Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr.

Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

Chapter four: Energy and potential

Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field
→
Suppose we wish to move a charge Q a distance dL in an electric field E .The force
on Q due to the electric field is
→ →
FE =QE
The component of this force in the direction dL which we must overcome is
→ → →
F EL = F .a L = Q E .a L
Where a L is a unit vector in the direction of dL . The force which we must apply is
equal and opposite to the force due to the field
→ →
F appl = −Q E .a L
The energy is the product of the force and distance. That is the differential work done
→
by external source moving Q= − Q E .a L dl
→
 dw = −Q E .dL where dL = a L dl
final →
 w = −Q  E .dL
initial
The path must be specified before the integral can be evaluated.

The line integral

final →
w = −Q  E .dL
initial
Assume we want to move Q from position B to A in a uniform electric field a cross
the path shown in figure below. The path can be divided into six segment L1 , L2 ,
→
….., L6 . The component of E along each segment is E L1 , E L 2 ,…, E L 6
w = −Q[ E L1L1 + E L 2 L2 + ......... + E L 6 L6 ]
w = −Q[ E1L1 + E 2 L2 + ......... + E6 L6 ]
Since we have assumed a uniform field E1 = E 2 = ....... = E6
 w = −QE[L1 + L2 + ......... + L6 ] , But L1 + L2 + ......... + L6 = LBA
 w = −QE.LBA ( E is uniform )

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 26

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

→
Example// If E = ya x + xa y + 2a z , determine the work expended in carrying a 2C
from the point B(1,0,1) to the point A(0.8,0.6,1) along the shorter arc of the circle
x2 + y2 = 1 z = 1.

Solution//
A→
w = −Q  E .dL
B
dL = dx a x + dy a y + dz a z
A
w = −2 ( ya x + xa y + 2a z ).(dx a x + dy a y + dz a z )
B
0.8 0.6 1
= −2  y dx − 2  x dy − 4 dz
1 0 1
0.8 0.6
w = −2  1 − x 2 dx − 2  1 − y 2 dy − 0
1 0
0.8 0.6
= −[ x 1 − x 2 + sin −1 x ] − [ y 1 − y 2 + sin −1 y ]
1 0
= −0.96 J
Notes//
dL = dx a x + dy a y + dz a z in cartesian coordinate
dL = d a  +  d a + dz a z in cylindrical coordinate
dL = dr a r + r d a + r sin  d a in spherical coordinate
→
Example// If E = ya x + xa y + 2a z , determine the work expended in carrying a 2C
from the point B (1,0,1) to the point A(0.8,0.6,1) along the straight line from B to A.

Solution //we must find the equation of the straight line connecting the two points
y − yB
y − yB = A .( x − x B )
x A − xB
z − zB
z − zB = A .( y − y B )
y A − yB
x − xB
x − xB = A .( z − z B )
z A − zB

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 27

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

From the first equation y = −3( x − 1)

From the second equation z = 1
0.8 0.6 1
Thus w = −2  y dx − 2  x dy − 4 dz
1 0 1
0.8 0.6
y
= 6  ( x − 1) dx − 2  (1 − )dy = −0.96 J
1 0
3
The same result of the previous example, therefore the work will not depend on the
shape of the path.

Potential difference and potential

The potential difference V is defined as the work done in moving a unit positive
charge from one point to another in an electric field.

final → → final
w
w = −Q  E .dL , V = = −  E .dL
initial
Q initial
A→
V AB = −  E .dL V or J/C
B

Example// The electric field generated by infinite line charge along the z-axis
→ L
E= a  . Find the potential difference between the two circles around this line
2  
with radii 1 = a ,  2 = b (b>a).

Solution//
A→
V AB = −  E .dL , dL = d a 
B
 =a  =a
L  L d
V AB = −  2   a  .d a  = −  2  
 =b  =b
L b
= ln
2  a

Example//repeat the previous example if the line charge is replaced by a point charge
Q at the center of the circles.
Solution //
→ Q
E= a
2 R
, dL = dr a r
→
4  R
A→ A
Q Q 1 1
V AB = −  E .dL = −  dr = ( − )
B 4  r
B
2
4  rA rB
If rb  rA  V AB is positive

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 28

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

Potential field of a point charge

Q 1 1
V AB = − ) = V A − VB
(
4  rA rB
Q
If rB →  then V AB =
4  rA
Q
Or in general V =
4  r
This expression defines the potential at any point distant r from a point charge Q at
the origin. The potential is scalar not vector quantity. The points with the same
distance from the field source have the same potential.

The potential field of a system of charges [conservative property]

The potential field of a single point charge with zero reference at infinity
Q1
V (r ) =
4  r − r1
The potential due to two point charges Q1 at r1 and Q2 at r2 is:
Q1 Q2
V (r ) = +
4  r − r1 4  r − r2
Continuing to add charges, we find that the potential due to n-point charges is
Q1 Q2 Qn
V (r ) = + + ........ +
4  r − r1 4  r − r2 4  r − rn
n
Qm
V (r ) = 
m=1 4  r − rm
If each point charge is now represented as a small element of a continuous volume
charge distribution V V , then
 v (r1 )V1  v (r2 )V2  (r )Vn
V (r ) = + + ........ + v n
4  r − r1 4  r − r2 4  r − rn
As we allow the number of elements to become infinite, we obtain the integral
expression

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 29

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

 v (r ' )dv '

V (r ) =  4 r − r'
vol 

The charge distribution takes the form of line charge or surface charge. The
integration along the line charge or over the surface charge
 (r ' )dl '  S (r ' )ds '
V (r ) =  L , V (r ) = 
line 4  r − r surface 4  r − r
' '

The general expression for potential is

n
Qm  (r ' )dl '  S (r ' )ds '  (r ' )dv ' →
V (r ) =  +  L +  +  v = −  E .dL
m =1 4  r − rm line 4  r − r surface 4  r − r vol 4  r − r
' ' '

→
Notice that  E .dL = 0
Potential gradient
We have two methods of determining potential. The first one directly from the electric
field intensity by means of line integral. The second one from the basic charge
distribution itself by a volume integral. Now we want to find the electric field
intensity and charge distribution if the potential is known.
→
V = −  E .dL
The above equation may be applied to a very short element of length L along which
→
E is constant leading to an incremental potential difference.
→
V = − E .L
→
Consider a general region of apace as shown in figure below in which E and V
changes as we move from point to point.
L = La L
→ →
The component of E in aL direction is E .a L
→
V = − E L cos 
The potential V is single valued which is a function of x,y,z
If V → dV , L → dL
dV →
 = − E cos
dL
dV →
The maximum value of will be at  = 180  or L in opposite direction of E
dL
 1-The magnitude of the electric field intensity is given by the maximum value of
rate of change of potential with distance
2-This maximum value is obtained when the direction of the distance increment is
→
opposite to E
→ dV
E = − aN
dL max

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 30

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

→
Which shows that the magnitude of E is given by the maximum space rate of change
→
of V and the direction of E is normal to the equipotential surfaces.
dV dV
=
dL max dN
→ dV
E=− aN
dN

→
The operation on V by which − E is obtained is known as gradient.
dT
Gradient of T = aN
dN
Where aN is a unit vector normal to the equipotential surfaces and that normal is
chosen points in the direction of increasing value of T. Using this new term, we might
→
write the relationship between V and E
→
E = − grad V
Since we have shown that V is unique function of x,y,z, we may take its total
differential
V V V
dV = dx + dy + dz
x y z
→
But dV = − E dL = − E x dx − E y dy − E z dz
V
E x = −
x
V
Ey = −
y
V
Ez = −
z
These results may be combined vectorially to yield
→ V V V
E = −( ax + ay + az )
x y z
→
Or E = − grad V = −V
V V V
gradV = V = ( ax + ay + az )
x y z
V V V
Note// V = ax + ay + az cartesian
x y z

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 31

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

V 1 V V
V = a + a + az cylindrical
   z
V 1 V 1 V
V = ar + a + . a spherical
r r  r sin  

Example//Given the potential field V = 2 x 2 y − 5 z , and a point p(-4,3,6). Find a

→
numerical values at point p for :potential V, electric field intensity E , the direction of
→ →
E ,electric flux density D , and volume charge density V .
Solution//
V p = 2 * (−4) 2 * 3 − 5 * 6 = 66 volt
→
E = −V = −4 xy ax − 2 x 2 a y + 5a z
→
The value of E at point p
→
E p = 48 ax − 32a y + 5a z v/m
→
E p = (48) 2 + (32) 2 + (5) 2 = 57.9 v / m
→
The direction of E at the point p is given by a unit vector
48a x − 32a y + 5a z 48a x − 32a y + 5a z
aEp = =
(48) 2 + (32) 2 + (5) 2 57.9
→ →
D =   E = −35.4 xy a x − 17.71 x 2 a y + 44.3 a z
→
V = . D = −35.4 y pC / m 2
At the point p V = −35.4 * 3 = −106 .2 pC / m 2

The electric dipole

An electric dipole is the name given to two-point charges of equal magnitude and
opposite sign separated by a distance which is small compared to the distance to the
point p at which we want to know the electric and potential fields.

Q 1 1 Q R2 − R1
V= ( − )= .
4  R1 R2 4  R1 R2

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 32

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

Notice that the plane z=0, midway between the two-point charges, is the locus for
which R1 = R2 and therefore at zero potential. If the point p is very faraway compared
with d so that R1 is parallel to R2 .

 R2 − R1  d cos  , R1 R2 = r 2
Qd cos
V =
4  r 2
→ V 1 V 1 V
E = −V = −( ar + a + . a )
r r  r sin  
→ − 2Qd cos Qd sin 
E = −[ a r − a ]
4  r 3 4  r 3
→ Qd
E= .[2 cos a r + sin  a ]
4  r 3
Qd
To obtain a plot to the potential field, we may choose a dipole such that =1,
4 
then cos  = Vr 2 , which is shown in figure below for V = 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 , 1 .To find
the equation of the streamlines
E r d sin  dr
= = , = 2 cot  d , r = c1 sin 2 
Er dr 2 cos r
The dipole moment is Qd, P = Qd in C.m
Since d .a r = d cos 
P.a r
V=
4  r 2
Or in general
1 r − r'
V = * p.
r − r'
2
4  r − r '

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 33

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

Energy density in electrostatic field

Assume we want to bring a set of point charges from one position (at infinity) to
another. In this process, certain work must be done. Bringing a charge Q1 from
infinity to any position required no work (field=0). Bringing Q2 to the required
position need work (because of the field due to Q1).
work to position Q2 = Q2V2,1
work to position Q3 = Q3V3,1 + Q3V3, 2
where V2,1 is the potential at Q2 due to Q1, V3,1 , V3, 2 are the potentials at Q3 due to Q1,
and Q2 respectively.
Hence the total work is
total work = wE = Q2V2,1 + Q3V3,1 + Q3V3, 2 + Q4V4,1 + Q4V4, 2 + Q4V4,3 + .........
Q1 Q1
Notice that Q3V3,1 =Q 3 . =Q 3 .
4  R31 4  R13
where R13 and R31 each represents a scalar distance between Q1 and Q2. We see that it
might be equal to Q1V1,3 . If each term at the total energy expression is replaced by it’s
equal, then
wE = Q1V1, 2 + Q1V1,3 + Q2V2,3 + Q1V1, 4 + Q2V2, 4 + Q3V3, 4 + .........
Adding the two-energy expression, we get:
2wE = Q1[V1, 2 + V1,3 + V1, 4 + .......] + Q2 [V2,1 + V2,3 + V2, 4 + .......] +
Q3 [V3,1 + V3, 2 + V3, 4 + .......] + ..............
But V1, 2 + V1,3 + V1, 4 + ....... = V1 the potential at the position of Q1 due to set of charges
1 1 n
wE = (Q1V1 + Q2V2 + Q3V3 + ......) =  QmVm
2 2 m=1
In order to obtain an expression for the stored energy in a region of continuous charge
distribution
1
wE =   v V dv
2 vol

→ 1 →
But  v = . D  wE =  V dv

2 vol
. D

→ → →
And .V D = V (. D) + D .V
University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 34
Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006
Lecture notes on Electromagnetic Fields by Dr. Amean Al-Safi Ch4: Energy and potential

1 → → 1 → 1 →
 wE = 
2 vol
[.(V D ) − D .V ] dv = 
2 vol
.(V D ) dv −  ( D .V ) dv
2 vol
→ →
From divergence theorem  (. A) dv =  A.ds
vol
1 → 1 →
wE =
2  V D .ds −  ( D .V ) dv
2 vol
The surface integral is equal to zero, for over the closed surface surrounding the
1 →
universe. We see that V is approaching zero at least rapidly as , D is approaching
r
1
zero at least as rapidly as 2 .
r
→
 E = −V
→
1 → → 1
 wE =  =   2
D . E dv  E dv
2 vol 2 vol

Example//Calculate the energy stored in the electrostatic field of coaxial cable of

length L.

Solution//
→  a
D = S a

→ S a
E= a

Where  S is the surface charge density of the inner conductor, with the radius a
L 2 b
1 a2 S 2
2 0    2  2  d d dz
wE =
0a 

 L a2 S 2 b
= ln
 a
1
The same result may be obtained from wE = QVa where Q is the charge of the inner
2
conductor Va is the potential difference between the two conductors.

University of Thi-Qar, College of Engineering, Electrical & Electronics dept. 35

Notes and figures are based on or taken from materials in the textbook: Engineering Electromagnetics (6th edition), William H.
Hayt, Jr. and John A. Buck, 2006