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Topic 1.1 Introduction to Cells

1.1.U1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells.

● State the three parts of the cell theory.

○ The cell is the basic unit of life (nothing smaller is alive).

○ All living things are composed of cells.

○ Cells come from preexisting cells.

● Outline evidence that supports the cell theory.

○ Repeated observations and experiments support the cell theory.

○ We have never observed the cell theory not to be true.

1.1.U2 Unicellular organisms carry out all functions of life.

● Outline the functional characteristics of life.

○ 1) All life has a *cellular structure* (according to the cell theory, all living things are composed
of cells).

○ 2) All life *exchanges energy and matter with the environment* (including intake of nutrients
and excretion of waste).

○ 3) All life has *metabolism* (chemical reactions within the organism).

○ 4) All life can recognize and *respond to changes in environmental conditions*.

○ 5) All living things can *grow and/or develop* through the lifespan (increase in size, mass or
number of cells within the organism)

○ 6) All life has the *capability for reproduction* (production of similar cells/organisms from
existing ones).

○ 7) All life has a maintenance of *homeostasis* (regulating for a stable interior environment).

○ 8) At the population level, life *adapts and changes over time*.

1.1.U3 Cell Surface to volume is an important limitation to cell size.

● Outline the activities occurring in the volume and at the surface of the cell.
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○ The cell *volume* is full of cytoplasm in which many metabolic reactions are occurring. The
metabolic reactions require reactants (i.e. nutrients and oxygen) and may produce waste (i.e.
urea and CO2).

○ The cell *surface area* is the cell membrane, through which reactants and waste enter and
leave the cell.

● Calculate the surface area, volume and SA:V ratio of a cube.

○ Surface area= side length^2

○ Volume= side length^3

○ SA:V ratio = [length^2 / length^3] = side length^-1

● Explain the benefits and limitations of using cubes to model the surface area and volume of a cell.

○ Cubes are often used to model cell size because they can be manipulated, visualized and easily
measured.

○ However, cells are not cubic in shape.

○ Cells are more difficult to manipulate and measure because of their microscopic size.

○ Luckily, the relationship between surface area and volume is the same in both cubes and cells.

● Describe the relationship between cell size and the SA:V ratio of the cell.

○ If cell size increases, the surface area to volume ratio decreases.

○ This means that with larger cells, there is less surface area relative to the amount of volume.

● Explain why cells are often limited in size by the SA:V ratio.

○ Larger cells (more volume) have more metabolic reactions occurring in the cytoplasm and as
such require more reactants and produce more waste and heat. The exchange of nutrients,
waste and heat is a function of the cell membrane (surface area).

○ However, since the amount of surface area (membrane) relative to the amount of volume
(cytoplasm) decreases in larger cells, the cell will not have a large enough surface area
(membrane) to moves reactants into and waste and heat out of the cell. Larger cells have a
reduced efficiency of exchange because they have relatively less surface area compared to
smaller cells.

● List three adaptations of cells that maximize the SA: volume ratio.

○ 1. Long extensions, such as in neurons.

○ 2. Thin, flattened shape, such as in red blood cells.

○ 3. Microvilli, such as in small intestine epithelial cells.

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1.1.U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge due to the interaction of their cellular
components.

● Define and provide an example of a unicellular organism.

○ An organism composed of a single cell.

○ For example: paramecium, amoeba and chlamydomonas.

○ List characteristics of cells in a multicellular organism.

● Define and provide an example of a multicellular organism.

○ An organism composed of multiple cells.

○ For example: turtle, oak tree, eagle.

● Define “emergent property.”

○ Characteristics and/or abilities that only arise from the interaction of the component parts of a
structure.

● Provide an example of emergent properties at different hierarchical levels of life.

○ Heart cell --> emergent property of life

○ Heart tissue --> emergent property of synchronized contractions

○ Heart organ --> emergent property of being able to pump blood

1.1.U5 Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms.

● Define tissue.

○ A group of cells that specialized in the same way to perform the same function.

● Outline the benefits of cell specialization in a multicellular organism.

○ By becoming specialized, cells can be more efficient in their role. They can have particular
structures and metabolisms that maximize the function of the cell for a specific purpose.

● Define differentiation.

○ The development of specialized structures and functions in cells.

1.1.U6 Differentiation involves the expressions of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome.
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● Describe the relationship between cell differentiation and gene expression.

○ Differentiation in cells is due to different gene expression in different cell types.

○ All cells in a multicellular organism contain the same genes, but different cells will express
different genes.

○ To express a gene means to "switch it on" so that the protein (or other gene product) is made.

1.1.U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in
embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses.

● Define zygote.

○ The cell that results from a sperm fertilizing an egg.

● Define embryo.

○ Early stages of development after the zygote divides.

● List two key properties of stem cells that have made them on the active areas of research in biology
and medicine today.

○ Stem cells can divide repeatedly: useful for treatment of tissues that have been killed or
damaged because they can produce large numbers of identical cells.

○ Stem cells are not differentiated: they have not "turned off" genes so they can still specialize to
produce different cell types and a variety of different tissues.

○ Because of these two key properties, stem cells are used in medical research and treatment of
disease.

● Explain why stem cells are most prevalent in the early embryonic development of a multicellular
organism.

○ The cells of the early embryo are the most versatile because they have differentiated the least.

○ As the embryo develops, the cells gradually become more differentiated.

● Contrast the characteristics of embryonic, umbilical cord and adult somatic stem cells.

○ Embryonic stem cells: the inner cell mass of an embryo can differentiate into any body cell
(pluripotent)

○ Umbilical stem cells: can only differentiate into blood cells (multipotent)

○ Adult somatic stem cells:found in bone marrow, skin and liver, have limited differentiation
ability (multipotent)
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● Define totipotent.

○ A stem cell that can become any body cell (including placenta in placental mammals).

○ A zygote is totipotent.

● Define multipotent.

○ A stem cell that has partially differentiated but can still become multiple, related cell types.

○ Umbilical cord stem cells are multipotent.

● Define pluripotent.

○ A stem cell that can become any body cell.

○ The inner cell mass of a blastocyst is pluripotent.

1.1.A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle, giant algae and
aseptate fungal hyphae.

● Describe features of striated muscle fibers that make them a discrepancy from a typical cell.

○ Striated muscle fibres are large cells that have multiple nuclei (while most eukaryotic cells have
one nucleus).

● Describe features of red blood cells that make them a discrepancy from a typical cell.

○ Red blood cells have no nucleus (while most eukaryotic cells have one nucleus).

● Describe features of aseptate fungal hyphae that make them a discrepancy from a typical cell.

○ Aseptate fungal hyphae are tube-like structures that contain no cell membranes between the
many nuclei.

○ Aseptate hyphae are not divided up into individual cells, resulting in a continuous cytoplasm
along the length of the hyphae.

● Describe features of giant algae that make them a discrepancy from a typical cell.

○ Giant algae can be a large, single celled organism with a single nucleus.

○ Organisms as large as giant algae would be expected to be multicellular, but they have only one
cell with one nucleus.

1.1.A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism.

● Describe characteristics of Paramecium that enable it to perform the functions of life.

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○ 1) The paramecium is a single-*cell*ed eukaryotic organism;

○ 2) The paramecium is a heterotroph, and eats smaller unicellular organisms in order to *obtain
energy and matter*;

○ 3) The cytoplasm contains dissolved enzymes that catalyze *metabolic reactions* such as
digestion and synthesis of cellular structures;

○ 4) The paramecium can control beating of cilia to move in different directions in *response to
changes in the environment*;

○ 5) The cell will *grow* until it reaches a maximum surface area to volume ratio, at which point
it will divide;

○ 6) The nucleus of the cell divides via mitosis to make another nuclei before the *cell
reproduces* asexually (two paramecium can also fuse before dividing to carry out a form of
sexual reproduction);

○ 7) Waste products from digestion are excreted through an anal pore, an example of
*exchanging matter with the environment*;

○ 8) To *maintain homeostasis*, excess water within the cell is collected into a pair of
"contractile vacuoles" which alternately swell and expel water through an opening in the cell
membrane.

● Describe characteristics of Chlamydomonas that enable it to perform the functions of life.

○ 1) Chlamydomonas is a single-*cell*ed eukaryotic organism;

○ 2) Chlamydomonas is an autotroph, using photosynthesis to *obtain energy and matter*;

○ 3) The cytoplasm and chloroplast contain dissolved enzymes that catalyze *metabolic
reactions* such as digestion, photosynthesis, cellular respiration and the synthesis of cellular
structures;

○ 4) A light sensitive "eyespot" allows Chlamydomonas to sense light and swim to it using its two
flagella, illustrating the organism's ability to *respond to changes in the environment*:

○ 5) The cell will *grow* until it reaches a maximum surface area to volume ratio, at which point
it will divide;

○ 6) The nucleus of the cell divides via mitosis to make another nuclei before the *cell
reproduces* asexually (the nuclei can also fuse and divide to carry out a form of sexual
reproduction);

○ 7) The oxygen byproduct of photosynthesis diffuses out through the cell membrane, an
example of *exchanging matter with the environment*;
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○ 8) To maintain *homeostasis*, excess water within the cell is collected into a pair of
"contractile vacuoles" which alternately swell and expel water through an opening in the cell
membrane.

1.1.A3 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition.

● Outline the cause and symptoms of Stargardt’s disease.

○ Stargardt's disease is a recessive genetic disease that causes light detection cells of the retina to
degenerate.

○ Vision becomes progressively worse and eventually leads to blindness.

● Explain how stem cells are used in the treatment of Stargardt’s disease.

○ As a treatment, retina cells derived from embryonic stem cells are injected into the eyes.

○ These cells attach to the retina, divide and differentiate into healthy retinal cells which
improves vision.

● Outline the cause of leukemia.

○ Leukemia is a cancer that leads to the uncontrolled division of the cells that create white blood
cells.

● Explain how stem cells are used in the treatment of leukemia.

○ A person with leukemia is given chemotherapy, which kills the cancer cells.

○ Then, bone marrow (containing adult stem cells) is transplanted from a donor to the person
with leukemia.

○ The stem cells establish themselves, divide and start to produce new blood cells.

1.1.A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord
blood of a new-born baby and from an adult’s own tissues.

● Discuss the benefits and drawbacks in using adult stem cells.

○ Benefits

■ Can divide endlessly and can differentiate.

■ Can be used to repair and regenerate tissues.

■ Can be fully compatible with adult self-donor, so no risk of immune rejection.

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■ Fewer ethical considerations since creation and/or destruction of embryos is not

involved.

■ Adults can give consent for use of their stem cells.

○ Drawbacks

■ Hard to find and obtain from the body, and some tissues contain few stem cells.

■ Multipotent, so limited cells types can be created.

● Discuss the benefits and drawbacks in using embryonic stem cells.

○ Benefits

■ Unlimited division and differentiation potential.

■ Cells won't have genetic mutations that have accumulated with age.

○ Drawbacks

■ Risk of becoming tumorous if division can't be controlled.

■ Creation and/or destruction of embryos is involved.

● Discuss the benefits and drawbacks in using cord blood stem cells.

○ Benefits

■ Easy to obtain and store.

■ Cells are compatible with newborn from which they were acquired (no immune system
rejection)

○ Drawbacks

■ Multipotent, so limited cells types can be created.

1.1.S1 Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues. Practical 1

● Define magnification.

○ How much larger an object appears compared to its real size

● Given the magnification of the ocular and objective lenses, calculate the total microscope
magnification.

○ Multiply the magnifying power of the ocular by the magnifying power of the objective lens that
you are using.
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● Define "field of view."

○ The diameter of the area visible through the microscope.

● Outline how to determine the diameter of a field of view using low power magnification.

○ Place a transparent metric ruler under the low power objective of a microscope.

○ Focus the microscope on the scale of the ruler, and measure the diameter of the field of vision
in millimeters.

● Calculate the field of view diameter of a microscope under medium or high power.

○ If you know the diameter of the FOV at one magnification, you can determine the diameter of
FOV at another magnification with the following formula:

○ Diameter of FOV#2 = diameter of FOV#1 x magnification#1 divided by magnification#2

● Outline how to estimate the size of a sample in the microscope field of view.

○ Estimate the fraction of the field of view that the object occupies.

○ Multiply the FOV diameter by that estimated fraction.

○ For example: the paramecium takes up about 2/3 of the FOV diameter. If I know the size of the
field of view is 5 mm, I can then estimate the size of the paramecium: (2/3)*5mm = 3.3 mm

● Demonstrate how to focus the microscope on a sample.

○ Place a slide on the stage so that it is centered under the objective lens.

○ Turn the revolving nosepiece so that the lowest power objective lens is "clicked" into position.

○ While looking at the objective lens and the stage from the side, turn the coarse focus knob so
that the stage moves upward toward the objectives. Move it as far as it will go without touching
the slide.

○ Look through the eyepiece and adjust the light source and diaphragm until you attain the
maximum, comfortable level of light.

○ Slowly turn the coarse adjustment so that the stage moves down (away from the slide).
Continue until the image comes into broad focus. Then turn the fine adjustment knob, as
necessary, for perfect focus.

○ Move the microscope slide until the image is in the center of the field of view. Then re-adjust
the light source or diaphragm in order to attain the clearest image.

○ Once you have attained a clear image, you should be able to change to a higher power
objective lens with only minimal use of the fine focus knob. If you cannot focus on your
specimen, repeat the above steps and work from objective to objective until the higher power
objective lens is in place.
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1.1.S2 Drawing of cell structures as seen with the light microscope.

● Demonstrate how to draw cell structures seen with a microscope using sharp, carefully joined lines
and straight edge lines for labels.

○ Drawing Materials: All drawings should be done with a sharp pencil line on white, unlined
paper. Diagrams in pen are unacceptable because they cannot be corrected.

○ Positioning: Center drawing on the page. Do not draw in a corner. This will leave plenty of room
for the addition of labels.

○ Size: Make a large, clear drawing; it should occupy at least half a page.

○ Labels: Use a ruler to draw straight, horizontal lines. The labels should form a vertical list. All
labels should be printed (not cursive).

○ Technique: Lines are clear and not smudged. Avoid 'feathery' pencil lines and gaps. There are
almost no erasures or stray marks on the paper. Color is used carefully to enhance the drawing.
Stippling is used instead of shading.

○ Accuracy: Draw what is seen; not what should be there. Avoid making "idealized"drawings. Do
not necessarily draw everything that is seen in the field of view. Draw only what is asked for.
Show only as much as necessary for an understanding of the structure - a small section shown
in detail will often suffice. It is time consuming and unnecessary, for example, to reproduce
accurately the entire contents of a microscopic field. When drawing low power plans do not
draw individual cells. Show only the distribution of tissues. When making high power drawings,
draw only a few representative cells; indicate thickness of walls, membranes, etc.

○ Title: The title should state what has been drawn and what lens power it was drawn under (for
example, phrased as: drawn as seen through 400X magnification). Title is informative, centered,
and larger than other text. The title should always include the scientific name (which is italicized
or underlined).

○ Scale: Include how many times larger the drawing is compared to life size and a labeled scale
bar that indicates estimated size.

1.1.S3 Calculation of the magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructures
shown in drawings or micrographs.

● Define micrograph.

○ A photograph taken through a microscope to show a magnified image of an item.

● State why the magnification of a drawing or micrograph is not the same as the magnification of the
microscope.
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○ We draw structures much larger than the size we see them when viewed under a microscope.

○ The image produced in the microscope is often much smaller than what is shown in a drawing.

● Use a formula to calculate the magnification of a micrograph or drawing.

○ Drawing magnification indicates how many times larger the drawing is compared to life size.

○ Drawing magnification = drawing size / actual size

● If given the magnification of a micrograph or drawing, use a formula to calculate the actual size of a
specimen.

○ If you know the magnification of an image, you can determine the size of the specimen.

○ Actual size = drawing size / drawing magnification

1.1.NOS1 Looking for trends and discrepancies- although most organisms conform to cell theory, there are
exceptions.

● Define "trend" and explain why trends are useful in scientific study.

○ A prevailing tendency, a generalization.

○ Trends lead to the development of predictions of what we expect to observe.

● Define "discrepancy" and explain why discrepancies are useful in scientific study.

○ An observation that does not fit the general trend; a variation from the trend.

○ Discrepancies from trends can lead to scientific questions.

○ Answering those questions can lead to new discoveries and a deeper understanding of how the
world works.

● List features that would be considered a “trend” related to the cell theory.

○ All living things are composed entirely of true cells.

○ Cells are small.

○ Typical cell structures (such as membrane and genetic material)

1.1.NOS2 Ethical implications of research- research involving stem cells is growing in importance and raises
ethical issues.

● Explain why biological research must take ethical issues into consideration.
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○ biological research is a human endeavor and as such will lead to people having different
opinions about what is ethical and should be permitted.

○ The ethics must be considered while deciding what is best for the collective societal good.