Research Problems, Research

Questions, and Hypotheses

Dr. Nidal F. Eshah

RN, CNS, PhD
 The researcher selects a topic or a
phenomenon on which to focus. (ex.
adolescent smoking, patient compliance).

 Ex. Topic: Side effects of chemotherapy

 The purpose of research is to “solve” the

problem— or to contribute to its solution— by
accumulating relevant information.
 Basic Terminology
Research problem
An enigmatic, perplexing, or troubling
condition.

Problem statement
A statement articulating the research
problem and indicating the need for a
study.
Problem Statements:
 EX. Research problem:
Nausea and vomiting are common side
effects among patients on chemotherapy,
and interventions to date have been only
moderately successful in reducing these
effects. New interventions that can reduce or
prevent these side effects need to be
identified.
 Problem Statements:
 Should identify the nature, context, and
significance of problem being addressed

 Should be broad enough to include central

concerns

 Should be narrow enough to serve as a

guide to study design
 Sources of Research Problems
 Experience and clinical fieldwork
 Nursing literature
 Social issues
 Theory
 Ideas from external sources

*** Development and Refinement of Research

Problems
1. Selecting a Topic
2. Narrowing the Topic
 Evaluating Research Problems
 Significance
 Researchability (moral, ethical nature, person’s
values, no right or wrong answers).
 Feasibility of the problem
 Time and Timing
 Availability of Study Participants
 Cooperation of Others
 Facilities and Equipment
 Money
 Experience of the Researcher
 Ethical Considerations
 Interest of the researcher
 Statement of purpose

The researcher’s summary of the overall

study goal.

 Ex. Statement of purpose

The purpose of the study is to test an intervention
to reduce chemotherapy-induced side effects—
specifically, to compare the effectiveness of
patient-controlled and nurse-administered
antiemetic therapy for controlling nausea and
vomiting in patients on chemotherapy.
Statements of Purpose—Quantitative
Studies:
 Identify key study variables

 Identify possible relationships among

variables

 Indicate the population of interest

 Suggest, through use of verbs, the nature of

the inquiry (e.g., to test…, to compare…, to
evaluate…)
 Research questions

The specific queries the researcher wants to

answer in addressing the research problem.

 Ex. Research question

What is the relative effectiveness of patient-
controlled antiemetic therapy versus nurse-
controlled antiemetic therapy with regard to
(a) medication consumption and (b) control of
nausea and vomiting in patients on chemotherapy?
 Research Questions:
 Are sometimes direct rewordings of
statements of purpose, worded as
questions

 Are sometimes used to clarify or lend

specificity to the purpose statement

 In quantitative studies, pose queries about

the relationships among variables
Most quantitative studies, however, ask
questions about relationships between
variables:
1. Existence of relationship:
Is there a relationship between miscarriage
and depression?

2. Direction of relationship:
Do women who miscarry exhibit higher (or
lower) levels of depression than pregnant
women who do not?
3. Strength of relationship:
How strong is the risk of depression among
women who miscarry?

4. Nature of relationship:
Does having a miscarriage contribute to
depression? Does depression contribute to a
miscarriage? Or does some other factor
influence both?
5. Moderated relationship:
Are levels of depression among women who
miscarry moderated by whether the woman has
previously given birth? (i.e., Is the relationship
between depression and miscarriage different for
primiparas and multiparas?)

6. Mediated relationship:
Does a miscarriage directly affect depression or
does depression occur because the miscarriage
had a negative effect on marital relations?
 Moderating variables:
That affect the strength or direction of a
relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.

 Mediating variables:
That intervene between the independent and
dependent variable and help to explain why
the relationship exists.
 Research aims or objectives

The specific accomplishments to be achieved by

conducting the study.

** Ex. Aims/objectives

This study has as its aim the following objectives:

 (1) to develop and implement two alternative
procedures for administering antiemetic therapy
for patients receiving moderate emetogenic
chemotherapy (patient controlled versus nurse
controlled);
(2) to test three hypotheses concerning the
relative effectiveness of the alternative
procedures on medication consumption and
control of side effects; and

(3) to use the findings to develop

recommendations for possible changes to
therapeutic procedures.
 Hypotheses

The researcher’s predictions about relationships

among variables.

** Ex. Hypotheses
 (1) Subjects receiving antiemetic therapy by a
patient-controlled pump will report less nausea
than subjects receiving the therapy by nurse
administration;
 Hypotheses

(2) subjects receiving antiemetic therapy by a

patient-controlled pump will vomit less than
subjects receiving the therapy by nurse
administration;

(3) subjects receiving antiemetic therapy by a

patient-controlled pump will consume less
medication than subjects receiving the therapy by
nurse administration.
 A Hypothesis:
 States a prediction

 Must always involve at least 2 variables

 Must suggest a predicted relationship between the

independent variable & the dependent variable

 Must contain terms that indicate a relationship (e.g.,

more than, different from, associated with)

 Should be based on sound, justifiable rationales.

 Function of Hypotheses in
Quantitative Research
 Hypotheses are proposed solutions or answers to
research questions.
 The validity of a theory is never examined directly.
Rather, it is through hypothesis testing that the
worth of a theory can be evaluated.
 Well-conceived hypotheses offer direction and
suggest explanations.
 Tends to induce critical thinking and to facilitate
understanding and interpretation of the data.
 Hypotheses guard against superficiality and
minimize the possibility that spurious results will
be misconstrued.
 The Derivation of Hypotheses
1. An inductive hypothesis is a generalization based on
observed relationships. Researchers observe certain
patterns, trends, or associations among phenomena
and then use the observations as a basis for
predictions.
2. Through deductive reasoning, a researcher can
develop hypotheses based on general theoretical
principles.

** Inductive hypotheses begin with specific observations

and move toward generalizations; deductive
hypotheses have as a starting point theories that are
applied to particular situations.
 Wording of Hypotheses

 A good hypothesis is worded in simple, clear,

and concise language.

 The hypothesis statement should be specific

enough so that readers understand what the
variables are and whom researchers will be
studying.
Simple Versus Complex Hypotheses

Simple hypothesis
Expresses a predicted relationship between
one independent variable and one dependent
variable.

Complex hypothesis
States a predicted relationship between two or
more independent variables and/or two or
more dependent variables.
Example of a simple hypothesis:
Patients receiving a warmed solution for body
cavity irrigation during surgical procedures [X]
will maintain a higher core body temperature
[Y] than patients receiving a room temperature
solution.
Example of a complex hypothesis multiple
independent variables:
Among breast cancer survivors, emotional
wellbeing [Y] is influenced by the women’s
self-esteem [X1], and their degree of social
support [X2].
Example of a complex hypothesis—multiple
dependent variables:
The implementation of an evidence-based protocol for
urinary incontinence [X] will result in decreased
frequency of urinary incontinence episodes [Y1] and
decreased avoidance of activities [Y2] among
women in ambulatory care settings.
Example of a complex hypothesis with mediator:
The quality of life of a family [Y1] during the survivor
phase after cancer diagnosis is affected by
family resources [X1] and illness survival stressors
such as fear of recurrence [X2], through the mediating
variable, the family meaning of the illness [Y1 (M)].
Directional Versus Nondirectional
Hypotheses
Directional hypothesis
Predicts the direction of a relationship

Nondirectional hypothesis
Predicts the existence of a relationship, not
its direction
Directional hypothesis
1. Older patients are more at risk of experiencing a fall
than younger patients.
2. The older the patient, the greater the risk that she or
he will fall.
3. Younger patients tend to be less at risk of a fall than
older patients.
4. The risk of falling increases with the age of the
patient.

Nondirectional hypothesis
1. Older patients differ from younger ones with respect
to their risk of falling.
2. There is a relationship between the age of a patient
and the risk of falling.
 Research Versus Null Hypotheses

Research hypothesis
States the actual prediction of a relationship.

Statistical or null hypothesis

Expresses the absence of a relationship
(used only in statistical testing).
 Examples:
1. “Patients’ age is unrelated to their risk of
falling”.
2. “Older patients are just as likely as younger
patients to fall.”

 The variables are assumed to be “innocent”

of any relationship until they can be shown
“guilty” through appropriate statistical
procedures.
 Hypothesis Testing
 Hypotheses are formally tested through
statistical procedures.
 Researchers seek to determine through
statistics whether their hypotheses have a
high probability of being correct.
 Hypotheses are never proved or disproved in
an ultimate sense—they are accepted or
rejected, supported or not supported by the
data.