passages affect
the carbon ratio in the city as physical and environ­
mental factors of urban design, and through which
the amount of incoming carbon can be controlled. At
last, applying research findings and the data derived
from relevant papers, effective strategies on carbon
reduction were proposed.
2. Literature review
2.1. Low carbon city dimensions
Low carbon urban development has become a new
trend, so the construction of low-carbon eco-city is
imperative. The concept of low carbon city, which
received worldwide attention and recognition, has
been launched in many countries in the world and
has been successful in varying degrees. Attempts
have been made in many countries to build low-
carbon cities. The activities include promoting the
construction of an integrated city and urban ecology
(Zhihong et al. 2011).
The idea of low-carbon urban design suggests that
energy and carbon performance can be changed
through urban design, by altering the urban form
and building typologies to meet lower carbon emis­
sion standards (Liu et al. 2016). For low carbon city,
two common points can be noted. For one thing, low-
carbon city pursues to reduce carbon emission, but it
is dependent on economic growth. For another, sys­
temic consideration of the whole city is necessary as
low-carbon city involves many aspects, e.g., economy,
society, and culture, production pattern and con­
sumption model, technology, product, and idea (Su
et al. 2012). Construction of low-carbon cities, as with
any other project, needs more attention in some
respects. For example, these projects have a long-
term and time-consuming goal; in addition, it is
a systematic project, and constructing low-carbon
city requires considering various factors such as econ­
omy, industrial structure, energy structure, the use of
energy technologies, transportation system, social,
governmental rules, etc. (Xilin and Zhixiang 2011).
The dimensions of low carbon development have
been mentioned in different studies, the most impor­
tant of which have been mentioned here. The first
case is low carbon growth (green economy), which
focuses on economic production and how to produce
products and services with a lower emission level. Its
purpose is to separate economic growth from carbon
emissions (Urban and Sumner 2009). In the low-
carbon economy, the pattern of traditional economic
development with high energy consumption and
environmental expenses becomes a new type of
lower energy consumption and lower carbon emis­
sion, and at the same time with socio-economic
advantages. What is finally important is that the eco­
nomic growth and social progress, as well as energy
consumption and carbon emission in the low-carbon
city should be as minimum as possible (Su et al. 2012).
The next case is the low-carbon lifestyle (green life­
style) that emphasises the consumer’s ability to
reduce greenhouse gases production through con­
suming environmentally friendly products. This issue
suggests the change in lifestyle and behavioural
changes (Mulugetta and Urban 2010). Another impor­
tant point is the coexistence with nature. Sustainable
human development depends on achieving a socio-
ecological balance and needs coordination with nat­
ure. Considering the intrinsic dependence of the nat­
ural environment and its role on human health,
economic development and social level promotion is
the basic issue in low carbon sustainable develop­
ment (Fink 2016). In addition to the mentioned points,
the physical and political dimensions are also impor­
tant in the development of a low-carbon city, with
each of these dimensions has been investigated in
detail in Table 1.
In recent years, given the increase in energy con­
sumption in different areas, such as industry, trans­
portation, and building, and consequently, increase in
carbon dioxide production, many studies have inves­
tigated the amount of carbon produced by each part
separately by using different methods.
Wang (2019) has used the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) method to calculate
carbon emission in the 15 cities of Sichuan Province.
In the IPCC method, it is assumed that CO2 emission is
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 549

Table 1. Dimensions of low carbon city.

Dimensions of low car­
bon city Actions References
Economic ● Energy ● Using electricity cars Dias et al. 2019
consumption ● Using renewable resources (photovoltaic systems, biomass, wind Gouldson et al. 2018
power) Hunter et al. 2019
● Improving material efficiency Lechtenböhmer et al.
● Using new technology (fossil carbon-free transport, fossil car­ 2010
bon-free electricity) Li-qun et al. 2014
● Management ● Water Resources Management Gouldson et al. 2018
● Waste management and recycling Hunter et al. 2019
Mohareb and
Hoornweg 2017
Social ● Urban lifestyle ● Promotion of using Public transportation Mi et al. 2017
● Population growth Hunter et al. 2019
● Energy accessibility and affordability Tan et al. 2017
● Energy Consumption Patterns Ye et al. 2017
Environmental ● Green area ● Creating green space system in cities based on its ecological and Li-Qun et al,2004
landscape feature
Physical ● Urban density ● Controlling the city density and reducing its scale Caparros-Midwood
● Reducing Transportation’s Energy Use et al. 2019
Hu 2017
Ye et al. 2017
● Streets ● Walkable streets Ye et al. 2017
● Avoiding grid-iron street pattern, with extensive areas of con­ Motea Alnakhli 2008
crete and asphalt
● Buildings ● Location of buildings Gouldson et al. 2018
● Energy-efficient buildings Hu 2017
● Creating wind power and solar energy communities by local
resources
Politics ● Governance ● Green employment Li-Qun et al,2004
● Punishing high-energy consumption enterprises Hu 2017
● Advocating the tax reduction
● Creating a good environment for biking
● Controlling the number of private cars

based on two sources: energy consumption and
industrial processes. Lin et al. 2015 in their research
investigated carbon emission in the production and
consumption sectors and state that among the sec­
tors affecting carbon flow, production is the greatest
sector influencing carbon emission, and mention that
paying attention to the production efficiency in the
city and consumption pattern of consumers in the city
and out of it are among the considerable cases.
In addition to the industrial sector, the emission of
carbon from the transportation sector is growing at
a high speed in the world (Tarulescu et al. 2017). One-
fourth of the carbon emission ratio at the world level
is affected by the transportation sector (C. Linton et al.
2015). (Chang et al. 2019) considered CO2emission
ratio due to traffic influenced by the size of the city.
(Wang et al. 2019) presented a vehicle’s carbon emis­
sion model based on Vehicle Mileage Travelled (VMT)
and Emission Factors (EF). To help reduce carbon
emission, the construction sector has an undeniable
role, as buildings around the world generate
maximally one-third of greenhouse gases (Monahan
and Powell 2011). Lue et al. (2019) state that the basis
of low-carbon policymaking is to estimate carbon
emission ratio, and investigate carbon emission
sources in three categories, direct carbon emission in
the city, indirect carbon emission due to energy con­
sumption, cooling, and heating, and finally carbon
emitted outside the city and under the influence of
activities within the city. According to these studies,
carbon emission from the residential and transporta­
tion sectors in the central areas is tangibly higher than
in other areas. However, the carbon emission ratio of
the industrial sector is significantly higher than in the
new urban areas (Table 2).
The under-investigation studies have shown that the
issues of climate change and air pollution have become
challenging in the present century, because ignoring
this point can lead to many environmental catastrophes,
followed by the extinction of biological species.
Most of the studies investigated the amount of
carbon emission from different sources quantitatively.
550 E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR

Table 2. Literature review.

Sector(s) Researcher(s) Dependent variable Independent variable Method
Industrial Wang et al. The energy consumption in the CO2 emissions in the industrial Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
plants 2019 industrial sectors of 15 key sectors of 15 cities from Change method (IPCC)
cities in Sichuan Province consuming materials
(China) from 2006 to 2015
Residential buildings Liu et al. 2016 Wind velocity and height of the CO2 dispersion Model
buildings
Computational Fluid Dynamics
(CFD) Models
Industrial Lue et al, ● Energy consumption from CO2 emissions in Wuhan (China) Disaggregation method based on
plants, 2019 industrial production, residen­ for different sectors including energy consumption, Census of
Motor tial living and transportation industry, residential living and Geographical Conditions Data,
vehicles ● Geographical conditions transportation Emission distribution in Wuhan
● Urban environment
Residential buildings Yim S et al, 2018 ● Types of Building Materials CO2 Emissions in high-rise Residential
Used in Construction Buildings
● Energy consumption of
buildings
● Renovation and disposal of
buildings
life cycle assessment (LCA) method Motor vehicles Tarulescu et al. 2017
Energy consumption from each part of CO2 emissions reduction in smart Mathematical model
smart transportation transportation
Residential buildings Huang et al. 2017 Energy consumption from: CO2 Emissions in each part of building
● Production of building life cycle
materials
● Transport of building
materials
● Construction and demolition
of buildings
● Building waste disposal
life cycle
method

However, the role of the urban design in reducing the 2.2. Low carbon urban design based on
air pollutant has been less considered. The urban experiences
design policies have only been mentioned in most
Due to the impending environmental crises, many
studies. Urban design can be influential in controlling
cities have begun to apply low-carbon plans and
the pollutants spread by considering various factors,
designs to their structure to guarantee their survival.
such as neighbourhoods site location and their dis­
Although practical actions have started only in the last
tances from pollutant sources, creating broad green
few years, it was several decades ago that attempts at
spaces, type of buildings’ blocking, type of materials
planning were made. The climatic variety of Iran has
used in the buildings, flooring of the roads, streets
provided great potential to use renewable energies.
orientation, and so on. It has been mentioned in many
The experience of the formation of low-carbon cities
studies qualitatively, and the key challenge in the
can teach us how to move away from fossil fuels and
present studies is the lack of quantitative analysis in
prepare ourselves for a new era of renewable energies.
urban design. In order to solve this challenge, the
Table 3 presents a comparative analysis of the features
current research investigates the role of blocks
of four cities that have adopted a low-carbon approach.
arrangement as one of the main factors in the design
A comparison among the above instances reveals
of urban neighbourhoods to reduce the carbon entry
that the most important actions seem to be the use of
and its spread using quantitative data by considering
renewable energies, limitation on using private vehi­
three main carbon sources, i.e., vehicles, residential
cles, as well as recycling waste and sewage treatment.
houses, and industrial sectors. The main purpose is
The conceptual model below describes the factors of
to reduce the gap between the qualitative studies of
a low-carbon city (Figure 1).
urban design and the quantitative analytical data
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 551

Table 3. Comparative analysis of the features of four low carbon cities.

City Aims Actions Key factors References
Masdar City ● Covering an area of 6 km2 by 2030 ● Provision of driverless personal ● Renewable transportation
(Abu ● Raising the share of non-oil econ­ rapid transportation (PRT) energies ● Eco homes
Dhabi) omy from 40 to 60% ● Installing a 0.2 km2 photovoltaic ● Recycling ● High-quality
● Reducing the use of water and (PV) farm ● Public equipment
energy demand ● Designing Eco- City and Smart ● Balancing
● Recycling materials (100% steel, Home Energy Management System between Street
90% aluminium and 100% ● Developing street patterns concern­ patterns and
forested timber) ing landform landforms
Madhu and technologies for future smart city
Pauliuk, transit 2018
2019 theClimate technology center and
Manghnani network, 2012
and Bajaj
2014
Lee et al. 2016
The Masdar
report on
Shenzhen ● Decreasing carbon intensity up to ● Supplying the city with 2.8 billion ● Green Wu et al. 2016
(China) 45% by 2020 cubic metres of various natural buildings Yang 2015 and
● Developing Green building (80%) gases ● Renewable Cales 2014
among new building by 2020 ● Reducing approximately energies
● Being economically sustainable, 1.65 million tons of greenhouse gas ● High-quality
socially harmonious, and environ­ emission, 11,000 tons of SO2 emis­ equipment
mentally friendly sion, 2900 tons of nitrogen oxide and saving
emissions, and 1300 tons of 2.5 PM energy
emissions ● Paying atten­
tion to cli­
mate and
environment
Da Nang ● Being an environmentally friendly ● Reduction amount of carbon emis­ ● Smart transportation
(Vietnam) city by 2020 sion through five actions by 2013: building ● Renewable
● Implementing five climate change -Smart Industry (829.3 Kt) ● High-quality energies
actions, namely; Smart Industry (4 -Smart building (138.8 Kt) equipment ● Paying attention
projects), Smart Building (7 pro­ -Energy efficiency (298.1 Kt) and saving to climate and
jects), Energy Efficiency (7 projects), -Smart transport (954 Kt) energy environment
Smart Transport (10 projects) and -Green Energy (38.7 Kt) ● Public
Green Energy (4 projects) to redu­
cing 19% total GHG emissions by
2030
Low-carbon
City Profile,
2018
Thai, 2017
Thai and Ochi
2016
Copenhagen ● Reducing carbon emission by 20% ● Reducing dependency on coal and ● Renewable transportation
(Denmark) in 2015 as compared to 2005 oil energies ● People’s
● Being the first natural zero-carbon ● Establishing central heating systems ● High-quality participation
capital by 2025 for all buildings equipment ● Vegetation and
● Increasing the share of renewable ● Increasing the use of public trans­ and saving Green area
energies up to 30% until 2025 portation and bicycle energy
● Reducing carbon dioxide emissions ● Recycling and Integrated environ­ ● Recycling
by 10% mental management ● Public
● Increasing Voluntary local green
partnerships projects
● Planting more than 3600 trees by
2011
City of Copenhagen Technical and
Environmental Administration, 2009
European Commission 2013
552 E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR
3. Methodology
3.1. Methods and models of low carbon city
assessment
There are now a number of models for calculating the
amount of pollutants and their relation to energy
consumption, gross domestic product, urban design,
etc. Some of the models assume a large-scale context
at a global level. As the present paper aims at finding
a method of low-carbon urban design and does not
address macro-level issues, the models of low-carbon
urban design are described below with the assump­
tion that appropriate and purposeful plans have
already been adopted. These models are divided
into residential units, industrial plants and motor vehi­
cles (Table 4).
Investigating the models used in the studies indi­
cates that most studies lack a comprehensive
approach to the study of urban pollutants from the
main carbon emission sources. Thus, the current
research attempts to achieve a comprehensive
approach by using different models. Hence, the
applied softwares are classified into two main groups
that are as follows: Software for pollutants transfer
simulation and software for calculating the amount
of carbon produced and transferred from the source.
Since the current study examines the three main
sources of carbon emission sources, the simulation
and calculation of the carbon content are also imple­
mented in three sources.
According to Table 4, LCA and BIM models investi­
gate the amount of carbon produced in the building
life cycle. Calculation based on these models requires
sufficient information in the building construction
and studies carbon emission in different phases,
such as executive phase, operational phase, and
destruction phase. Using software such as Ecotech is
a tool to simplify the information in order to estimate
the amount of carbon emission in the life cycle of the
buildings in the mentioned models, providing the
context for future studies. Therefore, Ecotech was
used to simulate the amount of energy consumption
in the residential texture. The amount of carbon pro­
duced in the residential texture was also calculated
based on the energy consumption (gas). According to
the conducted studies in Table 4, the Gaussian model
was used to calculate the emitted carbon of the indus­
trial centres. It indicates the amount of produced
carbon from the source in different seasons.
Therefore, the amount of carbon transferred to
a residential texture can be calculated. Models such
as MOVES and COPERT were introduced to calculate
the amount of carbon in highways. They have limited
access and also require sufficient information on the
physical features of the vehicle. Meanwhile, the
Caline4 model has the broader capability and is spe­
cifically used to study the amount of carbon in the
highways. The CALINE 4 model with the suitable cor­
rection factors should serve as a guide for proper air
quality management (Majumdar et al. 2010). Fluent
software was introduced as specialised software to
simulate the carbon flow from the highways and
industrial factories to study to investigate the gas
movement.
Fluent simulation was used as a tool to help the
plant operator attain uniform heat and mass transfer
by enabling him to adjust the operating conditions to
fit the used fuel well (Tora and Dahlquist 2015). The
above items are involved in a model as shown in the
following (Figure 2).
As previously mentioned, the current method
addresses three main sources of carbon in the city,
leading to creating a comprehensive model, which is
able to investigate the carbon emission in three
aspects simultaneously. Also, since this model calcu­
lates the carbon emission and simulates its movement
from different sources to the city simultaneously, it
can be used as a generalised model in other studies.
3.2. Study area
Semnan is the capital of a province with the same
name in Iran that is located to the east of Tehran.
The topography of the region has caused the city to
have a bowl shape which, in turn, aggravates air
pollution and atmospheric inversions. This bowl
shape causes cold weather to sink over the city in
winter so that polluting particles and gases, which
come from natural particulate sources, motor vehi­
cles, as well as industrial plants in the area may
accumulate in the air (Semnan Air Pollution Report,
2004). Generally, the air of the city is currently not
polluted, but future prospects are bleak. Unbalanced
urban development in the marginal parts, increased
density of industrial plants, presence of two indus­
trial districts to the east and south of the city, and
that of numerous manufacturing plants of asphalt,
plaster, textile, sand, and bricks, are indicative that
Semnan is surrounded by polluting industries
(Figure 3).
Figure 1. Conceptual framework of effective measures on construction of low carbon city.
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
553
554 E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR

Table 4. Models of low carbon planning among different sectors (residential units, industrial plants and motor vehicles).
Methods/
Sectors Models Description Required data References
Residential life cycle This method enables the quantification and evaluation The amount of CO2 emission Yim S
Units assessment of environmental impacts of a building and consists produced by et al,2018
(LCA) of four main phases (goal and scope definition, life ● Types of Building Materials Peng and Wu
cycle inventory analysis, life cycle impact Used in Construction 2015
assessment, and interpretation). ● Energy consumption of
buildings
● Renovation and disposal of
building
Building This method Survey building’s life cycle CO2 emissions ● Raw material procurement Peng and Wu
Information into three parts: the construction, operation and ● Building material production, 2015
Modelling demolition stages and changing several alternative transportation, construction Solís-Guzmán
(BIM) parameters to identify which parameter has more ● Lighting, Elevator, office, elec­ et al. 2018
impacts on building performance. tric equipment use
● wastewater processing
● Demolition, waste material
disposal
Industrial Gaussian This method sample period conduct for the ● the rate of CO2 emission Goudarzi et al.
Plants Model measurement of CO2 from the factory’s stack flows ● meteorological data 2017
during a period of time. ● factors related to the stack
● factors related to the receptor
Motor MOVES It was developed by the U.S. Environmental ● Vehicle Age Distribution Koupal et al.
vehicles ProtectionAgency to estimate emissions (including ● Fuel Supply and Formulation 2003
greenhouse gas and toxic pollutants) fromon/off- ● Meteorology Houk 2010
road mobile sources. It considers several mobile ● Maintenance Programs
emission processes including running exhaust, brake ● Average Speed Distribution
wear, tire wear, and running loss. ● Ramp Fraction (optional input)
● Road Type Distribution
● Vehicle Type VMT
● Month VMT Fraction, Day VMT
Fraction, Hour VMT Fraction
● Source Type Population
Caline 4 It is used as a Gaussian model to determine the ● Meteorological characteristic Dhyani and
concentration of air pollution in the wind, on (wind speed, wind direction, Sharma
a bridge or highway and categorises the mixing height, stability class) 2017
concentration of pollutants. ● Traffic characteristic (traffic Dhyani
volume and emission factors) et al, 2013
● Road characteristic (roadway
width)
● Terrain (surface roughness)
COPERT It is a commonly used model in Europe. This model ● Fuel Consumption (per fuel Nikoleris et al.
utilises a large amount of experimental data to type, per vehicle category) 2011
determine emission parameters from road ● Vehicle Park (number of vehi­ Ntziachristos
transportation. cles and age distribution of and
them) Samaras,
● Driving conditions (annual mile­ 2000
age per vehicle class, average
speeds of vehicles)
● Emission factors (per vehicle
class, per production year, per
road class)
● Other parameters (fuel proper­
ties, climatic conditions, road
gradient)

Moreover, Semnan deserves particular attention
concerning transportation and passenger terminals
since it is adjacent to the provinces of Tehran,
Mazandaran, Golestan, Khorasan, Qom and Esfahan
(Figure 3). It has numerous industrial plants and
academic institutions with workers and students,
respectively, who commute to the city on a daily
basis. It lies on Tehran-Mashhad road that transfers
a huge number of pilgrims to the shrine of Imam
Reza1 in Mashhad, and it has many tourist attractions.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Figure 2. Research method.
The most important way of access from major cities to
Semnan is through Tehran-Mashhad road. This road is
particularly crowded with traffic during religious cer­
emonies, Norouz vacations, and summer vacations,
a fact that is likely to increase air pollution, especially
in neighbourhoods that are around the intercity
roads.
Based on our analyses and investigations, the
north-eastern part of Semnan was chosen as the
case of our study because it is exposed to the pollu­
tion of industries and dessert particulate sources more
than any other part of the city. Currently, a part of
Maskan Mehr Project2 is being run in the area under
study. The second factor is proximity to Tehran-
Mashhad Highway that is an important cause of air
pollution.
As mentioned above, both natural and human
phenomena affect the environmental conditions of
Semnan. Studies show that air pollution in Semnan
may be chiefly due to industrial plants, motor
vehicles, and design which is inappropriate to the
climate. Therefore, the present paper addresses the
issue of pollution from three aspects, namely, the
pollutants emitted by Ferrosilicon Plant in the
Industrial District located 9 km to the northeast of
Semnan, carbon dioxide emitted by the traffic of
Tehran-Mashhad highway around the area under
study, and carbon dioxide emitted by fossil fuel
consumption in residential buildings. The following
pictures depict the arrangement of these factors
(Figure 4).
555
4. Findings
4.1. Generation of pollutants in the residential
area
According to the data provided by relevant organisa­
tions such as Semnan’s local electricity company,
water and sewage company, Statistical Centre of
Iran, and Semnan’s municipality, the basic information
needed to calculate the carbon emission from fossil
fuel consumption in residential buildings was col­
lected. The next step was to calculate carbon dioxide
emission by using authoritative websites such as the
one by Berkeley University, California. As the following
figure shows, carbon dioxide emission from residen­
tial buildings can be calculated by entering data as
consumption of natural gas and electricity. These
results show that 1120 families inhabiting in the area
under study release 7392 T carbon from gas consump­
tion and 2419 T carbon from electricity (Table 5).
Meanwhile, the gas consumed in residential
houses has been regarded as a direct factor affecting
the increased carbon dioxide production caused by
the heating of residential houses. In the meantime,
the electricity consumption of houses has an effect on
the increased carbon dioxide production in the power
plant located 6 km away from the region under study,
and is considered as an indirect factor in increasing
the amount of carbon in the area. Considering the
limited information in this section, only the carbon
dioxide produced due to gas consumption in residen­
tial houses has been explored.
 556
E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR

Figure 3. Distribution of air-polluting industries in Semnan. Source: Air Pollution Report of Semnan’s Environment Protection Organization, 2013.
Figure 4. a) The situation of Semnan among other provinces in Iran b) The situation of the polluting factors near the Semnan city c) Case study area
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
557
558 E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR
Table 5. Basic Information about the case study area.
Basic Information
Total area
number of residents
Number of households
Family size
Building Density
The average energy consumption per household (monthly)
The household’s carbon dioxide emissions from the residential sector (annually)
The figure 5 shows the critical points of the under­
study area in winter and summer. More shaded areas,
especially the northern face of the buildings and their
adjacent passages are among critical winter areas,
where the absence of withdrawal and spatial opening
in the walls creates widespread shading in winter.
Also, the absence of vegetation coverage and disre­
garding the orientation and shape of the buildings
maximise receiving the sunlight received in summer.
This results in greater use of cooling and heating
systems and pollutions increase due to fossil fuel
consumption (Figure 5).
Widespread consumption of fossil fuels, especially
in residential buildings, is due to the fact that they are
easily available at minimal cost and need no compli­
cated technology to be burned. This makes fossil fuels
an important cause of carbon dioxide emission.
Domestic uses such as cooking or heating usually
involve the process of burning.
4-2. Carbon emission by the ferrosilicon plant in
the east of Semnan
Located on the 9th kilometre of Semnan-Damghan
road and in an industrial district to the east of
Figure5. Critical points in summer (a) and winter (b).
33.34 Ha
3920
1120
3.5
Up to 120%(separate parts 180 m2)
Gas 250 m3
Electricity 280 kWh
Gas 7392 T
Semnan, Iran Ferrosilicon Plant has a total area of
500,000 m2 (about 71,000 m2 of which is allocated to
the buildings) and has an annual capacity of produ­
cing 25,000 tons of ferrosilicon and 8,000 tons of
microsilica powder. Official investigations have
demonstrated that the inappropriate location of this
industrial district was not specified based on the prin­
ciples of sustainable development and, if the east­
ward development of Semnan continues, the
industrial pollution in the city will increase like in
Arak and Qazvin. As our area of study lies in the east­
ernmost part of Semnan and has been formed as
a recent urban development, most of its pollution
comes from the eastern industrial plants. According
to the statistics of Semnan’s Environment Protection
Organization, the fumes released from flues contain
pollutants and particulates. The statistics are repre­
sented in the following table. The data was last
updated on 6 October 2013 (Table 6).
For modelling the stream of polluting gases, it is
needed to analyse the intensity and direction of wind.
In doing so, the direction of the stream of pollutants
from Ferrosilicon Plant to Semnan can be recognised.
Based on the meteorological data of Semnan weather
station, the strongest north-eastern wind blows from
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT 559

Table 6. Percentage of pollutant emissions from Ferrosilicon Plant. of the field, with regard to weather conditions as well
assessed Factors Chimneys 1 Chimneys 2 Chimneys 3 as the graphs that provide the coefficients for the
co2(%) 4.66 5.6 4.69 equation on the basis of atmospheric stability and
Co(PPM) 69 74 89
wind speed, is calculated (Ebrahimi and Jahangirian
No2(PPM) 0.6 1.1 0.5
No(PPM) 31 29 28 2013). Due to its quantitative nature and relative ease
So2(PPM) 0.0 1 0.0 of application, this model is used here to calculate the
Output temperature (° C) 110.8 1126 1216
amount of carbon which is transferred to the area
Source: Department of Environment in Semnan, 2013 under study. The formula is as following:
" !#
late winter to late spring, particularly in May. This is Q y2
Cðx; o; oÞ ¼ exp (1)
the period when the highest amount of pollutant �
πσy σz u 2σ2y
reaches the area. The average speed of this north-
easterly wind is 4.7 km/h. The area was simulated in where Q is the discharge rate of the pollutant,
the computer by ANSYS Fluent in order to perform an u denotes wind speed, C denotes the concentration
exact analysis of the stream of wind. As shown in the of the pollutant in a point with specified x, y, H, and
figure, the wind stream has a lower speed along the z. H denotes the effective height of the flue, which is
streets and its speed increases where the streets the sum of physical height and height of the exhaust
widen or where there are open spaces. Wind blows gas column in the opening of the flue, and σy and σz
into the streets and, therefore, brings with it the pol­ denote vertical and horizontal release coefficients,
lution from the north-east (Figure 6). respectively.
In analytical methods, theoretical models extracted As represented in the figure, the results of the ana­
from the equations of fluid flows are used to simulate lyses suggest that the concentration of pollutants
the release of gases from the flue. One of the most increases up to a certain distance from the source
important models in this regard is the Gaussian and reaches a critical level; after that point, it gradually
model. The concentration of pollutants in each part decreases. This critical point is a function of wind speed

Figure6. Simulation of the speed of the distribution of carbon dioxide emitted from the Ferrosilicon Plant by means of Fluent Software
Package.
560 E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR

Table 7. The concentration of carbon dioxide at specific intervals to the statistics of Iran’s Road Maintenance and
from factory.
Transportation Organization, the number of vehicles
Distance The concentration of carbon The concentration of passing on the roads of Semnan Province in a 24-hour
(metre) dioxide(ML gr/m3) carbon dioxide(PPM)
period is as following: the average number of vehicles
500 10,407.5 5782
750 7180.8 3972.6 passing every hour in both directions of the road
1000 5146.6 2858.9 under study is 750. Also, the width of the road is
1500 3022.4 1679
11.5 metres on each side which gives a total effective
2000 2037.2 1131.7
3000 1166.03 647.8 width of 29 metres if an extra three metres for each
4000 804.05 446.7 side is taken into account (Table 8).
5000 613.7 341
The results of the CALINE 4 model for calculating
6000 501.8 278.8
7000 431.4 239.7 the concentration of carbon monoxide emitted from
8000 382.05 212.25 vehicles in a standard state and in adverse conditions
9000 345.99 176.6
along with the input data of the model are repre­
sented in the following (Table 9).
According to the National Open-Air Quality
and effective height of the flue which, if changed, can Standard of the US Environmental Protection Agency
change the critical distribution rate of the pollutants. and the Environmental Protection Agency of Iran,
Carbon dioxide concentration in different dis­ Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL) for carbon monoxide
tances is represented in the following table with the in urban outdoor air has been defined as 9 PPM for
assumption that the amounts of the released pollu­ 8-hour exposure, or 35 PPM for one-hour exposure. In
tants from the three flues are equal (Table 7). addition, WHO has presented as guidelines 6 PPM
The maximum amount of carbon dioxide that an concentrations for 24-hour exposure, 9 PPM concen­
individual can be exposed to during eight working trations for 8-hour exposure, or 28 PPM concentration
hours should not exceed 5,000 PPM. The maximum for one-hour exposure to carbon monoxide in urban
amount allowed for a short-time exposure is 30,000 outdoor air(WHO 2010; IEPO 2012; EPA 2013). Further,
PPM. In residential areas, the amount of carbon diox­ the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
ide in fresh open air is usually less than 380 PPM (684 Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) show that if this
ML gr/m3). This amount rises in indoor spaces and, in value rises to 10 to 24 PPM, it will have serious long-
buildings with air-conditioning system, it lies between term consequences on human health. As the data
600 and 1,000 PPM (Azuma et al. 2018). suggest, the amount of carbon monoxide emitted
Due to the emission of carbon dioxide, the region into the area is above the danger level and, if serious
under study located 9000 m away from Iran Ferrosilice
Co., is safe in terms of carbon dioxide emissions and
residential buildings in a distance less than 5 km from Table 8. Traffic vehicles in Semnan.
industrial plants fall in a dangerous zone. It should be Total
noted, however, that the above figures were calcu­ daily total daily Average traffic Average traffic per hour
traffic traffic per hour in both directions
lated for stable atmospheric conditions with the wind
6476 8713 363 723
speed being less than 2 km/h. Any change in weather 6366 8649 360
conditions may dramatically change these figures. 6510 9583 399 763
Investigations suggest that eastward development 6086 8743 364
of Semnan is likely to expose residential buildings to
higher amounts of pollutants, which is a threat to the
health of the inhabitants. Devastating consequences Table 9. Determining the concentration of carbon monoxide in the
will follow in the near future if the eastward develop­ emission acceptor.
ment continues with this pace. Density (PPM)
acceptor Points X Y Z Standard Unfavorable
1 1548 1391 1.8 11.4 11.5
4-3. Carbon emission from motor vehicles 2 872 1565 1.8 11.4 11.4
3 1072 1294 1.8 11.2 11.2
The CALINE 4 model deals with the number of motor 4 1229 927 1.8 11.1 11.1
vehicles per hour and the emission factor. According 5 756 1232 1.8 11.1 11.2
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Figure 7. Simulation of the distribution of carbon monoxide concentration in different distances from the highway by means of Fluent.
measures are not adopted, it will bear harmful effects
on the health of the inhabitants. In this study, the
results of analyses from Caline4 program suggest
that, currently, the level of carbon monoxide trans­
ferred from highway to the region under study is close
to 11.2 PPM which is within the risk range and could
endanger the health of residents in the long run.
The simulated image of Fluent shows the concen­
tration of carbon monoxide moving from the highway
towards the residential buildings. It is obvious that in
points where the wind speed is at the minimum,
carbon monoxide sinks and its concentration
increases, which heightens the risk of respiratory dis­
eases. As a solution, the buildings should have open­
ings and vents to facilitate airflow and prevent the
pollutants from sinking (Figure 7).
5. Discussion
The main purpose of the present research was to
investigate the pollutant emission ratio from the
three main sectors of Motor Vehicles, Residential
Units, and Industrial Plants and to examine the role
of urban design elements in the penetration of carbon
Table 10. The results of calculating carbon generated and transmitted into the study area.
Sector
Residential buildings Gas
Industrial plants
Motor vehicles
561
dioxide into the residential sector. The results
obtained from the research show that the high levels
of pollutants are transmitted from the industrial sec­
tor and highways to the residential areas (Table 10).
According to the research hypotheses, to analyse
the role of urban design in the level of carbon produc­
tion and transference to residential areas, two main
factors were considered: changing the type of blocks
arrangement and changing the orientation of streets.
Thus, in the first stage, the type of the arrangement of
residential blocks was changed and they were remo­
delled. Since Semnan is located in a hot and dry
climate, adjusting temperature in summer has always
been considered a challenge. The traditional architec­
ture of Semnan has been climate-friendly and intro­
verted. Buildings have been centrally designed with
a central courtyard. Central courtyard has been the
only or the most significant space for providing light
and ventilation in the traditional architecture of
Semnan residential houses. In addition to modulating
sunlight, it has also played an integral role in reducing
wind speeds from desert areas. Thus, in the proposed
blocks arrangement, the traditional architectural
introverted model of Semnan was used and the linear
Carbon generated Carbon transmitted
7392 T/year (CO2) –
– 192 PPM (CO2)
– 11.4 PPM (CO)
562 E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR
Figure 8. Simulation of shading on surfaces in a warmest day of a year by means of Ecotect.
arrangement of blocks was changed into central
arrangement, with the central space between blocks
considered on a larger scale than central courtyard of
traditional architecture. The modelled picture of the
proposed arrangement of blocks in the warmest day
of the year in the area indicates that the placement of
blocks with central arrangement has led to reduced
temperature of the surfaces between buildings com­
pared with row arrangement (current situation),
which reduces the need for cooling equipment in
buildings during summer (considering the hot and
dry climate of the area) thus reducing carbon produc­
tion in the region (Figure 8).
(a: proposed plan, b: Current Status)
On the other hand, as mentioned earlier, changes in
the passage orientation have been assumed as an
Figure 9. Simulation of the speed of the distribution of carbon dioxide emitted from the Ferrosilicon Plant and Highway by means of Fluent
(proposed plan).
effective environmental factor in the incoming pollu­
tants. The results gained from the analysis by Fluent
software in the proposed blocks arrangement
revealed that the speed of polluting air flow is related
to the orientation of passages, and creating an obsta­
cle to the airflow from pollutant sources, eliminating
direct paths located in the wind flow direction from
polluting sources, and reducing the width of the pas­
sages have been effective in reducing the speed of
pollutants entering the area (Figure 9). The results of
this study support those of the following studies
(Tereci et al. 2010; Deng et al. 2016); Steadman et al.
2013; W. Al-Azhari et al. 2014; (Shishegar 2013;
Granieri et al. 2014; Kim et al. 2015; Abanda and
Byers 2016); Chang et al. 2019.
For instance, in the studies conducted by (Tereci
et al. 2010); Steadman et al., 2014; W Al-Azhari et al.,
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF URBAN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
2014, various scenarios of urban block arrangement
and their effect on energy consumption and micro­
climates have been studied. Also, the role of residen­
tial types is often addressed in the management of
energy consumption regardless of socio-economic
contexts for urban designers and planners. The results
of these studies emphasise the influential role of resi­
dential types in reducing energy consumption (con­
sidering the required ventilation and artificial light).
Also, the proper orientation of the buildings was
introduced as an influential factor in the significant
reduction of energy consumption. In the studies con­
ducted by (Shishegar 2013; Granieri et al. 2014;
Abanda and Byers 2016), the effect of street design
on microclimate is considered by considering the
effect of street geometry and wind direction and sun­
light. Three factors of street geometry, wind direction,
and sunlight play a key role in creating desirable
microclimates.
In addition to the two-factor studies, many studies
have addressed the role of other environmental fac­
tors in carbon production and transference to residen­
tial spaces, which are referred further as separated by
residential houses, industrial plants, and highways.
According to the performed investigations in the
Residential Units sector, energy consumption in resi­
dential areas annually results in a significant ratio of
carbon dioxide production. In many researchers, the
main factors affecting energy consumption and car­
bon dioxide production in residential buildings
include the following cases: Lighting (Yim Set al.
2018), Lift (Yim S et al. 2018), Materials (Wen et al.
2016; Luo et al. 2019; Huang et al. 2017; Klufallah M et
al. 2014), Space Heating (Kellett and Jowsey, 2012)
and cooling (Li et al. 2019) Cooking (Kellett and
Jowsey, 2012), single/multi-family houses(Seo and
Hwang 2001), Household size (Surahman et al. 2016),
waste generation (Cho and Chae 2016), building den­
sity (Ward et al. 2015; Wu et al. 2016).
Further, the investigations performed through the
Gaussian model and simulations performed by Fluent
software show that the city is expanding towards
industrial centres and highways; due to the uniformity
of the skyline and the high elevation of buildings
(Bohne et al. 2017; Yim et al. 2018) and the absence
of spatial opening among residential blocks
(Andriono et al. 2013; Hsu and Chao, 2019), as well
as the absence of spatial opening among residential
blocks, the flow and velocity of wind movement in the
intervals between buildings and adjacent land
563
surfaces is minimal, causing carbon dioxide emission.
Meanwhile, observing a safe distance to industrial
centres (D.Brender et al. 2011), employing public
transportation (Toledo and Rovere 2018), expanding
green surfaces (Strohbach et al. 2012; Chen 2015; Sun
et al. 2019; Sturiale and Scuderi 2019; Lee et al. 2015),
creating pedestrian network and expanding bicycle
routes (Brand et al. 2014; Neves and Brand 2019),
utilising renewable energies (Adams and Nsiah 2019;
Adams and O.Acheampong, 2019; Lysen 1989; Zhang
et al. 2013), mixing land usages and minimising daily
routes (Mumuni 2017; Huang et al. 2017; Yang and Eu
2019) as well as building adaptation to climate (Wasim
and Julker Nine 2016) are among the factors that can
contribute to reducing the carbon level.
6. Conclusion
According to the results derived from the research,
the existing industrial plants and highways have
a great impact on transferring pollutants to residential
spaces. Thus, the region under study is exposed to
pollutant elements (carbon dioxide and carbon mon­
oxide) in a way that it can endanger the health of
residents in the long run (Table 11). Definitely, envir­
onmental conditions such as irregularities and com­
plex weather conditions can be involved in reducing
or increasing the penetrating pollutants.
The results of this study suggest that the distance
of industrial plants from residential spaces has been
effective in the level of incoming pollutants, and as
the distance from polluting centres increases, smaller
percentage of pollutant elements have transferred; in
this study, creating residential spaces located less
than 5 km away from Iran Ferrosilice Co. poses
a serious risk to human health. Thus, the implementa­
tion of projects to assess the effects of developing
polluting centres on residential spaces, is an impor­
tant issue that needs further focus in national policies.
The analyses conducted show that a large amount
of pollutants is transferred to residential spaces
located in the wind direction from polluting sources
(industrial plants and highways). Thus, environmental
studies should be conducted before locating pollut­
ing centres, and suggestions should be made to
reduce wind flow (such as using vegetation, land
topography, and changing passages positioning).
The results also suggest that a large amount of
carbon is produced in the region under study. The
modelling emphasises the role of local architecture
564 E. S. MOUSAVI SARVINE BAGHI AND E. RANJBAR
and climate-friendly urban design in reducing energy
consumption and reducing carbon emissions, which
should be considered in the proposed plans.
Over the past decades, urban design knowledge
has tried to face the environmental crises using differ­
ent methods. In the current situation, the creation of
a low-carbon city is one of the urban design ideals,
which has received more or less attention in many
developed and developing countries. Regarding the
increasing trend of population and the excessive use
of vehicles and the expansion of factories, the envir­
onmental pollutions of the cities are expanding and
therefore, attention to urbanisation patterns is an
important issue in reducing pollutants.
The emergence of environmental crises such as
climate change has led to introducing the environ­
mental approach as one of the main approaches to
urban design knowledge. Therefore, paying attention
to the climate in urban design has a significant role in
reducing pollutants. It can be also said that one of the
most significant factors in urban design is climate.
Considering climatic elements such as radiation and
wind, determining the location of residential texture,
and maintaining its distance from polluting sources,
the arrangement of urban elements such as mass and
space in line with the climate, the expansion of vege­
tation are among the key factors affecting climate-
friendly urban design. Considering that more than
30% of the total energy consumption of Iran is used
in residential buildings, buildings’ improper design
and application, the incompatibility of the used mate­
rials with the climate, and regional conditions can
cause a large waste of the energy inputting into the
buildings. Also, given that the urban design and tradi­
tional Iranian architecture have always been in line
with discovering the rhythm of nature, using renew­
able energy, and constructing buildings with the least
energy consumption, therefore considering climate
design can facilitate reducing the energy consump­
tion and carbon emission.
The present research has been an attempt to
establish a relationship between urban design and
other effective fields such as the environment and it
was attempted to establish a kind of strong link
between these two by using existing and available
models and software. The results obtained from the
research have been an emphasis on the role of urban
design in reducing the entry of pollutants into resi­
dential spaces that effective factors such as increas­
ing urban density, increasing vegetation coverage,
paying attention to passages orientation and regard­
ing climate features, considering in respect of
expanding the city and the situation of the formation
of industrial centres around the city have been men­
tioned. Increasing the accuracy of input data and
applying up-to-date software models, modelling in
different climatic and atmosphere conditions, and so
on can help to improve the results of future
researches.
Notes
1. Shrine of Shia’s Imam in Mashhad (Second metropolis in
Iran)
2. A national social housing project in Iran
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Elahe Sadat Mousavi Sarvine Baghi has graduated with amaster
of urban design from Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
Her master thesis title is: Urban Design Guidelines for Healthy
Urban Development with Respect to the Carbon Reduction
Approach. Case study: Semnan.
Ehsan Ranjbar is an assistant professor of urban design at
Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran. His work is concen­
trated on the sustainability of urban public spaces from a
multi-disciplinary perspective. He has been teaching for 14
years in the field of urban planning and design to master and
Ph.D. students. Also, he is active in professional projects.
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