VZDRŽEVANJE INFORMACIJSKE STROJNE OPREME

(seminarska naloga)

Anej Bombek
2019/2020

 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 KAZALO VSEBINE
Charles Babbage____________________________________________________3
Konrad Zuse_______________________________________________________4
Z1________________________________________________________________4
Z2________________________________________________________________5
Z3 ________________________________________________________________5
ABC – Atanasoff Berry Computer______________________________________5
INTEL 4004_________________________________________________________6
JACK KILBY________________________________________________________6
PC IBM 5150________________________________________________________7
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE______________________________________8
STORED PROGRAM_________________________________________________9
CONTROLLED PROGRAM____________________________________________9
COMPUTER VERSUS CALCULATOR__________________________________10
RALAY___________________________________________________________10
RELAY BUG_______________________________________________________11
HARY PORTER – Relay Comput______________________________________11
THOMAS EDISON__________________________________________________12
EDISONOVA ŽARNICA______________________________________________13
LEE DE FOREST___________________________________________________14
AUDION__________________________________________________________15
SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY____________________________________15
THE ATOMIC BOUND_______________________________________________16
THE IONIC BOND__________________________________________________17
THE METAL BOND_________________________________________________18
DOPING__________________________________________________________18
N-TIP_____________________________________________________________19
P-TIP_____________________________________________________________19
PN-JUCTION_______________________________________________________20
PN JUNCTION WITH APPLIED ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE___________________21
CHARLES BABBAGE 
Charles Babbage (26. december 1791 - 18. oktober 1871) je bil
angleški plimat. Matematik, filozof, izumitelj in inženir strojništva.
Babbage je iznašel koncept digitalnega programa bilnega
računalnika. 
Nekateri menijo, da je "oče računalnika", Babbage pa je zaslužen
za to, da je izumil prvi mehanski računalnik, ki je sčasoma
privedel do bolj zapletenih elektronskih zasnov, čeprav vse
bistvene ideje sodobnih računalnikov najdemo
v Babbageovem analitičnem motorju. Njegovo raznoliko delo na
drugih področjih ga je pripeljalo do tega, da ga štejemo med
številnimi polimami njegovega stoletja označil za "uglednega". 
Deli nedokončanih mehanizmov Babbagea so na ogled v
znanstvenem muzeju v Londonu. Leta 1991 je bil iz prvotnih
načrtov Babbagea konstruiran delujoč motor razlike. Uspeh
dokončanega motorja je bil izdelan v tolerancah, ki jih je bilo
mogoče doseči v 19. stoletju. 
Stroj razlike, ki ga je ustvaril Charles Babbage, je avtomatski
mehansko računalo, zasnovano za tabeliranje polinomskih
funkcij. Ime izhaja iz metode delitve razlik, metode interpolacije
ali tabeliranja z funkcijo majhnega niza polinomih funkcij. Večino
matematičnih funkcij, ki jih uporabljajo inženirji, znanstveniki in
navigatorji, vključno z logaritmičnimi in trigonometričnimi
funkcijami, je mogoče približati polinomom, zato različni motorji
lahko izračunajo veliko uporabnih tabel s številom.  
Zgodovinske težave pri gradnji tabel brez napak skupin
matematikov in človeških "računalnikov", je spodbudilo Charlesa Babbagea, da
zgradi mehanizem za avtomatizacijo postopka. 
 
 
  
 
 KONRAD ZUSE 
Konrad Zuse (22. junij 1910 - 18. december
1995) je bil nemški gradbeni inženir,
računalničar, izumitelj, poslovnež in računalniški
pionir. Njegov največji dosežek je bil prvi
programirljivi računalnik na svetu; funkcionalni
programski nadzorovan Turing-Complete Z3 je
začel delovati maja 1941. Zahvaljujoč temu stroju
in predhodnikom je Zuse pogosto veljal za
izumitelja sodobnega računalnika.
Zuse je bil znan tudi za računalniški stroj S2, ki
velja za prvi računalnik za nadzor procesov. Leta
1941 je ustanovil eno najzgodnejših računalniških
podjetij, ki je proizvajalo Z4, ki je postal prvi
komercialni računalnik na svetu. Od leta 1943 do
1945 je oblikoval prvi programski jezik na visoki
ravni, Plankalkül. Leta 1969 je Zuse v svoji knjigi
Rechnender Raum (Izračun prostora) predlagal
koncept računalniško podprtega vesolja.
Velik del njegovega zgodnjega dela je financirala
njegova družina in trgovina, po letu 1939 pa mu
je sredstva dala nacistična nemška vlada. Zaradi
druge svetovne vojne je Zuseovo delo v
Združenem kraljestvu in Združenih državah
večinoma neopaženo. Verjetno je bil njegov prvi
dokumentirani vpliv na ameriško podjetje
možnost IBM-a o njegovih patentih leta 1946.
V Deutsches Museumu v Münchnu je replika Z3,
pa tudi originalni Z4. V Berlinu ima Deutsches
Technikmuseum razstavo, posvečeno Zuseu, na
kateri je razstavljenih dvanajst njegovih strojev,
vključno z repliko Z1 in več Zusejevih slik.
 
Z1 je bil mehanski računalnik, ki ga je Konrad Zuse načrtovalod leta 1936 do 1937 in
ga je izdelal od leta 1936 do 1938. Bil je binarni mehanski kalkulator z električnim
pogonom z omejeno programerljivostjo, branje navodil iz
preluknjanega celuloidnega filma. 
Z2 je bil mehanski in relejni računalnik, ki ga je Konrad Zuse dokončal leta 1940. Šlo
je za izboljšanega Z1, ki je uporabljal isti mehanski pomnilnik, vendar je aritmetično
in krmilno logiko nadomestil z električnimi relejskimi vezji. Fotografije in načrte za Z2
so uničili zavezniški bombardi med drugo svetovno vojno. Za razliko od Z1 je Z2
namesto 22-bitne plavajoče točke uporabljal 16-bitno aritmetiko s fiksno točko. 
Z3 je bil elektromehanski računalnik, ki ga je zasnoval Konrad Zuse. Bil je prvi
delovni programirljivi popolnoma avtomatski digitalni računalnik na svetu. Z3 je bil
izdelan z 2600 releji, ki izvajajo 22-bitno dolžino besed, ki je delovala pri taktni
frekvenci približno 4-5 Hz. Program za kodo je bil shranjen na preluknjanem filmu.
Začetne vrednosti se vnašajo ročno. 
 
 
ABC – Atanasoff Berry Computer 
Atanasoff - Berry Computer (ABC) je bil prvi avtomatski digitalni računalnik. ABC je
bil nekaj časa prikrit javnosti prikrit. Prednosti ABC-ja razpravljajo zgodovinarji
računalniške tehnologije, saj ni bil niti programerljiv niti Turing-perfect. 
Stroj je bil zasnovan leta 1937, in sicer s pomočjo študenta Clifforda Berryja,
profesorja matematike in fizike Lowa State, ter College John Vincent Atanasoff.
Zasnovan je bil le za reševanje sistemov linearnih enačb in je bil uspešno preizkušen
leta 1942. Vendar njegov mehanizem za shranjevanje vmesnih rezultatov,
zapisovalnik / bralnik papirnih kartic ni bil izpopolnjen, in ko je John Vincent Atanasoff
zapustil Lowa State Collegea za druge velesile svetovne vojne, je bilo delo na stroju
je bilo prekinjeno. ABC je bil pionir pomembnih elementov sodobnega računalništva,
vključno z binarnimi aritmetičnimi in elektronskimi stikalnimi elementi, vendar ga
posebna narava in pomanjkanje spremenljivega shranjenega programa razlikujeta od
sodobnih računalnikov. Računalnik je bil leta 1990 označen za mejnik IEEE. 
Računalniško delo Atanasoffa in Berryja ni bilo splošno znano, dokler ni bilo odkrito v
šestdesetih letih prejšnjega stoletja, sredi nasprotujočih si trditev o prvi stopnji
elektronskega računalnika. Takrat je
ENIAC, ki sta ga ustvarila John Mauchly in
J. Presper Eckert, veljal za prvi računalnik
v modernem smislu, vendar je leta 1973
okrožno sodišče v ZDA razveljavilo patent
ENIAC in sklenilo, da so
izumitelji ENIACa izpeljali predmet
elektronskega digitalnega računalnika pri
Atanasoffu. Ko so sredi 70. let prejšnjega
stoletja na tajni konferenci v Los Alamosu v
Novi Mehiki junija 1976 odpravili tajnost
britanskega razvoja računalnikov Colossus,
je bil pred datumom ENIAC. 
 
INTEL 4004 
Intel 4004 je 4-bitna centralna procesna enota (CPU), ki jo je izdala korporacija Intel
leta 1971. Bil je prvi komercialni mikroprocesor na
voljo, in prvi v dolgi vrsti Intelovih procesorjev. Dizajn
čipov, izveden s tehnologijo silikonskih vrat MOS, se
je začel aprila 1970, ustvaril pa ga je Federico Faggin,
ki je projekt vodil od začetka do konca leta
1971. Marcian Hoff je oblikoval in vodil arhitekturni
predlog leta 1969, Masatoshi Shima pa je prispeval k
arhitekturi in kasneje logični zasnovi. Prva
komercialna prodaja popolnoma operativnega 4004
se je zgodila marca 1971 na
japonskemu Busicom Corp. za svoj elektronski
kalkulator 141-PF, kateri je bil prvotno zasnovan in
izdelan kot čip po meri. 
Intel 4004 je bilo prvo naključno logično vezje,
integrirano v en čip z uporabo MOS (kovinski-oksid-
polprevodniški) tehnologiji silicijevih vrat (SGT). To je
bila do takrat najbolj napredna zasnova integriranega
vezja (IC). Zasnova čipov je bila izvedena neodvisno
v oddelku MOS, drugačna od aplikacijskih
raziskav. Novembra 1971 je bil s preroškim oglasom
"Napovedovanje nove dobe v integrirani elekt roniki"
4004 komercialno na voljo splošnemu trgu. 
Mikroprocesor 4004, 4001 ROM, 4002 RAM in 4003
Shift Register so bili štirje čipi v Intel MCS-4 naboru
čipov. S temi komponentami bi lahko zgradili majhne
računalnike z različno količino pomnilnika in I / O
zmogljivosti. 

JACK KILBY 
Jack St. Clair Kilby (November 8, 1923 – June 20,
2005) was an American electrical engineer who took part (along with Robert Noyce)
in the realization of the first integrated circuit while working at Texas Instruments (TI)
in 1958. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics on December 10, 2000.
To congratulate him, American President Bill Clinton wrote, "You can take pride
in the knowledge that your work will help to improve lives for generations to come." 
Kilby is also the co-
inventor of the handheld calculator and the thermal printer, for which he has the pate
nts. He also has patents for seven other inventions. 
 
PC IBM 5150 
The IBM Personal Computer, commonly known as the IBM PC,
is the original version of the IBM PC compatible hardware platform. It is IBM
model number 5150 and was introduced on August 12, 1981. It was created by a
team of engineers and designers under the direction of Philip Don Estridge of the IB
M Entry Systems Division in Boca Raton, Florida. 
The generic term "personal computer"
("PC") was in use years before 1981, applied as early as 1972
to the Xerox PARC's Alto, but the term
"PC" came to mean more specifically a desktop microcomputer compatible with IBM'
s Personal Computer branded products. The machine was based on
open architecture, and third-party suppliers sprang up
to provide peripheral devices, expansion cards, and software.
IBM had a substantial influence on the personal computer market in standardizing a
platform for personal computers, and "IBM compatible" became an important criterion 
for sales growth. Only the Apple
Macintosh family kept a significant share of the microcomputer market after the 1980
s without compatibility to the IBM personal computer. 
 
VON NEUMANN ARCHITECTURE 

The von Neumann architecture—also known as the von Neumann

model or Princeton architecture—is a computer architecture based on a
1945 description by the mathematician and physicist John von
Neumann and others in the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. That document de
scribes a
design architecture for an electronic digital computer with these components: 
Processor unit contain arithmetic logic unit and processor registers Control unit conta
ining instruction register and program counter, memory that stores data and instructio
ns, external mass storage, input and output mechanisms 
The term "von Neumann architecture" has evolved to mean any stored-
program computer in which an instruction fetch and a
data operation cannot occur at the same
time because they share a common bus. This is referred to as the von
Neumann bottleneck and often limits the performance of the system. 
The design of a von Neumann architecture machine is simpler than a
Harvard architecture machine—which is also a stored-program system but has one d
edicated set of address and data buses for reading and writing to memory, and anoth
er set of address and data buses to fetch instructions. 
A stored-program digital computer keeps both program instructions and data in read-
write, random-access memory (RAM). Stored-program computers were an advance
ment over the program-controlled computers of the 1940s, such as the Colossus and 
the ENIAC. Those were programmed by setting switches and inserting patch cables t
o route data and control signals between various functional units. The vast majority of 
modern computers use the same memory for both data and program instructions. Th
e von Neumann vs. Harvard distinction applies to the cache architecture,
not the main memory (split cache architecture). 
STORED PROGRAM 
Stored program control (SPC) was a telecommunications technology used for teleph
one exchanges controlled by a computer program stored in the memory of the switchi
ng system.
SPC was the enabling technology of electronic switching systems (ESS) developed i
n the Bell System in the 1950s, and may be considered the third generation of switchi
ng technology. Stored program control was invented by Bell Labs scientist
Erna Schneider Hoover in
1954 who reasoned that computer software could control the connection of telephone 
calls. 

CONTROLLED PROGRAM

First contents of the PC
are transferred to the memory address register. Then the control unit will send a cont
rol signal
to the memory in order to fetch the contents of the memory location held in the MAR 
which travels using the adress bus. The data held in the memory location is then tran
sfered to the memory data
register. The contents are then copied into the current instruction register. The contro
l unit then increments the next instruction in memory. The control unit looks up the lo
ad command in its instrusction set. It recognises that the memory location 5 need to
be loaded into the AC. The MAR is updated. The data
is then loaded into the accumulator as requested by the LOAD instuction. This marks 
 the end of the load instruction. This marks the end os the LOAD instruction. The CP
U is now ready to work on the next instruction.  
 

 
 
  

COMPUTER VERSUS CALCULATOR 

Electronic devices have become
a critical part of our lives, and people depend on them for the purpose of collecting inf
ormation and solving problems. The two most important tools in this category are
a computer and calculator that have made our lives easier. Their differences become 
clearer through the definition and go as follows. A computer is usually known as
a desktop device
where people have the option of using the tool for several purposes.
A calculator gets defined as a small
device that performs all the basic arithmetic tasks and operations that help people in 
solving complex numbers and numerical. 

RELAY 
A relay is an electrically operated switch. It consists of a
set of input terminals for a single or multiple control signals, and a
set of operating contact terminals. The switch may have any number of contacts in
multiple contact forms, such as
make contacts, break contacts, or combinations thereof. 
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by an independent low-
power signal, or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. Relays were first used in long-distance telegraph circuits as
signal repeaters: they refresh the signal coming in from one circuit by transmitting it
on another circuit. Relays were used extensively in telephone exchanges and early c
omputers to perform logical operations. 
The traditional form of a relay uses an electromagnet to close or open the contacts, b
ut other operating principles have been invented, such as in solid-
state relays which use semiconductor properties for control without relying on moving 
parts. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operati
ng coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overload or faults; in
modern electric power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments 
still called protective relays. 
Latching relays require only a single pulse of control power to operate the switch pers
istently. Another pulse applied to
a second set of control terminals, or a pulse with opposite polarity, resets the switch, 
while repeated pulses of the same kind have no effects. Magnetic latching relays are 
useful in applications when interrupted power should not affect the circuits that the rel
ay is controlling. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
RELAY BUG 
A software bug is an error, flaw, failure or fault in a computer program or system that
causes it to produce an incorrect or unexpected result, or to behave in unintended
ways. The process of finding and fixing bugs is termed "debugging" and often uses
formal techniques or tools to pinpoint bugs, and since the 1950s, some computer
systems have been designed to also deter, detect or auto-correct various computer
bugs during operations.

Most bugs arise from mistakes and errors made in either a program's source code or
its design, or in components and operating systems used by such programs. A few
are caused by compilers producing incorrect code. A program that contains many
bugs, and/or bugs that
seriously interfere with its
functionality, is said to be
buggy (defective). Bugs
can trigger errors that may
have ripple effects. Bugs
may have subtle effects or
cause the program to
crash or freeze the
computer. Other bugs
qualify as security bugs
and might, for example,
enable a malicious user to
bypass access controls in
order to obtain
unauthorized privileges.

HARY PORTER – Relay Comput

THOMAS EDISON

Thomas Alva Edison (February 11, 1847 – October

18, 1931) was an American inventor and businessman
who has been described as America's greatest inventor.
 He developed many devices in fields such as electric power generation, mass
communication, sound recording, and motion pictures. These inventions, which include
the phonograph, the motion picture camera, and the long-lasting, practical electric light
bulb, have had a widespread impact on the modern industrialized world. He was one of
the first inventors to apply the principles of organized science and teamwork to the
process of invention, working with many researchers and employees. He established
the first industrial research laboratory.
Edison was raised in the American Midwest; early in his career he worked as a
telegraph operator, which inspired some of his earliest inventions. In 1876, he
established his first laboratory facility in Menlo Park, New Jersey, where many of his
early inventions were developed. He later established a botanic laboratory in Fort
Myers, Florida in collaboration with businessmen Henry Ford and Harvey Firestone,
and a laboratory in West Orange, New Jersey that featured the world's first film
studio, the Black Maria. He was a prolific inventor, holding 1,093 US patents in his
name, as well as patents in other countries. Edison married twice and fathered six
children. He died in 1931 of the complications of diabetes.  

EDISONOVA ŽARNICA 
Light bulbs with a carbon filament were first demonstrated by Joseph Swan in Februa
ry 1879, and by Edison
in October 1879. Carbon filament bulbs, the first electric light bulbs,
become available commercially c.1879. In 1904 a tungsten
filament was invented by Austro-Hungarians Alexander
Just and Franjo Hanaman, and was more efficient and longer-lasting than the carboni
zed bamboo filament used previously. The introduction of a neutral gas
 to the glass envelope (or bulb) also helped to improve lifespan and brightness of the 
bulb.To produce enough light, these lamps required the use of extremely long filame
nts, and remained so until the development of more efficiently wound tungsten filame
nts. 
Antique filament light bulbs, Edison light bulbs, and vintage light bulbs all refer
to carbon- or early tungsten-filament lamps, or modern bulbs reproducing their appea
rance.
Most of these bulbs are reproductions of the wound filament bulbs made popular by 
Edison Electric Light Company at the turn of the 20th century. They are easily identifi
ed by the long and complicated windings of their internal filaments, and by the very w
arm-yellow glow of the light they produce (many of the bulbs emit light at
a color temperature of 2200–2400K). 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

LEE DE FOREST 

Lee de Forest (August 26, 1873 – June 30, 1961)

was an American inventor, self-described "Father of
Radio", and a pioneer in the development of sound-
on-film recording used for motion pictures. He had
over 180 patents, but also a tumultuous career—he
boasted that he made, then lost, four fortunes. He
was also involved in several major patent lawsuits,
spent a substantial part of his income on legal bills,
and was even tried (and acquitted) for mail fraud. His most famous invention, in 1906, was
the three-element "Audion" (triode) vacuum tube, the first practical amplification device.
Although De Forest had only a limited understanding of how it worked, it was the foundation
of the field of electronics, making possible radio broadcasting, long distance telephone lines,
and talking motion pictures, among countless other applications.

AUDION 1906
The Audion was an electronic
detecting or amplifying vacuum tube
invented by American electrical
engineer Lee de Forest in 1906. It was
the first triode, consisting of an
evacuated glass tube containing three electrodes: a heated filament, a grid, and a
plate. It is important in the history of technology because it was the first widely used
electronic device which could amplify; a small electrical signal applied to the grid
could control a larger current flowing from the filament to plate.
The original triode Audion had more residual gas in the tube than later versions and
vacuum tubes; the extra residual gas limited the dynamic range and gave the Audion
nonlinear characteristics and erratic performance.Originally developed as a radio
receiver detector by adding a grid electrode to the Fleming valve, it found little use
until its amplifying ability was recognized around 1912 by several researchers, who
used it to build the first amplifying radio receivers and electronic oscillators. The
many practical applications for amplification motivated its rapid development, and the
original Audion was superseded within a few years by improved versions with higher
vacuum.
SEMICONDUCTOR TECHNOLOGY One atom [gr. átomos: indivisible] is the
smallest chemically not further divisible element of matter. There are different atoms,
which are composed of a certain number of electrons, protons and neutrons.
Positively charged protons and
uncharged neutrons form the
nucleus, which negatively
charged electrons orbit at
certain distances. An atom
occurring in nature is electrically
neutral, ie there are just as
many protons as there are
electrons in the atom.  
 
 
 

THE ATOMIC BOND 

Nonmetals enter this connection to complete the electron octet. Thus, two fluorine at
oms (seven outer electrons each) can fill their electron octet by exchanging an electr
on. The distance between the two atomic nuclei represents a compromise between t
he attraction of atomic nucleus and bonding electrons and the repulsion of the two at
omic nuclei. The reason for atomic bonds is the endeavor of nature
to produce the lowest energy state. Since the electrons are
"more space" available by the merger of several atoms to
a molecule, which corresponds to a lower energy, it comes only to the atomic bond. 
From the binding endeavor to reach the fully occupied outer shell it follows that fluori
ne atoms never occur atomically, but always as fluorine molecules: F
2 . This also applies to nitrogen ( N 2 ), oxygen ( O 2 ), chlorine ( Cl 2 ), bromine ( Br
2 ) and iodine ( I
2 ). Because of the pairs of electrons, this bond is also called electron-
pair bonding or covalent bonding. 
In the following figure, the atomic bond is shown using the example of silane ( SiH 4 )
(only the outermost shell is shown for the silicon atom). Through the bond, the silicon 
atom reaches the full back shell, the hydrogen atoms reach the first shell, which is alr
eady fully occupied by two electrons. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

THE IONIC BOND 

Ion bonds are formed by the combination of metals and non-metals. Metals tend to re
lease electrons to reach a fully filled outer shell, while non-metals can absorb extra el
ectrons. An example of ionic bonding is sodium chloride (NaCl, common salt). 
The sodium atom releases its valence electron (thus it has more protons than electro
ns and is positively charged), chlorine absorbs an electron and is therefore simply ne
gatively charged. Due to the different charges, the two atoms attract each other.
A charged atom is called an ion,
a distinction is made between cation (positive charge) and anion (negative charge). 
 
Since the atoms always occur in
a very high number, they align with the attraction and repulsion forces to a uniform
ion lattice. Substances which form such a lattice in the solid state are called salts. 
THE METAL BOND
Metals enter this bond to reach the stable noble gas configuration. Each metal atom
emits its external electrons: positively charged metal ions (atomic hulls) and free
electrons between which strong forces of attraction arise. The metal ions repel each
other as well as the electrons.
Since the forces of attraction and repulsion work in all directions of the space, the
atomic hulls arrange themselves into a regular lattice. In the interstices, the freely
moving electrons are called electron gas, which holds the positive metal ions
together. Due to the freely moving electrons, metals conduct electricity very well.
The physical and chemical properties of the compounds depend on the type of
binding. Thus, stronger attractions mean higher melting and boiling points, the
number of free electrons influences the conductivity.

DOPING
Doping means the introduction of foreign atoms into a semiconductor crystal for the
purpose of deliberately changing the conductivity. Two of the most important
substances with which silicon can be doped are boron (3 valence electrons = 3
valent) and phosphorus (5 valence electrons = 5 valent). Others are aluminum,
indium (3-valent) and arsenic, antimony (5-valent).
The doping elements are incorporated into the lattice structure of the semiconductor
crystal, the number of external electrons determines the type of doping. Elements
with 3 valence electrons are used for p-doping, 5-valent elements for n-doping. The
conductivity of a deliberately contaminated silicon crystal can be increased by a
factor of 10 6.
 

N-TIP
The 5-valent dopant has one outer electron more than the silicon atoms. Four outer
electrons can each bind to one silicon atom, the fifth is free to move and serves as a
charge carrier. This unbound electron requires much less energy to be lifted from the
valence band into the conduction band than the electrons that cause the intrinsic
conductivity of the silicon. The doping element which emits an electron is called an
electron donor (donare, lat. = Give).
The doping elements are positively charged by the release of negative charge
carriers and are permanently installed in the grid, only the electrons move. Doped
semimetals whose conductivity is based on free ( n ergative) electrons are n-type or
n-type. While holes (and as many electrons) in the crystal can be generated
spontaneously at any time, the number of free electrons now predominates through
the introduced donors, which is why they are called majority charge carriers. Holes,
on the other hand, as minority carriers.
Arsenic is used as an alternative to phosphorus because its diffusion coefficient is
lower. This means that the dopant diffuses less strongly during later process steps
and thus the doping remains at the point where it was introduced.

P-TIP
In contrast to the free electron in the doping with phosphorus, 3-valent doping
elements cause exactly the opposite. They can take up an additional external
electron, leaving a hole in the valence band of the silicon atoms. As a result, the
electrons in the valence band become mobile. The holes move in the opposite
direction to the electron movement. The energy required for this is only 1% of the
energy required to lift the valence electrons of the silicon atoms into the conduction
band in the case of indium as the doping element.
By incorporating an electron, the doping element is simply negatively charged; Such
doping atoms are called electron acceptors (acceptare, lat. = absorb). Again, the
doping element is firmly installed in the crystal lattice, it moves only the positive
charge. P-type or p-doped semiconductor is called this because the conductivity to p
based ositiven holes. Analogous to n-doped semiconductors, here the holes are the
majority charge carriers, free electrons are the minority charge carriers.
Externally, doped semiconductors are electrically neutral. The terms n- or p-doping
refer only to the majority of carriers.
N and p-doped semiconductors behave almost equally with respect to the current
flow. As the number of doping elements increases, the number of charge carriers in
the semiconductor crystal also increases. It is sufficient even a very small amount of
doping elements. Poorly doped silicon crystals contain only 1 impurity atom per
1,000,000,000 silicon atoms; for the highest dopants, the ratio of impurity atoms to
silicon atoms is 1 to 1,000, for example.

PN-JUCTION 
The pn junction is the transition region of contiguous n- and p-doped semiconductor c
rystals. There are
no free charge carriers in this region since the free electrons of the n-conductor and t
he free holes of the p-doped crystal near the contact surface of the two crystals reco
mbine, ie the electrons occupy the free holes. This charge carrier movement
(diffusion) results from a concentration gradient: since there are only a few electrons i
n the p-crystal and only a few holes in the n-crystal, the majority charge carriers (elec
trons in the n-region, holes in the p-region) migrate into the respective ones differentl
y doped semiconductor crystal. The crystal lattice at the interface must not
be interrupted, a simple "juxtaposition" 
The regions near the boundary layer are charged positively (n-crystal) and negative
(p_crystal) due to the migrated free charge carriers. The more charge carriers recom
bine, the larger becomes this depletion or space charge zone
(RLZ) and thus the voltage difference from n to p-type crystal. At
a certain height of this potential gradient, the recombination of the holes and electron
s stops, the charge carriers can no longer overcome the electric field. For silicon, this 
limit is about 0.7 V (see band model of a pn junction ). 
 
 
 

PN

JUNCTION WITH APPLIED ELECTRICAL VOLTAGE

If a positive voltage is applied to the n-type crystal and a negative voltage to the p-type crystal,
the electric field inside and that generated by the voltage source point in the same direction. The
field at the pn junction is thus reinforced. The oppositely charged free charge carriers are
attracted to the poles of the voltage source, thereby increasing the barrier layer and no current
flow is possible.
Poling the applied voltage across the semiconductor crystals, the electric field generated by the
voltage source superimposes and weakens the inner in the opposite direction. When the inner
field is completely removed from the outside, new charge carriers are constantly flowing from the
current source to the barrier layer and can recombine continuously: electricity is flowing.