The Philippines Recommends for Beef Cattle Production Philippinos Recommends Serhes NothS PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOLD ES it Desattrpent of Soorcm ond TactnlonyyAbout PCARRD Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) is one of the sectoral councils under the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). Established in 1972, PCARRD formulates policies, plans, and programs for science and technology-based development in the agriculture, forestry, and natural resources (AFNR) sectors. It coordinates, evaluates, and monitors the national research and development (R&D) efforts in AFNR. It also allocates government and external funds for R&D and generates resources to support its programs. The first DOST council to earn an ISO 9001:2000 certification for its quality management system, PCARRD is engaged in active partnership with intemational, regional, and national organizations and funding institutions for joint R&D, human resource development and training, technical assistance, and exchange of scientists, information, and technologies. The Council supports the National Agriculture and Resources Research and Development System (NARRDS), composed of National Agriculture and Resources Research and Development Network and the Regional R&D Consortia. As such, PCARRD has been a potent arm in catalyzing the Philippine AFNR sectors toward self-sufficiency and global competitiveness. TT MAILING ADDRESS PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Paseo de Valmayor, Timugan Los Bafios, Laguna, Philippines 4030 TELEPHONES, Los Bafios - (63) (049) 536-0014 to 536-0015/ 536-0017 to 536-0020 & 536-0024; 536-5896 to 536-5899 FAX Los Bajos - (63) (049) 536-0016/536-7922 DOST, Bicutan, Taguig City (63) (02) 837-1651 E-MAIL pearrd@pcarrd.dost.gov.ph WEBSITE http://www. pearrd.dost.gov.ph TT: Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and NaturalJ Sag, OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR To Our Valued Reader, This publication, The Philippines Recommends fo Beef Cattle Production, contains the latest information on beef cattle production in the country—from selection and breeding, nutrition, herd management to marketing tips and economics. It also tackles the problems and constraints as well as the prospects and opportunities of the local beef cattle industry. We hope this volume would be a good reference material for a successful cattle production. Very truly yours, Pi 10 S. FAYLON Executive DirectorThe Philippines Recommends for Beef Cattle Production Philippines Recommends Series No. 9-C Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development Department of Science and Technology Los Bafos, Laguna 2008First Edition 1976 Second Edition 1985 Third Edition 1994 Fourth Edition 1999 Fifth Edition 2008 Revised) Revised) Reprinted) Reprinted) ISSN 0115-7833 ISBN 971-20-0206-3 Bibliographic Citation: The Beef Cattle Production Committee. The Philippines recommends for beef cattle production. Los Bafos, Laguna: PCARRD-DOST, 2008. 129p. - (Philippines Recommends Series No. 9-C/2008; Reprinted). Philippine Copyright © by PCARRD, 2008.Foreword he Philippine beef cattle industry has remained one of the latest developed livestock industries for so many years now. Efforts in the past have not succeeded much in developing the industry. This is clearly demonstrated by the reduction in cattle production at the rate of 1.68% per year coupled with the continuous importation of both live cattle and beef products just to satisfy the ever-increasing local demand. Thus, there is an urgent need to increase the local beef production and reduce cattle and beef importation. Considering that the country is endowed with underutilized grassland, considerable supply of crop residues, a favorable climate for fodder production, underutilized manpower, and available technology, there is indeed a big potential to improve the cattle industry. This volume is a reprint of the Philippines Recommends for Beef Cattle Production which was first published in 1976 and was revised in 1985 and 1994. It aims at providing farmers, extension agents, instructors, researchers, students, and anyone involved in the industry, an updated package of recommendations on beef cattle production. With this volume, PCARRD-Livestock Research Division (LRD) hopes to contribute to the improvement of the cattle industry, as well as the government's program for a self- reliant and sustainable beef production particularly in Key Livestock Development Area. rds FAYLON Executive Director PCARRDAcknowledgment The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) wishes to acknowledge the cooperation and assistance extended by the following persons, institu- tions, and agencies for the second revision of the Philippines Recom- mends for Beef Cattle Production: Institute of Animal Science (IAS), UP Los Bajos; Philippine Carabao Center (PCC); Philippine Animal Health Center (PAHC), Bureau of Animal Industry; Philippine Cattlemen Foundation, Incorporated (PCF); Livestock Development Council (LDC) and Bureau of Agricul- tural Statistics (BAS) for providing the statistical figures of the beef cattle industry; Mr. Pete Dumanggas of the National Artificial Breeding Center (NABC) for allowing PCARRD to reproduce some of NABC’'s. photos on cattle breeds and breeding; The committee members who didthe first edition (1976) andthe first revision (1985) of the Philippines Recommends for Beef Cattle Production, Staff of the Livestock Research Division (LRD) for their continu- ing and unselfish assistance. Publication Program staff of the Applied Communication Division (ACD) under the leadership of Ms. Cecilia M. Lantican, Officer-in-Charge, for the supervision of the production of this Publication, Ms. Marina T. de Ramos, for tayouting and proof- reading, and Mr. Simeon R. Manahan, Jr. for the cover design; and Toallthose whoin one way or another helped inthe preparation of this volume. Without their support, publication of this second revision would not have been possible.The Beef Cattle Production Committee Chairman Dr. Arturo S. Argahosa Assistant Director Livestock Research Division PCARRD, Los Bajios, Laguna Members Dr. Libertado C. Cruz Executive Director Philippine Carabao Center Quezon City Dr. Mario S. Tongson Philippine Animal Health Center Bureau of Animal Industry Diliman, Quezon City Dr. Benedicto A. Parker Professor Emeritus Institute of Animal Science U.P. Los Bafios Los Bafos, Laguna Prof. Orlando A. Palad Associate Professor Institute of Animal Science U.P. Los Banos Los Bafos, Laguna Dr. Benito A. Oliveros Director Philippine Carabao Center U.P. Los Bafios Los Bafos, Laguna Mr. Martin Gomez Manager Consuelo Farms Canlubang, Laguna Mr. Guillermo A. Castasus Founding President Philippine Cattlemen Foundation, Inc. San Pedro, Laguna Mr. Eric P. Palacpac Science Research Specialist II Livestock Research Division PCARRD, Los Banos, Laguna Ms. Zenaida L. Cleofe-Gibe Editor Applied Communication Division PCARRD, Los Bafos, LagunaContents Foreword — iil Acknowledgment iv The Beef Cattle Production Committee v The Philippine Beef Cattle Industry 1 General Situation 1 Problems 1 Constraints in Smallhold Cattle Operations 3 Prospects and Opportunities 3 Types of Cattle Raising 5 Cow-Calf Operation 5 Breeder Farm Operation 6 Growing-Fattening Operation 7 Selection and Breeding 8 Selection 8 Breeding Systems 9 Things to Consider in Crossbreeding 12 Choice of Breeding Systems 12 Breeds of Beef Cattle 13 Popular Breeds of Beef Cattle 14 Stabilized Breeds and Strains from Crossbred Foundations 14 Reproduction 17 Breeding Age and Target Weight 17 Reproductive Physiology 17 Mating Systems 19 Estrus Synchronization 23 Embryo Transfer 25 Nutrition 26 Nutrients and Their Functions 26 Nutrient Requirements 28 Feed Resources 30 Feeding Systems 33 Ration Formulation 35 Feed Additives and Growth-Promoting Implants 42 viHerd Management 43 Herd Division 43 Management of Breeding Females 44 Management of Calves, Growers, and Fatteners 455. Management of Breeding Bulls 46 Grazing Management 46 Sound Stocking Management 46 Stocking Rate 47 General Management Practices 48 Production Facilities 55 Common Facilities 55 Handling Facilities 56 Feeding and Watering Facilities 59 Housing Systems 60 Diseases and Parasites 68 Health Management 68 Immunization Schedule 78 Specific Prophylactic Measures 82 Plant Poisoning 85 Marketing and Economics 93 Transport Handling 95 Some Marketing Tips 96 Growing-Fattening Project 96 References 98 Appendices A Glossary of Terms 100 B_ Revised Guidelines for the Feeder Cattle Importation by the Private Sector 104 C Gestation Table for Cattle (283 day-average) 111 D Daily Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle 112 E Crop Residues/Agroindustrial By-products Available from -zro 7 Different Crops 116 Nutrient Composition of Common Roughages in the Philippines 117 Nutrient Composition of Common Concentrate Feedstuffs 119 A Sample of Record (index card) 120 Guide in Selecting Breeder or Feeder Stock Based on Physical Appearance 121 viii Common Acaricides Used Against Ticks and Other Ectoparasites 124 Common Flukecides Available Locally 125 Common Anthelmintics Used Against Gastrointestinal Parasites of Cattle inthe Philippines 126 List of Philippine Livestock Auction Markets, Year of Establish- ment, and Market Schedule by Region 127 127 List of Tables NO Oeona on 10 Dose of commonly available PGF,alpha 24 Animal unit (a.u.) equivalent for each class of animal 48 Space requirements of feeding and watering troughs 61 Space requirements of barn or shed for beef cattle 64 Common viral and arthropod-borne diseases of cattle in the Philippines 70 Common bacterial diseases of cattle inthe Philippines 72 Some common parasitic diseases of cattle in the Philippines 75 Preventive herd health program 78 Some common plants poisonous to livestock in the Philippines 86 Recommended head of cattle to be loaded per truck 95. List of Figures C©OVHMAWNA= Cattle grazing under coconuts 6 Growing-fattening project inthe backyard 7 Simmental 15 American Red Brahman 15. Belmont Red 16 Artificial insemination in cattle 20 Estrus and time to inseminate 22 Cattle feeding on fresh roughage 33 Cattle feeding on fresh brewer's spent grain 34 Ear tag for cattle identification 49 Measurement of the heart girth and the body length 52 Age determination by dentition 53 Fence wire, post spacings, and height specifications 56 Cattle corral 57 Common feeding and watering troughs in backyardfarm 62 Small-scale fattening stalls 65 viiiPen-barn type housing system 66 Commercial feedlot farm 67 Interrelationship of factors in cattle disease occurrence 69 Life cycle of acommon gastrointestinal nematode of cattle 83 Life cycle of aliverfluke 83 Means of controlling gastrointestinal nematodes 84 Cattle auction market 93 Marketing channels for live cattle and beef in the Philippines 94 Streamlining beef cattle marketing channels 94The Philippine Beef Cattle Industry General Situation The local beef cattle industry is considered one of the country's least developed commodity for the past several years now. Duringthelastten years (1983-1992), the local cattle population has declined at an average of 1.68%/year. This can be attributed to high slaughter rate at an average of 449,507 head/year or 25.94% of the total population (BAS 1994). The local beef production is not enough to meet the demands of a rapidly increasing human population. For example, the estimated annual per capita consumption for beef in 1992 was 1.57 kg (BAS 1994) With a population of about 64.25 million, the country needs about 100,872 t of beef, which is equivalent to about 672,483 head of cattle for slaughter assuming a carcass weight of 150 kg/head. With a cattle population of 1.66 million head, a breeding base representing about 35% of the population, and a calf-crop of about 70%, the annual extraction rate can be estimated at about 406,700 head which is equivalent to about 61,005 t of beef. The deficit is about 39,867 t of beef. To partially meet this deficit, the government opted to import beef amounting to about 14,400 t valued at FOB US$ 20.54 million in 1992 (BAS 1994). Some 33,362 head of feeder cattle and 15,908 head of breeder cattle were also imported (LDC 1994). With increasing demands for beef coupled with the declining trend inlocal cattle population, itis expected that importation of both beef and live cattle in large volumes would continue unless something is done to augment the local cattle industry. Problems In general, the major constraints to growth and development of the cattle industry are low breeding base, poor nutrition and herd management, localized peace and order situation, inefficient marketing systems and structures, and unfavorable government policies. Problems mostly encounteredin smallhold/backyard operations include inefficient breeding techniques; inadequate feed supply; and lack of or inadequate technical support, veterinary, and extension services from the government.2 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Low Breeding Base The available breeding base is not enough to produce the required number of cattle for meat. The shortage is aresult of the continuous and indiscriminate slaughter of breeders, young female cattle, and even pregnant cows. Moreover, the long gestation period (five to eight years) for a cattle breeding or cow-calf operation makes such activity unattrac- tive to many cattle raisers. Poor Nutrition and Herd Management These problems result in the low productivity of cattle under local conditions. Specifically, the low calf-crop is caused by the absence of an efficient and effective culling and selection programs, natural weaning of young stock resulting in premature breeding and even inbreeding, incidence of numerous farm-related accidents, and noncoordination of management with seasonal factors. Peace and Order The deteriorating localized peace and order situation coupled with squatter encroachment in ranching areas resulted in the phase out of about 88.9% of commercial ranches since 1984. Presently, only 63 commercial farms are in operation. Inefficient Marketing Systems and Structures While there is a ready market for beef and its by-products, several constraints are being encountered to transport them to the end-users. Transportation and infrastructure facilities are not fully in-placed causing additional costs on marketing. The typical marketing channel which includes the viajero (the wholesale trader), the primary whole- saler, the butcher/abattoir or stockyard operator, and the retailer is still existing in some parts of the country. The presence of too many middlemen reduces the profit margin that should be received by cattle producers. Likewise, the lack of grading standards and facilities as well as poor price information systems for beef is disadvantageous to the Producers, retailers, and consumers alike. Unfavorable Government Policies ‘The current policy onimport liberalization which, among others, reduces tariff rates on imported livestock and their by-products, is perceived to greatly affect the growth of the industry.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 3 Constraints in Smallhold Cattle Operations Inefficient Heat Detection Most often, cows or heifers in small farms get out of heat without breeding due to inefficient heat-detection techniques. Sometimes, if cows or heifers are properly detected for heat, the absence of a bull or artificial insemination service does not warrant breeding. Problems on Feeds Seasonal availability of feeds, inefficient utilization of crop residues and farm by-products, and high cost of feed supplements result in low productive and reproductive efficiencies of the animals. Inadequate Veterinary and Extension Services: The government's veterinary and extension services for farm animals are inadequate due to lack of facilities, trained personnel, funds, etc. Prospects and Opportunities Credit Facilities Interested cattle raisers may avail of the Multilivestock Dispersal Loan Program (MLDP) currently implemented by the Bureau of Animal Industry-Department of Agriculture (BAI-DA). It offers an interest rate of 10% with eight years amortization period on the principal. Financial assistance is also available from government financial institutions (GFis) like the Land Bank of the Philippines (LBP) andthe Development Bank of the Philippines (DBP). Unlike many private banks, these GFls offer long-maturity period (seven years to pay with a two-year grace period) and low interest rate-loans (12%-18%). Competitiveness of the Local Beef Unlike most commodities, there is no competition on local beet sold especially in the wet market. The income elasticity of demand for beef is also high, e.g., as the income increases, people tendto buy more beef than any other meats. Aplus factor for cattle production is the large marginal, underutilized land; the considerable supply of crop residues utilizable as feed especially in small farms; a favorable climate for fodder production; and4 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION the underutilized manpower in the rural areas. Technologies for cattle production and meat processing are also available which can serve as bases for further development.Types of Cattle Raising Cow-Calf Operation Cows and bulls are raised to produce calves. Calves are then raised until they are weaned from their dams at seven to eight months of age. After weaning, they can be sold right away, or raised for a few months: for use as replacement stocks or sold for fattening. ‘The cow-calf operation is considered the most challenging because the producer needs to be familiar with the reproductive phenomena, as well as the breeding and feeding systems. He should also be well- informed on the management practices involved in the production and maintenance of cows, bulls, and calves. A good animal health program should also be observed to minimize mortality and ensure the produc- tivity of the animals. Extensive System The extensive system is also popularly known as ranching. In this system, the animals are maintained in a vast tract of open lands. These areas are usually public lands which the government offers for lease where the animals are allowed to graze treely. However, the enactment of the Agrarian Reform Law limits the use of these pasture areas. The peace and order situation in the countryside is another reason why many cattle raisers are now shying away from cattle ranching. Despite these limitations, however, the idea of going into ranching still offers a good prospect. Integration into Crop or Plantation Agriculture A cow-calf project may also be done in combination with crop or plantation agriculture. Small vacant lots or spaces between agricultural crops plantations such as corn, rice, Sugarcane, etc. may be utilized as feed sources. The animals can also be maintained by feeding them by- products of agricultural crops or industrial wastes. Under plantation crops like coconuts or forest trees are open paces where grasses can be grown as feeds (Fig. 1). For maximum benefits, however, both the cattle and the trees should be managed properly.8 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Fig. 1. Cattle grazing under coconuts. Intensive System In this system, the animals are confined and are fed on a cut-and-carry basis of zero grazing. A good pasture is developed and maintained to ‘ensure the regular supply of feeds. Supplemental feeding with concen- trates is also practiced. Inall thase schemes, the cow-calf operation has along gestation period of about five to eight years. A cow-calf project is important because it regularly supplies the calves for replacement o fattening. Breeder Farm Operation This type of projact also falls under the cow-calf operation except thet the main interest of the raisers is to produce animals for breeding Purposes, Thus, the calves are raised until they are ready for breeding Provided they passed the selection criteria. Running a breeder farm project is not easy and those engaged in it have long years of experience in the business. The breeder farm Operation is also backed up by people who have gained expertise in various fields of cattle raising, ‘Since the main output of a breeder farm is quality breeding animals, 8 large herd is necessary for the selection of the replacement stocks. Puretwed animals are usually utilized in this project. The breader farmPHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 7 can be maintained in the ranch (axtensive), in complete confinement {intansive), or integrated with plantation and forest tees. The farm requires @ number of animal stock, a big farm, and a big capital. Growing-Fattening Operation This type of cattle raising is the most popular inthe Philippines. It simply involves the raising of newly weaned calves or culled mature heifers until they are ready for slaughter The growing-fattening project requires simple facilities and level of management. The project period is shortar and the return on invest- ment (ROl) is ralatively higher than the cow-calf operation. ILis Suggested that the animals at the growing stage (Seven to 12 months) be separated from those at the fattening or finishing stage (three to five months). Growing cattia need simple care and manage- ment, Thay can be raised either extensively (grazing) of intensively (cut-and-carry feeding). Raising giowing cattle needs little capital, thus, thay can be handled aven by smalihald cattle raisers (Fig. 2). ‘On the other hand, the fattening or finishing stage is usually dona intensively of in confinement where the arumals are kept with minimum movement so that the feacs given to them are utilized to develop their issues, At present, this is bast handled by well-organized farms. involved in feadict operations, Fig. 2. Growing-fattening project in the backyard.Selection and Breeding Cattle breeding is the application of the selection and breeding systems. These are the two basic tools available to a breeder to improve the genetic makeup of the cattle herd. The tools must be used together since the breeding system maintains whatever gains that the selection made. Otherwise, the overall performance will be minimal and separate for each tool. Selection Selectionis the process of deciding which animals will remaininthe herd to become parents of the next generation. For a single trait, selection may be done on the basis of any of the following: @ The animal's own phenotypic merit (external features). This is determined by visual appraisal and performance test. © Pedigree information and collateral relatives (brothers, sisters, cousins, uncle, etc.) information. This is used when early selection is desired or when atrait is limited to one sex, e.g., milk yield. Progeny test. This involves the selection based on the perform- ance of the individual's progeny or offspring. The accuracy depends on the number of progeny and the heritability of the trait selected for. In general, selecting the animals as parents of the next generation should be based on the following: Comparable production records «Physical characteristics (e.g., conformation, structural sound- ness, health and freedom from hereditary defects, etc.) Weaning weights of calves of the respective dams Weaning weights and yearling weights for bulls and heifers Weight and size of the breeding stock at two years of age The initial selection of bull calves should be based on the weaning weight at about eight months of age. The final selection, on the other hand, should be based on the yearling weight. The use of the yearling weight is preferred over the weaning weight or birth weight especially when the assessment of potential is being taken for a given environ-PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 9 ment. The weaning weight is a composite character being dependent partially on the maternal qualities of the dam and partially on the growth potential of the calf. Selecting for increased weaning weight should, therefore, result in improving the character based on contributions of genetic potentials from both the dam and the calf. Selection based on birth weight is not commonly practiced although it minimizes calving difficulties. The breeder can use specific measures of growth rates to monitor the overall performance of the animals in his herd. The values are particularly needed in routine selection and culling decisions. The important data to record and evaluate are the weaning weight at seven months (ranges from six to eight months) and the yearling weight (at not less than 330 days). If the producer prefers to develop his animals slowly at lower feeding regimes, he may use 452 or 550 days long yearling weight. The values of cattle should be compared on aconstant weight or age basis and separately for each sex category. The period between the weaning and final yearling weights should be at least 160 days. The equations used are the following: (actual (birth Adjusted — weaning weight) minus weight) 210-day = ———————————————___ x 210+ birth weight age in days at weaning weight weight If an individual animal has no birth weight record, the average birth weight (28 kg) in the herd (if Zebu crossbreeds) may be used. (actual (actual weaning adj. Adjusted final weight) minus weight) 210 365-day = x 160 + wean. weight number of days between weights weight Based on the adjusted weights, the animals can now be ranked separately for each sex category in terms of weight ratios. The ratio is calculated by dividing each animal weight by the average of its sex group and expressing it as a percentage of its sex group average or contem- poraries (similar in age and exposed to the same environmental conditions). The average weight is 100%; good animals are those above 100%.10 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Breeding Systems Breeding systems constitute several types of matings where desirable genes are made to combine in different ways by adopting one or more of the system of nonrandom matings. Inbreeding Inbreeding involves the mating of animals that are more closely related than the average of the population from which they belong. Most cattle raisers are familiar with the unfavorable effects of inbreeding, thus they tend to avoid using this system as much as possible. Inbreeding reduces the animal's vigor. It also affects the growth rate, fertility, and viability of the offspring. Crossbreeding Crossbreeding is the mating of animals from two or more established purebreeds. Commercial breeders use crossbreeding in their herds to take advantage of complimentarity and hybrid vigor (heterosis). Crossbreeding may be classified into two types, namely: upgrading and systematic crossbreeding. Upgrading. This is the mating of purebred sires to nondescript or Native females and their female offspring generation after generation. The first generation will have a breed composition of 50% exotic; the second generation, 75% exotic, etc. The percentages of exotic breed increase as grading up progresses. The animal is genetically similar to that of the exotic breed at the fifth or sixth generation of mating. The usefulness or success of grading will mainly depend onthe choice of the exotic breed of sire in relation to its adaptability to the conditions where the offspring will be raised. Grading up to 75% exotic is suitable in terms of retention of heterosis and infusion of exotic genes. Systematic crossbreeding. This type of crossbreeding is classified into terminal crossing and rotational crossing. 1. Terminal crossing. The crosses produced are not used for breeding and are sold as slaughter animals.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 11 Types of terminal crossing are as follows: e Single cross The simplest crossbreeding system where two purebreeds are crossed to produce the F, (first filial generation) crosses. The amount of heterosis is maxi- mum in the F,s. The continued use of the system beyond the first generation is operationally difficult since large base herds of two purebreeds have to be maintained under natural matings. If artificial insemi- nation will be used, a large base herd of purebred females will also be maintained. e Three-way cross and backcrossing The F,s are mated to a third breed (three-way) or back to one of the sire breed (backcross). inthe three- way cross, 100% of the heterosis in the F, is retained while in the backcross, 50% is retained. The F, heifers are kept in the herd as long as they are productive. When bred to sires of a third breed, they produce highly-productive and acceptable market-quality calves. 2. Rotational crossing. This requires the'retention of selected crosses for use in subsequent rotational breeding in each generation. Types of rotational crossing are as follows: e Crisscrossing (reciprocal backcrossing) The two purebreeds are alternately used in each generation and at equilibrium (about five to six genera- tions), two-thirds of F,'s hybrid vigor is retained. The system is flexible, such that one can stop at any generation for the desired breed composition. Three-breed rotation Athird breed is used as inthe case of the three-way breed crossing, except that the use of the three pure- bred sires is rotated in subsequent generations. The offspring produced at equilibrium will have retained 87.5% of the amount of heterosis in the F,s. The12 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION rotational use of purebred bulls from three breeds results in higher degree of hybrid vigor in females and their calves. Production of synthetic breeds. Synthetic populations are produced by inter se mating (or mating among themselves) or backcrossing the F, crosses tothe superior breed. The process is repeated in subsequent generations by using selected F, crosses. Fifty percent of heterosis is retained in the mating of the second generation, and 37.5% in the third generation. The F, crosses are stabilized at 50:50 breed composition to produce the synthetic population. Things to Consider in Crossbreeding In choosing a breed to be crossed, consider not only the animal's strong attributes but also its weaknesses. For example, if a breed is large, fertile, high-milk yielder, and has a good mothering ability, but the growth rate is not outstanding, choose a bull from another breed superior in postweaning rate of gain and carcass quality. Crossbreeding will produce good, well-nourished calf crop at wean- ing, with excellent growth rate as slaughter animals. Choice of Breeding Systems No best breeding system is universally applicable at all times to a beef cattle herd. Decisions on the selection of breeding system must be based on the following factors: functions of the operation, size of the operation, feed resources, and maintenance of heterosis. Functions of the Operation If the operation is on commercial basis, then grading up or crossbreed- ing would be most appropriate. Production of F, slaughter animals can be achieved by the continuous single crossing or systematic crossing, to take advantage of heterosis in the crosses. For breeders of purebred stock, continuous outcrossing or linebreeding is preferred. Size of Operation This is especially important for small-sized herds, such that intense inbreeding may occur, The harmful effects of inbreeding could affect the overall performance of the herdPHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 13 Feed Resources Environmental constraints especially on available feeds must be con- sidered in relation to the genetic potentials of the crosses. If feed resources are limiting, continuous upgrading up to 75% exotic may not be successful due to the poor performance of the local stock. Crossing large beef breed with local cows for beef production may have limited values in the low-feeding environment. Maintenance of Heterosis Crisscrossing and rotational crossing can maintain as much heterosis as in the F, crosses. However, problems of maintaining several purebreeds and herds must be considered. Inthe tropic, systematic crossbreeding is the best breeding system for beef cattle. The simplest crossing system is a terminal cross between the temperate and tropical breeds. Terminal crossing and crisscrossing systems can also be combined by crisscrossing two tropical breeds to produce the cow herd. European purebred bullis used in the first system The important aspect in crossbreeding is the use of crossbred dams. Selected crossbred females provide an excellent base for the production of meat when sired with bulls of known excellent growth traits. Progeny of the crossbred dams would be good beef animals if adequate feeds and proper management are provided to develop their potentials. Breeds of Beef Cattle Breeds of beef cattle differ significantly in many features and traits. No breed is superior to other breeds, however, some breeds are more popular than the others. The true value of a breed can be determined through careful evaluation of the environment. There are breeds specialized for beef alone, others are dual-purpose types (milk-beef or beef-milk), and some are triple types (draft-milk-beef). The breed points are the practical guide to distinguish a breed, These are specific details of the breed's distinct standards, e.g., color, horn formation, length and shape of ears, color of switch (tail-end), white-faced, etc. that identify the breed. There are as many as 195 breeds and types inthe world but_ some may not qualify as distinct breed if the biological definition of a breed is considered. Breed is a close or semiclosed population with a common gene pool which is more or less different from the gene pool of other14 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION breed population instead of definite genetically determined traits. There are two types of cattle and their sources or otigin can be identified by the presence or absence of the hump. The humped cattle (Bos indicus) include the Zebus from India, Pakistan, Southeast Asia, and some islands in the pacific. They are also known as tropical breeds. The humpless cattle (Bos taurus) are the temperate breeds of Europe and Northern Asia. Popular Breeds of Beef Cattle Temperate Breeds From France: Charolais, Limousin, Maine-Anjou, Tarentaise Switzerland: Simmental (Fig. 3), Brown Swiss Italy: Chianina, Marchigiana, Ramagnola United Kingdom: Beef Shorthorn, Hereford, Angus, Devon Germany: Gelbvieh Tropical Breeds From India: Guzerat, Gir, Kankrej, Hariana, Krishna Valley, Ongole (Nellore) Pakistan: Red Sindhi, Tharparkar, Bhagnari, Sahiwal Africa: Boran, Tuli, Nguni, Ankole, Fulani, Africander Stabilized Breeds and Strains from Crossbred Foundations Santa Gertrudis -- 5/8 Shorthorn, 3/8 Brahman; developed in the King ranch, Texas, U.S.A. Brahman -- a mixture of four principal breeds of Bos indicus of Guzerat (predominant), Nellore, Krishna valley and Gir; developed in Texas, U.S.A. (Fig. 4). Indu-Brazil -- Zebu admixture, principally by crossing purebred Guzerat and Gir and other Zebu breeds, especially Nellore; developed in Brazil, South America. Beefmaster -- 1/2 Brahman, 1/4 Hereford, 1/4 Shorthorn; developed in Texas, U.S.A. Brangus -- 5/8 Angus, 3/8 Brahman; developed in Louisiana, U.S.A. Red Brangus-- 5/8 Red Angus, 3/8 Brahman. Braford -- 5/8 Hereford, 3/8 Brahman; developed in Texas, U.S.A. Charbray -- 3/4 - 5/8 Charolais, 1/4 - 3/8 Brahman; developed in Texas, USA.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 15 Fig. 3, Simmental, - Maes. oe Fig. 4. American Red Brahman.16 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENOS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Droughtmaster -- 3/4 - 7/8 Shorthorn, 1/4 - 1/8 Brahman; developed in Australia, Murray Grey - Angus bull by roan Shorthorn cow, developed in Australia, Belmont Red -- 1/2 Africander, 1/4 Hereford, 1/4 Shorthorn; developed in Australia (Fig. 5). Mandalong Special -- Five base breeds, Charolais, Chianina, Poll Shorthorn, British white, and Brahman. Stabilized at 58.33% Continental, 25% British, and 16.67% Brahman bloodlines; developed in Australia. Simford -- 1/2 Simmental, 1/2 Hereford; developed in Australia. Simbrah -- minimum of 3/8 Simmental and 1/4 Brahman and not over 3/8 maximum of other breeds; Simmental registered male or female is referred to as Percentage Simbrah. Purebred Simbrah: 5/8 Simmental, 9/8 Brahman (results of mating American Simmental Association-registered male and female); developed in U.S.A, Beefalo -- 3/8 Bison, 3/8 Charolais, 2/8 Hereford; developed in Califor- nia, U.S.A. In the Philippines, Brahman and its derivatives are recommended because of its adaptability under Jocal conditions (e.g., heal tolerance) and resistance against pests and diseases, Fig. 5. Belmont Red,Reproduction Breeding Age and Target Weight Properly-grown breeding heifers are usually bred at two years old to calve at three years of age. However, awell-developed 18 to 20 month- old heifer can be bred to calve at 28 to 30 months (two and a half years old). Properly-grown bulls on the range should be allowed to breed at two years old. Puberty is closely associated with liveweight, thus, the term “target weight” in breeding practices. Grades, for example, should weigh at least 250-300 kg when bred. Exotic breeds like American Brahman bulls should weigh at least 300 kg before breeding. Reproductive Physiology Estrous Cycle Bull and heifer calves reach puberty or age of sexual maturity at six to eight months. Cows and sexually mature heifers normally undergo periodic heat cycles (estrous cycle) which run from 18 to 24 days or an average of 21 days. The cow, shortly before the heat period ‘estrus), isolates herself from the rest of the herd. She mounts other animals irrespective of sex (mounting heat). Also, she stands to be mounted by her herdmates (standing heat). An “in-heat” or sexually excited animal is sick and has no appetite to eat. Later on, however, she becomes sociable again and she mixes with the herd. Other signs of heat include the following: e Reddening and swelling of the vulva accompanied by a clear mucous discharge. Strings of thin, watery mucus hang from the vulva during or shortly before estrus. The mucusis watery, then becomes cheesy as the heat progresses. The hair onthe upper part of the tail, below the rear, and at the sides of the pin bones shouldbe checkedas vaginal discharges are frequently smeared over these areas. e Restlessness and sometimes bellowing/mooing e Frequent urination in small amounts.18 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Estrus normally lasts from 14 to 18 hours in exotic breeds. Indig- enous and Zebu grades have shorter estrus period which usually lasts from 10 to 12 hours. Ovulation or release of oocytes (egg cells) from the ovary takes place ten hours after the end of estrus. Pregnancy Gestation period in cows is about 283 days. Progesterone, secreted by the corpus luteum, is the essential hormone supporting pregnancy. Progesterone inhibits the action of estrogen (which is also secreted during pregnancy) and dominates pregnancy until just before calving when estrogen predominates again. Visible signs of approaching calving are as follows: Relaxation of ligaments around the tailhead and pelvis Swelling of vulva and thick mucous discharge. e The cow's udder becomes congested with milk. Labor and Calving Initial mild contractions last about 4 to 20 hours. As the uterine contractions become severe, voluntary abdominal muscle contractions. begin. The calf is pushed against the cervix and then gradually forced out of the birth canal The fetal membrane breaks as the forelegs pass the vulva. As the calf leaves the vulva, the umbilical cord breaks; this time, the calf must start to breathe. Uterine contractions continue after calving to expel the placenta. In some cases, the placenta retains for 12 hours or longer after calving. Postpartum Physiology Studies show that the uterus of a healthy cow returns to its normal size (uterine involution) about 26 days after calving. New evidence indicates that, for optimum fertility, a much longer interval between calving and insemination is necessary. A minimum interval of 60 days between calving and first insemination after calving (postpartum breeding) is recommended.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 19 Mating Systems Natural Mating The twosystems of natural mating are hand mating and pasture mating. Inhand mating, anin-heat cow is brought in to the bull or vice versa. After breeding, the two are separated. In this system, the service of the bull is fully controlled. In pasture mating, the bull is brought in and let loose with the herd of breeding heifers and cows during the breeding season. This system gives the bull the full freedom to breed an in-heat heifer or cow. Bull-to-cow ratio greatly depends on the age of the bull, the mating system employed, paddock size, the topography of the farm, quality of available feed, the number of watering points, etc. The rougher the pasture area, the greater the number of bulls required. Age must also be considered, since very young or old bulls can serve fewer cows. If feed conditions during mating are poor, the cows will scatter a!l over the grazing area and more bulls will be needed to find them. Thus, it is difficult to recommend a fixed ratio of bulls to cows. In general, if hand mating is practiced, the following ratio should be considered: for two to three months, an 18-month old bull can sire 12 to 15 cows; a two-year old bull, 20 to 25 cows; and a three-year old bull or older, 40 to 50 cows. If pasture mating is followed, the aforementioned figures should be reduced by one-third. Inasingle-sireherd, amature bull in good breeding condition will serve up to 35 cows or: improved pasture in athree to four months breeding. However, when several bulls are allowed to run on the same pasture, one bull should not be allowed to sire more than 20 cows, otherwise, a lower calf drop will result A bull below 15 months old should not be allowed to breed. In hand mating, an excellent bull should be allowed only five to seven services per week or one cow per day at most. The fertility of a bull usually starts to decrease at five years old; the decrease is quite significant a year older. Consequently, if bulls are used for breeding at two years of age and culled at six years, they have an effective four-year reproductive life. If 4% of the breeding bulls are raised to a paddock or pasture, then 100 cows would require four bulls. Moreover, if the effective reproductive breeding life is four years, the replacement rate is one bull yearly. Artificial Insemination Artificial insemination or Al is putting the bull’s semen in the female genitalia by an instrument instead of the natural service by the bull (Fig. 6). Alis the most valuable tool for genetic improvement. A good proven20 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Fig.6. Artificial Insemination in cattle. bull can breed hund: eds of female cattle with only one ejaculate. When properly employed, Al has a little effect on normal breeding efficiency, Itcan be accepted as a fundamental breeding principle that, in general, females which did not conceive when served by a nornial Dull will not perform any better when artificially inseminated. Artificial Insemination Requirements Estrus aetection. As discussed earlier, visible signs are exhibited by in- heal cows and heifers. These signs are best observed when most animals are at ease, resting, ruminating, of just browsing in the pasture of corral. Some animals have silent heat, thus, estrus signs are not visible. Heat symptoms should be observed carefully, More observations made, the better the conception, The in-heat cows should be watched over four times aday -- early morning, late morning, early afternoon, late afternoon, and as often as possible in-between hours. At least 15 minutes or more should be spent for each visit. Frequent visits to the cows could spot more easily their individual heal behavior, However, watching is difficult to.dofto the range animals. Estrus detection should be done properly for Al to succeed. Handling liquid nitregen tank and semen. a. Liquid nitrogen tank Frozen semen are stored in.a special container with liquid nitrogen. ThePHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 21 semen are placed in six canisters totally or partially submerged in the refrigerant. The storage tank should be stored in a cool place. If evaporation occurs under normal operating conditions, the container is most probably damaged. In extreme cases, sweating and freezing of the outside casing may occur especially at the bottom of the container. Keep the refrigerant at safe levels. The refrigerant level can be determined by inserting a dip stick. A slender rod of low thermal conductivity, e.g., a wooden calibrated stick, is used. The rod is introduced until the lower end touches the bottom of the container. After five to ten seconds, it is withdrawn in the air for the frost to appear. The frost length is measured in inches. Liquid nitrogen evaporates at the rate of 1/2 inch a day depending on the atmospheric temperature, and size, type, or make of the container. For example, a container with 15-inch level of liquid nitrogen will last for 30 days. Refilling is done, however, ifthe liquid nitrogen level reaches 5 inches to give enoughtime for the shipment of the liquid nitrogen from its source. b. Removing the semen from the storage tank. Each time the semen is raised beyond the neck of the tank to permit removal of individual straws, it is exposed to damaging temperature. As a rule, the canister with the semen should not be lifted higher than the frost line within the neck of the tank. Beyond the frost line, it is higher than - 130°C. The best storage temperature for frozen semen is -130°C or lower. Above this temperature, the semen will be damaged. Thus, the canister holding the semen should not be raised higher than necessary. Also, the removal time and frequency of lifting the canister from the tank should be kept to an absolute minimum. The straws from the goblets in the canisters must be removed as quickly as possible. This can be done in three to five seconds with practice. Not more than 11 seconds should transpire from the time the semen is removed until it is placed in the thawing box. cc. Thawing techniques. Frozen semen in 0.5 ml straws should be held for about 17 seconds at 37°C water bath. Frozen semen in 0.25 ml straws should be thawed at the above temperature for about seven seconds and must be used as soon as it is thawed. Semen straws should not be returned in the tank once they are taken out. Insemination Time. Fig. 7 illustrates the best time for inseminating cow or heifer. Under the more or less ideal condition, in-heat cows inthe morning should be inseminated in the afternoon of the same day; those in the afternoon, early in the morning of the following day. If the animal is still in heat six hours later, the animal may be reinseminated. Under the backyard condition, however, when Al service call is made, higher conception rate is obtained when the cow is served immediately.22 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 7 ‘% Concertion on fist sence 6 ° 6 @ 16 4 Pa 6 @ ‘Hour bale and ate asin Fig. 7. Estrus and time to insemina In the absence of the aforementioned recommendation, the best time for Al service in cattle can be determined by inserting a gloved hand into the rectum, grasping and pressing the cervix, and allowing the mucous discharge to flow out from the vagina. To know whether or not the cow is ready to be inseminated, a drop of the discharge should be placed between the thumb and the index fingers. If the discharge can be stretched at a distance of about 10 cm without breaking, the cow is in heat and ready. Cattle have an average number of services per conception of 1.6% or 62.5% based on the first service. The success, however, depends primarily on the quality of semen used, technician's efficiency, cow fertility, and heat detection certainty. Request for A.I. service may be made through the National Artificial Breeding Center (NABC), or the BAI Al technicians whoare strategically located all over the country. Other Requirements for Al e Only heifers in good condition and weighing 250 kg or more which have shown at least two regular heat cycles must be included in the program. Cows must be bred on the first heat 60 days after calving. Cows should be gaining and not losing weight at the time of breeding.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 23 e The farmer should have the skill in detecting estrus and in recognizing breeding observations. © A reliable and quick mieans of transmitting request for Al services to the Center is necessary. The herd should be free from reproductive diseases such as brucellosis, trichomonosis, and vibriosis which can cause fail- ure even if all other factors are ideal. e A breeding chute or a provision must be made available for restraining the cow to prevent unnecessary movement during semen deposition and pregnancy diagnosis. « Al must be handled by an expert technician both in theory and in practice to ensure a high conception rate. Special skill is required for insemination and exacting conditions must be met in handling the semen. Estrus Synchronization Estrus synchronization (ES) is a management tool usually used in combination with Al. In this approach, the technician manipulates the physiological conditions of the animal to allow predetermined occur- rence of estrus and insemination. ES is highly desirable when inseminating since the estrus occur- rence of a cow is not easily detected unless close observation is made during the expected date of estrus. The observation becomes more difficult when animals are raised in big group, thus, using special estrus-detecting system, e.g., androgenized female, or bull with deflected penis equipped with mounting-marking device is required. Using ES, it is possible to inseminate large number of cows at one predetermined time. In cyclic cows, estrus is generally controlled by the presence of progesterone, a hormone secreted by the corpus luteum (CL). This hormone exerts a negative effect on the secretion of gonadotropins from the pituitary gland that regulates the growth of ovarian follicles responsible for the estrus manifestation. In effect, ES is a way of manipulating the life of the CL to regulate the progesterone levels in the blood. Methods of Synchronizing Estrus in Cows The most common way to synchronize the cow is to regress the CL with the use of the luteolytic agent, Prostaglandin F,alpha (PGF, alpha). Estrus is expected from three to five days after administering appropri- ate doses of commonly available PGF,alpha preparations (Table 1).24 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Table 1. Doses of commonly available PGF,alpha. PGF alpha Common MyDose Active Ingredient/ Preparation Name Dose (mg) Fenprostalene Oestrophan 20 1.0 Dinoprost tromethamine Lutalyse 5.0 25.0 Cloprostenol Estrumate 20 05 Etiproston Prostavet 20 5.0 Before administering the PGF_alpha, the animals should be prop- erly diagnosed for pregnancy because this preparation is a very potent abortifacient in cow. Pregnancy is supported by the progesterone from the CL. Thus, if the CL function is ablated by the administration of PGF, alpha, pregnancy is terminated. To reduce the ES cost, a well-trained technician should do the palpation of ovarian structures as well as the pregnancy diagnosis. Only those animals with active CL and are not pregnant should be treated with luteolytic prostaglandin. Cows with inactive ovaries will not respond to prostaglandin and therefore, will not come to estrus. Since PGF, alpha is only effective on CL older than five days, of the 100 cyclic cows for synchronization, only 75 cows are expected to respond to the treatment. For higher synchrony of estrus occurrence, PGF,alpha should be administered two consecutive times, 11 to 12 days apart. Normally, this is done for nonpregnant cows in the absence of a well-trained technician. Another method of ES is the use of slow- release progesterone preparations applied either as an ear implant or as intravaginal device. In both preparations, the progesterone is released slowly from the device inhibiting the secretion of gonadotropins and thus controls the animals from exhibiting estrus. The device is administered to cyclic cows and is allowed in situ for 12 days. During this period, any active CL in the ovary will regress following the natural course, however, the animals will not show any estrus symptoms. This is because the progesterone level in the blood supplied by the device is high enough to stop the secretion of gonadotropins from the pituitary gland. Withdrawal of the device is followed by precipitous decline in the progesterone. Gonadotropininthe blood will also increase allowing the cows to develop follicles and consequently estrus. Normally, estrus is observed three to four days after the withdrawal of the device. Al is done based on the observed estrus.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 25 When desired, fixed insemination following ES is done about 84 hours after the last administration of PGF alpha or after the withdrawal of the progesterone-releasing device. Estrus Synchronization Postpartum A major factor that affects the reproduction efficiency in cows the ability to come to fertile estrus and become pregnant postpartum. Thus, a shorter period between parturition and subsequent pregnancy is de- sired. For this purpose, proper nutritional management can be complimented with hormonal treatment when necessary. In general, the cow should be allowed to recover from pregnancy and parturition stress for about 60 days. This rest period is sufficient to permit the uterus involution to its nonpregnant condition and become ready for the subsequent pregnancy. Therefore, any attempts to induce ovarian activity postpartum, to include estrus synchronization, should be carried out only after two months postpartum. To induce the early resumption of ovarian activities, gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GnRH) analog have been used effectively in cattle combined with estrus synchronizing agent. This treatment combination has been effective since a good number of cows remained anestrus even after 60 days postpartum. Embryo Transfer Embryo transfer technology involves superovulatory treatments to inducethe donor cows to develop several follicles and multiple ovulations followed by insemination and collection of embryos. Collected embryos are transferred to surrogate dams treated to synchronize their physi- ological status to be ready to receive the embryos. In effect, the desired genetic makeup of the prospective calves would come from superior donors and sires but will develop in an ordinary surrogate dams.Nutrition Nutrition is often understood as simply feeding the cattle with roughage and concentrate. However, nutrition comprises all processes in the collection and utilization of feed to maintain life or produce a product. In the animal, nutrition involves eating behavior or prehension, digestion, absorption, circulation, respiration, metabolism, and excretion. Nutri- tion is very important as it affects the animal performance. The viability of a cattle project depends greatly on proper nutrition. Nutrients and Their Functions Nutrients are chemical compounds used by the animal for maintenance and production. The basic classes of nutrients are water, carbohy- drates, lipids, proteins, minerals, and vitamins. Water The body is composed of 50%-75% water. The water content of the body varies with age and condition (degree of fatness). Water is the cheapest but the most important of all nutrients. Its functions are as follows: Water in the form of saliva in the mouth helps in preparing dry feeds for swallowing, passage, digestion, and excretion e Helps in the formation of milk and new tissues during growth and pregnancy e Regulates body temperature e Acts as reactant of many metabolic reactions in the body The three water sources for the animal are drinking water, water contained in the feed, and metabolic water. A mature cattle can consume an average of about 45 liters water a day. However, water consumption varies with the size of the animal, environmental tempera- ture, and type of feed. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Substances of this group include simple sugars, starch, and cellulose. Carbohydrates.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 27 make up about 75% of plants’ dry weight either stored in the form of ‘starch (in cereal grains) or cellulose (fiber portion of plants). In ruminants, carbohydrates are fermented in the rumen by micro- organisms to yield volatile fatty acids (acetic, propionic, and butyric) which are utilized by the animal as energy source. Thus, carbohydrates are the major source of energy in the ration. Lipids Lipids are a wide variety of substances which vary from simple short- chain fatty acids to very complex molecules. All lipids are insoluble in water and soluble in ether or similar organic compounds. Fatty acids and triglycerides (fats and oils) are two most important lipids in animal nutrition. Fats in the ration provide 2.25 times more energy than carbohy- drates. However, the fat level in cattle ration should be limited because ofits harmful effect on fiber digestion. Besides providing a concentrated form of energy, fats and oils supply essential fatty acids to the animal. Protein All proteins are composed of subunits called amino acids. Proteins have varied functions in the body: a) structural, as a component of soft tissues, muscle, collagen, and elastin; b) enzymatic, e.g., digestive enzymes; Cc) hormonal, e.g.,insulin; d) transport, e.g., hemoglobin; e) defense, e.g., immune bodies; and f) genetic material, e.g., genes. The body needs amino acids as nutrients rather than protein. Amino: acids are derived from dietary proteins and used by the body to synthesize its own protein. For ruminants, the dietary protein can be broken down in the rumen and be converted to microbial protein resulting in a change in amino acid profile. However, there are some proteins which escape rumen degradation and are called “by-pass protein” or “escape protein”. They remain intact until they reach the abomasum and small intestine where they are digested to yield amino acids. Besides digesting dietary proteins, microorganisms in the rumen can convert nonprotein nitrogen (e.g., urea) to microbial protein. Therefore, the total protein reaching the abomasum and small intestine is a combination of “by-pass protein” and microbial protein. During maintenance and early gestation, the microbial protein can supply the amino acid needs of the animal. However, during growth, and late gestation and lactation, supplemental dietary protein especially those that can provide “by-pass protein” must be supplied to the animal.28 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Minerals Minerals are inorganic compounds in the body. Mineral elements are generally divided into two categories: macrominerals (required in rela- tively large amounts), and microminerals or trace minerals (required in very small amounts). Macrominerals include calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine, sulfur, and magnesium. Microminerals include copper, iron, selenium, cobatt, manganese, iodine, zinc, molyb- denum, etc. In the body, minerals function as component of bones and teeth (particularly calcium and phosphorus); component of organic compounds (coenzymes in metabolic reactions); and regulator of acid- base balance and osmotic pressure. Ingeneral, forage-based diets are good sources of calcium but poor sources of phosphorus. In practical feeding, supplemental source of phosphorus should be given to the animal. Vitamins These are organic substances needed by the animals in small amounts. However, they play an important role in maintaining vigor, health, and productivity of the animal. Vitamins are divided into two large sub- groups: fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble vitamins (B complex). For ruminants, vitamins A, D, and E should be provided either inthe feed or as injectable. Water-soluble vitamins and vitamin K can be synthesized by microorganisms in the rumen. Upon digestion of these microorganisms, water-soluble vitamins are obtained by the animal. Nutrient Requirements The kind and amount of nutrients required by an animal are determined by its physiological activities. Description of several physiological activities and the nutrients required are as follows: maintenance, growth, reproduction, and lacta- tion. Maintenance This involves all body processes required to keep the animal alive and healthy - no loss or gain of weight, no work, developing no fetus, or Producing no product. In maintenance, energy is required to support basal metabolism, maintain body temperature and normal activity to obtain food and water. Protein is required for the repair of body tissues,PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 29 while minerals are needed to replenish lost ones. All vitamins are needed for maintenance due to their involvement in most metabolic activities. Growth Growth is generally measured in terms of the amount of weight gained and is divided into two stages: growing, and finishing or fattening. Inthe growing stage, a rapid increase in muscle, bone, organs, and connec: tive tissues is observed. During the finishing stage, production of fat tissue increases. Protein is the major nutrient required during the growing stage. Energy is required to support protein synthesis from amino acids. Minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus, are needed for bone formation. Vitamins are required in metabolic processes related to nutrient utilization for muscle, bone, organ, and connective tissue growth. Finishing or fattening is the deposition of unused energy in the form of fat within the body tissues. Fattening makes the meat juicy and tasty because of the deposition of intramuscular fat or marbling. Fat repre- sents the most costly form of gain in cattle. Relatively large amounts of abdominal, intermuscular (between muscles), and subcutaneous fat must be deposited to have an adequate marbling. Energy is the major nutrient for fattening. Requirements for other nutrients above the needs for maintenance are relatively small. In cattle production system, it is possible to maintain young animals with no weight gain for short periods of time. Following a period of ssubnormal growth due to energy restrictions, most young animals will gain faster than normal when given additional energy. The increased weight gain following the energy restriction is called compensatory growth. Reproduction Nutrients supplied to the animal before and after breeding have an important effect on its overall reproductive efficiency. Nutrient deficien- cies before breeding would result in sterility, low fertility, and failure to establish or maintain pregnancy. After breeding, nutrient restrictions are more damaging in late pregnancy than in early pregnancy. Energy needs are more critical during the last one third of the pregnancy stage. Protein deposition in the fetus and fetal membranes increases similar to energy increase with stage of pregnancy; protein is more critical for the fetus development in the late stages of pregnancy. larly, minerals, especially calcium and phosphorus are required for30 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION reproduction and the requirements increase with stage of pregnancy. Vitamin Ais important in maintaining the linings of the reproductive tract; its deficiency at breeding decreases conception rates. Lactation High levels of milk production are normally associated with dairy cow. Adequate milk production, on the other hand, is essential for economic production in beef cattle. Nutrients required for milk production should be proportioned to the amount of milk produced. Energy is required for milk fat and lactose formation, as well as milk protein synthesis. Cattle with low-level protein produce little amount of milk; those with relatively high-level protein produce more milk. Minerals such as calcium and phosphorus, and vitamins are essential components of milk and must be supplied in the diet of lactating animals. Nutrient requirements of beef cattle (Appendix D) include the amounts of dry matter, energy (total digestible nutrient or TDN), total protein, calcium, and phosphorus required daily for maintenance, growth, reproduction, and lactation. However, an easy to remember “rule-of-thumb” may also be used to determine the amount of dry matter consumption of an animal. The amount of dry matter that can be consumed is equal to 2% of the body weight of mature cattle; 2.5% of the body weight of a two-year old steer, heifer, or bull; and 3% of the body weight of a yearling or younger animal. Feed Resources Pasture, Crop Residues, and Agroindustrial By-Products For cattle production, the feed-resource base is made up of grasslands, cultivated pastures, weeds and crop residues from croplands, areas under plantation, and agroindustrial by-products. Grasslands and cultivated pastures play significant role in providing feeds for a ranch- type cattle production. The backyard-type of operation usually depends ona few hectares of pasture grasses, but the bulk of feeds is supplied by crop residues and weeds from croplands. Appendix E shows some available crop residues and agroindustrial by-products in the different regions of the country. The availability of crop residues depends on the cropping pattern in the regions. On the other hand, the availability of agroindustrial by-products depends onthe location of processing plants utilizing different agricultural products. Agroindustrial by-products with high-feeding value include wet brewer's grain, pineapple pulp, soya pulp, tomato pulp, and banana rejects.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 31 Cattle producers can develop feeding systems that take advantage of these available feed resources in their locality. The nutrient composition of some common roughages and concen- trates used in the country are presented in Appendices F and G, respectively. The values presented can be used in the formulation of rations for cattle. Silage The Philippine climate is generally characterized by distinct dry and wet seasons. This climatic variation brings about excess herbage during rainy months and undersupply during dry months. Silage-making offers asolution to the problem of erratic feed supply brought about by wet and dry seasons. Extra feed during the wet season can be preserved in a silo to supplement scarce feed during dry months. However, only improved grasses or grass-legume combinations can be used to make a good silage. Native pasture grasses such as cogon or bagokbok are Not good materials for silage-making. Urea in Cattle Rations Nonprotein nitrogen (NPN). All animals require protein for normal growth and body tissue development. Beef cattle belong to a class of animals called ruminants. This group has the unique ability to utilize dietary NPN to meet part of their protein requirements. Cattle have a four-compartment stomach, the largest of which is the rumen, which is inhabited by billions of bacteria, fungi, and protozoa. These microor- ganisms enable the animals to utilize dietary NPN. In the rumen, the NPN is broken down (hydrolyzed) to ammonia nitrogen which the microorganisms use to build their own bodies that produce (synthesize) microbial protein. The microbes pass from the rumen to the lower gastrointestinal tract where they are digested by the host animal. When the microbial protein is digested, amino acids are released. Amino acids are absorbed into the blood stream of the animal. Commercial sources of NPN. In other countries, urea, biuret, diammonium phosphate, and ammonium chloride are the most com- mon sources of NPN to incorporate into cattle ration. However, in the Philippines, only fertilizer grade urea is available as the main source of NPN. Calculating crude protein content of urea. Commercial fertilizer grade urea contains 45% nitrogen. To convert nitrogen in urea to crude protein equivalent, simply multiply the percentage of nitrogen in urea by 6.25 (average protein contains 16% nitrogen).32 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Example: Urea (45% nitrogen) 45 x 6.25 = 281 crude protein equivalent This means that 1 kg urea provides 2.81 kg crude protein equiva- lent. Balancing rations with urea. When using urea to replace expensive protein sources in cattle (or ruminants, in general) feed formulation, the following may be used as guides: e Add urea at levels of about: - 1% of the total air-dry ration or - 2%-3% of the concentrate mixture or - 25%-30% of the total dietary nitrogen The urea level inthe concentrate mixture can be increased from 3% if palatable ingredients, such as molasses is included, and that the mixture is fed in rather small proportion to roughage. Cattle should be provided with adequate amounts of readily available carbohydrates or energy, minerals, and vitamins for proper and efficient use of urea. These nutrients are needed by microorganisms in building body protein from the nitrogen supplied by urea. Molasses is a good source of both energy and minerals. e During summer months where molasses is readily available, a water-urea-molasses mixture with a maximum of 10% urea may be used as a lick, with proper precaution. To regulate animal intake of water-urea-molasses mixture, a rotary licker is recommended. The suggested liquid-urea mixture is as fol- lows: 2.5 kg urea, 4.5 kg molasses, and 18 liters water. e Crude protein supplements with urea is cheaper than those without urea. Precautions when feeding urea. Urea should be thoroughly mixed with the ration. The ration must be free of any lumps of urea; if not, the animal will have ammonia toxicity when he consumes a large amount of it. Harmful effects of urea toxicity range from drowsiness to excess Salivation, going off-feed, or even death. In utilizing urea as feed, strictly observe the following: animals below one year old and those that are sick should not be given, energyPHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PROQUCTION 33 feed must be adequate, urea intake must be controlled, and an adaptation period must be provided, Urea is quite risky to use as feed, therefore, one is advised to do some readings before using it. Feeding Systems In caitle feeding, two systems can be utilized: all-roughage, or combi- nation of roughage and concentrate. The availability of roughage, cost of concentrate, type of production system, and productive stage of the animal are factors influencing the choice of the feeding system, All-Roughage Feeding System Roughage is defined as feed which is relatively high in fiber and low in total digestible nutrients. It includes forages of either grass or legume in the form of pasture herbage, soilage (Fig, 8), silage, hay; and crop residues such as rice straw, corn stover, sugarcane tops, and the like. In extensive cattle production system (ranch-type), cattle are usually fed all-roughage ration in the form of pasture grasses with or without legumes particularly during the wet season when grasses and legumes are abundant. Fig. 6. Cattle feeding on fresh roughage.‘4 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOA BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION In intensive or backyard production system, roughage is usually supplied in the form of soilage or green chopor by tethering the animals. Ouring summer months when pasture grasses or grean chop are Scarce, roughage is fed in the form of silage, hay, or whatever crop residues available. Agood quality grass-legume mixture cansupport maintenance and moderate growth of cattle. However, during the periods of rapid growth, late gestation, and early lactation when tha protein need is high, an all- roughage ration cannot meat the requirements of the animal. Similarly, all-roughage feeding is not enough during the fattening stage when energy requirement is high. Roughage-Concentrate Feeding System Concentrates are feeds which contain high digestible energy, low fiber, and high or low protein. They include grains (corn, sorghum), oil meals (soybean meal, cottonseed meal, copra meal), some root crops (cas- Sava), and grain by-products [rice, wheat or corn'bran, corn gluten feed, corn gluten meal, brewer's spant grain (Fig. 9)]. Concentrates are usually included in cattie rations to increase the energy source. Protein- tich concentrates, onthe other hand, increase the protein.content ofthe ration. ‘The amount of concentrate to be incorporated in the rationdepends on the availability and quality of the roughage, price of the concentrate, Fig. 9. Cattle feeding on fresh brawer's spent grain.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 35 and production level of cattle to be fed. High-level concentrate in the total ration is recommended during summer months when grasses are scarce and crop residues are often utilized as feed. Similarly, concen- trate supplementation is needed by fast-growing animals and those in early lactation. Fattening or finishing cattle require high amount of energy, thus, a combination of energy-rich concentrate supplement and roughage is necessary. Concentrates can be fed separately from the roughage. The feeding should be gradual. The amount of concentrate should be increased gradually until the desired level is reached. If given abruptly, microorganisms in the rumen will not have time to adjust to the new ration. This could result in acidosis - a condition often encountered when the concentrate contains feed grains high instarch. Acidosis could lead to an “off-feed syndrome” and in severe cases, death of the affected animal. When feeding concentrate to growing-finishing cattle, the produc- tion economics should also be considered. Evaluation should consider the cost of feed as well as the overall production efficiency. Ration Formulation Ration formulation is the process of combining different feed ingredients to a proportion that will give the animals the proper amount of nutrients needed at their particular stage of production. The formulated ration should be palatable, have no serious digestive disturbances or toxic effects, and economical. At present, the nutrients in formulating rations for cattle are total digestible nutrients (TDN, kg/day), crude protein (CP, g/day), calcium (Ca, g/day), and phosphorus (P, g/day). Rations for ruminants are formulated on dry matter basis due to wide variation in moisture content of feeds especially roughage. ‘Two approaches are used in formulating cattle ration depending on the quality, price, and availability of roughages and concentrate. The first approach, which maximizes the use of roughage and concentrate, is utilized to supply the remaining amounts of nutrients to meet the animal's requirements. The second approach calls for a fixed roughage to concentrate ratio. Since the concentrate is also used to balance the ration, the composition and nutrient of the concentrate mixture depends. on the quality and quantity of the roughage used. The following are examples of ration formulations for beef cattle: Example 1. A ration for a 250-kg steer gaining 0.75 kg/day which maximizes the use of roughage36 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Step 1. Write down the nutrient requirements (Appendix D) Dry matter. TON cp Ca Pp Amount 64kg 38kg 693g = tg 179 Percent of dry matter - 59.4 10.8 033° (0.26 Step 2. List down the available feeds and their nutrient composition (Appendices F and G) Feed DM TON cp Ca Pp % DM basis Napier grass 22 585 9.50 0.42 0.39 Rice bran D1 88 80 15.34 ¢.07 1.62 Brewer's spent grain 21 66 23.20 033 0.55 Step 3. Calculate if napier grass alone satisfies the TDN requirement 55% TDN —— = 352kg TON 6.4 kg DM x 100 Since the amount of TON from napier grass is less than the requirement, a high-energy concentrate is used to replace part of the napier grass. Between the two concentrate feeds available, rice bran D1 is the choice since it has higher energy than the brewer's spent grain (BSG). The proportions of napier and rice bran D1 can be calculated by using the Pearson square method as follows: Napier grass, 55% TDN 20.6 parts 4.4 parts 25.0 total parts Rice bran D1, 80% TON On the left hand side of the square are the TDN content of napier grass and rice bran D1, The 59.4% in the middle of the square is thePHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 37 TON requirement expressed in percent. On the right hand side of the square are parts of napier grass and rice bran D1 of the total ration. These parts are obtained by subtracting diagonally, the smaller percent from the larger percent. On percent basis, napier is about 82% [(20.6 =25)x 100] while rice bran D1 is 18% [(4.4 + 25) x 100] of the total ration. Therefore, 5.25 kg (6.4 x 82%) DM is supplied by napier while 1.15 kg (6.4 x 18%) DM comes from rice bran D1. Step 4. Determine if the combination of napier and rice bran satisfies the requirement for crude protein Feed DM TON cP Ca P (kg) (kg) (9) (9) (9) Napier grass 5.25 2.89 499 22.05 20.48 Rice bran D1 1.15 0.92 176 00.86 18.63 Total 6.40 3.81 675 22.85 39.11 Requirement 6.40 3.80 693 21.00 17.00 Balance 0.00 +0.01 18 +1.85 422.11 The balance in CP of 18 g can be satisfied by replacing part of rice bran with brewer's spent grain (BSG). The combination of rice bran and BSG should supply 16.87% CP calculated as follows: 693 g CP is the requirement = 499g CP supplied by napier grass 194g CP to be supplied by the combination of rice bran and BSG which supplies 1.15 kg DM, therefore, 194 g CP = 1,150 g DM x 100 is 16.87%. The proportion of rice bran and BSG can be calculated using the Pearson's square as shown below: Brewer's spent, 23.2% CP _ PZ 1.53 parts ae 16.87% cP Rice bran D1, 15.34% 0P |/ |] 6.33 parts 7.86 total parts (1.53 + 7.86) x 100 = 19.47% brewer's spent grain (6.33 + 7.86) x 100 = 80.53% rice bran D138 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION The amount of dry matter supplied by rice bran D1 and brewer's spent grain is calculated as follows: 1.15 kg DM x 19.47% = 0.22 kg DM from brewer's spent grain 1.15 kg DM x 80.53% = 0.93 kg DM from rice bran D1 Step 5. The final ration is as follows: Feed DM TON cP Ca Pp (kg) (kg) (9) (9) (9) Napier grass 5.25 289 499 2205 20.48 Rice bran Dt 0.93 0.74 143 © 00.65 15.07 Brewer's spent grain 0.22 0.15 51 00.73 oe Total 6.40 378 693 2343 36.76 Onas fed basis, the animal should receive the following feed per day: Napier grass 5.25 kg DM —_———_ = 24kg 22% DM Rice bran D1 0.93 kg DM 1.06 kg 88% DM Brewer's spent grain 0.22 kg DM —————_ = 1.05kg 21% DM The daily requirement for salt and other microminerals can be provided to the animal as salt block or lick. Example 2. A ration for a 300-kg steer gaining 0.75 kg/day is to be formulated with a predetermined roughage to concentrate ratio of 60:40.PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION 39 Step 1. Write down the nutrient requirements (Appendix D) Dy TON cp Ca Pp Matter Amount 74kg 43k 7539 23g 018g Step 2. List down the available roughage and its nutrient composition (Appendix F) Feed OM TON cp Ca Pp % DM basis Rice straw 90 47 3.8 0.32 0.10 Step 3. Determine the dry matter intake of roughage and concentrate mixture based on the roughage to concentrate ratio (60:40) 7.4 kg DM x 60% = 4.44 kg DM from rice straw 7.4 kg DM x 40% = 2.96 kg DM from concentrate mixture Step 4. Determine the amount of nutrients supplied by the roughage Feed DM TON cP Ca P (kg) (kg) (9) (9) (9) Rice straw 4.44 2.09 169 14 4 Step 5. Determine the amount of nutrients to be supplied by the concentrate mixture by subtracting the values obtained in Step 4 from the nutrient requirement For TON, 4.3 kg -2.09kg = 2.21 kg For CP, 7539-169 = 584g For Ca, 23g-14g = 9g ForP,18g-4g = 14g40 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR BEEF CATTLE PRODUCTION Step 6. Determine the nutrient composition of the concentrate mixture by dividing the amount of nutrients obtained in Step 5 by the amount of the concentrate mixture (Step 3) 2.21 kg TON —— ~« 100 = 75% TDN 2.96 kg 0.584 kg CP — «x 100 = 20%CP 2.96 kg 0.009 kg Ca —— x 100 = 030% Ca 2.96 kg 0.014 kg P ———_ x 100 = 047%P 2.96 kg Step 7. Formulate the concentrate mixture based on the nutrient composition calculated in Step 6 Start by having a fixed amount of the following: salt (1%), urea (1%) as a cheap source of crude protein, molasses (5%) for palatability, and limestone (1%) to supply Ca. Copra meal and rice bran could be used as major ingredients. Since the major ingredients have the same TDN content, crude protein content can be used as a basis indetermining the proportion of rice bran D1 and copra meal This is calculated us:ng the equation method as follows: Let X = amount of rice bran D1 92-X = amount of copra meal 0.1534X + 0.2045 (92 - X) + 0.04 (5) + 2.81 (1) = 20 0.1534X + 18.81 -0.2045X+0.20+ 281 = 20 -0.0511X = 20-2182 - 1.8200 x-— + 0.0511 X = 35.62 92-X = 5638