I.

HISTORY OF ZOOLOGY AND OTHER

RELATED TERMS
ZOOLOGY
- zoon, animal + logos, to study = Study of Animals
- One of the broad fields in all sciences because of
the variety of animals and complexity of the
processes occurring within animals.

Ex. Coleopterology, study of beetles and

ichthyology, study of fishes
5 KINGDOMS OF LIFE
Specialization in Zoology 1. Kingdom Monera
Physiology - study of the function of organisms and 2. Kingdom Protista
their parts 3. Kingdom Fungi
Anatomy - study of the structure of entire 4. Kingdom Plantae
organisms and their parts 5. Kingdom Animalia
Histology - study of tissues
- Above the species and genus levels, organisms
SPECIALIZATION OF ZOOLOGY AS are grouped into families, orders, classes, phyla,
TAXONOMIC CATEGORIES kingdoms and domains based on the hierarchy of
Entomology- Study of insects relatedness
Herpetology- Study of amphibians and reptiles
Ichthyology- Study of fishes MONERA
Mammalogy - Study of mammals - They are unicellular organisms found mostly in a
Ornithology- Study of birds moist environment. They are found in hot springs,
Protozoology- Study of protozoa snow, deep oceans, or as parasites in other
organisms. The monerans do not possess any
AN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE membrane-bound organelles.
- Share common evolutionary past and forces that - Bacteria
influence their history even extinct animals are
studied PROTISTA
- The smallest microscopic organisms are termed
Evolutionary Processes protists, consequently some biologists prefer to call
Organic Evolution - change in the genetic makeup this kingdom the Protoctista rather than Protista. All
of populations of organisms over time. members of this vast phylum have nucleated cells
- Charles Darwin and live in aquatic habitats (freshwater and
marine).
ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION AND
EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIPS FUNGI
- Genetic Material (DNA) = closely related - Fungi are eukaryotic organisms that include
- Named and classified into a hierarchy of microorganisms such as yeasts, molds and
relatedness. mushrooms.
- Karl von Linne is primarily remembered for
collecting and classifying plants, his system of PLANTAE
naming binomial nomenclature (scientific names) - Kingdom Plantae includes all the plants. Plants
- A two part name ( first indicates the genus, have chloroplast and chlorophyll pigment, which is
second indicates the species required for photosynthesis.
ex. Equus caballus- Horse
Equus burchelli - Zebra ANIMALIA
- Kingdom Animalia constitutes all animals.
Amongst the five kingdoms, the largest kingdom is
HIERARCHY OF RELATEDNESS the animal kingdom.

AN ECOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Ecology (oikos, house + logos, to study) is the
study of the relationships between organisms and
their environment.
2 PROBLEMS
1. Global overpopulation
2. Exploitation of world resources

II. A COMPOSITE CELL (ORGANELLES

AND OTHERS)

- Free floating or connected to ER

- Site for Protein synthesis
- They contain proteins and special kind of
ribonucleic acid called ribosomal RNA
(rRNA)
- Attached or free floating they are in cluster
ORGANELLES
connected by a strand of another kind of
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
ribonucleic acid called messenger RNA
- Complex, membrane bound labyrinth of
(mRNA). They are called polyribosomes or
flattened sheets, sacs, and tubules that
polysomes
branches and spreads through out the
cytoplasm.
Golgi Apparatus: Packaging, Sorting, and
- The ER is continuous from the nuclear
Export
envelope to the plasma membrane.
- Series of channels that helps various
materials to circulate through out the
cytoplasm.

- AKA Golgi complex

- With attached ribosomes is rough ER
- Storage of other proteins and point of
attachment for ribosomes.
- Without attached ribosomes is smooth ER
- Site for lipid production, detoxification of
molecules, storage of calcium ions in
muscle cells
- Double Membrane
- Lumen
Ribosomes
- Collection of membranes associated
physically and functionally with the ER in
the cytoplasm
- Composed of flattened stacks of membrane
bound cisternae
- Proteins that ribosomes synthesize are
sealed off in little packets called transfer
vehicles. (From ER to Golgi Apparatus and
Fuse with it)
- The proteins are chemically modifies
depending on its destinations they are
 packed into secretory vesicles which are - Cristae increase the surface area for
released into the cytoplasm close to the chemical reactions that trap usable energy
plasma membrane. for the cell.
- The space between the cristae is called the
Lysosomes: Digestion and Degradation matrix, it contins ribosomes, circular DNA
and other material.
- "Power generators"
- It usually multiply when a cell needs to
produce more energy

Cytoskeleton: Microtubules, Intermediate

Filaments and Microfilaments

- Lyso, dissolving + soma, body

- Membrane bound spherical organelles that
contain enzymes called acid hydrolases
Cilia and Flagella: Movement
which are capable of digesting organic
- Cilium, eyelashes and flagellum, small
molecules ( lipids, proteins, nucleic acids,
whips
and polysaccharides) under acidic
- Elongated appendages on the surface of
conditions.
some cells by which the cells propel
- From ER trasported to Golgi Apparatus for
themselves.
processing and secreted by the Golgi
- Cilium may also act as signal- receiving
apparatus in the form of lysosome the fuse
antenna for the cell.
with phagocytic vesicles exposing vesicle's
- Flagella are 5 to 20 times as long as cilia
contents to lysosomal enzymes
and have similar structures. they enclose a
matrix: axoneme or axial filament
Microbodies: A Diverse Category of Organelles
Microbodies:
The distribution of enzymes into microbodies is one
main way eukaryotic cells organize their
metabolism Isolates the chemical activities from the
rest of the cell

- Peroxisome vs ex. Hydrogen peroxide if

these were not isolated they would disrupt
metabolic pathways.

- The peroxisome breaks down hydrogen

peroxide to water and oxygen which are
beneficial to cells
Mitochondria: Power Generators
- Are doubled membrane bound organelles
that are spherical to elongate in shape.
- Separated inner and outer membrane
- The inner membrane folds and doubles
itself to form cristae
Centrioles and Microtubules- Organizing
Centers
- These duplicates before the cell division,
invloved in chromosomes movement and
help organize the cytoskeleton.
Vacuoles: Cell Maintenance
- Occur in different shapes and sizes and
have various functions
- ex. Sponges have contractile vacuoles that
collects water and pump it outside to
The Nucleus: Information Center
maintain the organisms internal
- Contains the DNA, control and information
environment.
center for the eukaryotic cell.
- Other vacuole store food
2 major functions:
1. Directs chemical reactions in cell by
transcribing genetic information from DNA
to RNA
2. Store genetic information and transfer it
during cell division from one cell to the other

Vaults: A Newly Discovered Organelle

- Shaped like octagonal barrels
- One cell may contain thousand of vaults
- The function of it may be related to its
shape leading that it may be cellular trucks
- Vaults can dock at the nuclear pores pick up
molecules synthesized in the nucleus and
deliver it to various places within the cell
- Thought that they are picking up mRNA
from the nucleus and transporting it to the
ribosomes for protein synthesis. Nuclear Envelope: Gateway to the Nucleus
- Membrane that separates the nucleus from
the cytoplasm and is continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum
- Penetrated by nuclear pore through nuclear
envelope
- Nuclear pores are not simply holes it was
designed to prevent the DNA from leaving
the nucleus but permits RNA to move out.
 CELLS - are the smallest and functional unit of life
- The fundamental organizational and
functional unit of living organisms

2 basic types of cells

1.Prokaryotes
2.Eukaryotes

Prokaryotes
- Lacks nuclei and other membrane bound
organelles
- 2 domains- Archaea and Eubacteria

Chromosomes: Genetic Containers Eukaryotes

- The nucleoplasm is the inner mass - has nucleus and cells with membrane bound
of the nucleus nucleus containing DNA. It has organelles (little
- Contains genetic materials called organs)
chromatin - has a network of specialized structures called
- Chromatin consists of a combination of microfilaments and microtubules organized into the
DNA and protein and is the uncoiled, cytoskeleton which gives shape to cell and allow
tangled mass of chromosomes (colored intracellular movement
bodies) containing herediatary information
in segments of DNA called genes.
- During cell division, each chromosomes
coils tightly which makes chromosomes
visible when viewed through a light
microscope. (Aided by histones)

- Nucleolus Preassembly Point for

Ribosomes Nucleoli, non membrane bound
structure in the nucleoplasm
- Preassembly points for ribosomes and
usually contain proteins and RNA

III. CELL BASIC STRUCTURE AND MOVEMENT

ACROSS MEMBRANES
Actin Filaments
- Helical polymers of protein actin
Microtubules
- Hollow cylinders protein tubulin
Intermediate filaments
- Ropelike fibers of inter-mediate filament proteins
1. Plasma Membrane- is the outer boundary of the
cell. It separates the internal metabolic events from
the environment and allows them to proceed in
organized, controlled ways.
2. Cytoplasm (kytos, hollow vessel + plasm,
fluid) - portion of the cell outside the nucleus. The
semifluid portion of the cytoplasm is called the
cytosol were organelles are found
3. Nucleus (nuclei)- it is the cell control center. It
contains chromosomes separated by a nuclear
envelope. Nucleoplasm is the semi fluid material in
the nucleus.

CELLMEMBRANE

Why cells are small and can be seen only with

the aid of a microscope?
1. Limits cells exceeds the rate of exchange of the
materials needed and removal of waste----cell will
die in time
2. Limit cell size- the need for nutrient intake and
elimination of waste material should be proportional
to the cell volume
3. Cell Division (mitosis and meiosis) to remain
small and have a high enough SA:V ratio to enable
survival of the cell
CELL STRUCTURES:
"SURFACE AREA"
3 BASIC PARTS
SURFACE AREA: VOLUME - S. Jonathan Singer and Garth Nicolson
developed a fluid mosaic model of
membrane structure.
- Double layer (bilayer) of proteins and
phospholipids, and is fluid rather than solid
and it forms specific fluid "sea" in which
specific proteins that float like icebergs.

VOLUME
HEIGHT X WEIGHT X LENGTH

SURFACE AREA
(H X W)(SIDES)

SA:V 1. Phospholipid bilayer- One polar end and One

SA nonpolar end. The polar ends are oriented on one
V side toward the outside of the cell into the fluid of
cytoplasm. Non polar ends facing each other in the
middle of bilayer.
Volume Tails of both layers are attracted to each other and
1cm x 1cm x 1cm = 1 cm3 hydrophobic, "water dreading"
Surface Area Heads are located over the cell surfaces inner and
1 cm2 x 6= 6cm 2 outer and hydrophilic, "water attracting"
SA:V
6cm2 / 1cm3 = 6cm 2 3 -1

2. Cholesterol is present and embedded in the

Large cube= large surface area and volume
SA:V ratio gets smaller the bigger the cube gets
The bigger the SA: V the faster transportation of
chemicals and other materials it gets. Either in of
nutrients or out of waste materials
CELL MEMBRANE
- The Plasma Membrane surrounds the cell.
Structure of Cell Membranes
interior of the membrane and helps to make it less
permeable to water soluble substances. Rigidity
contributes to stabilizing the membrane.
3. The membrane proteins are individual molecules
attached to inner and outer membrane surface;
peripheral protein and intrinsic protein (move
molecules across the membrane)
Selective Permeability- permeare, through +
meare, pass)
4. When carbohydrates unite with proteins, they
form glycoproteins and when they unite with lipids
they form glycolipids. Surface carbohydrates and
portions of the proteins and lipids make up the
glycocalyx "Cell Coat", it is a sugar molecule that
acts as a fingerprint for each cell type. Cell to cell
recognition.

FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL MEMBRANE

1. Regulate material moving in and out of the cell to
another
2. Separate inside and outside of the cell
3. Separate various organelles within the cells
4. Provide large surface area on which chemical
reactions can occur
5. Separate cells from one another
6. Site for receptors containing specific cell
identification markers that differentiate one cell type
from another
7. Selective Permeability
MOVEMENT ACROSS MEMBRANES:
MOVEMENTS INTO AND OUT OF THE CELL
Passive Transport Active Transport
Water flow in living cells is facilitated by
specialized water channels called aquaporins (2
classes)
1. specific for water only
2. allow small hydrophilic molecules to cross the
membranes
Tonicity (tonus, tension)- concentration of solutes
in the water inside and outside the cell
Osmosis
- The diffusion of water. Water moves toward
a higher concentration of solutes
Osmotic Pressure – ability of osmosis to generate
enough pressure to move a volume of water

(do not require energy) (require cell energy) 1. Isotonic – same osmotic pressure. The solute
concentration and water molecules is the same
inside and outside the cell
1. Simple diffusion 1. Active transport
2. Hypertonic – higher osmotic pressure (water
2. Facilitated diffusion 2. Endocytosis loss).The water concentration is higher inside than
outside, water moves out of the cell
3. Osmosis 3. Exocytosis 3. Hypotonic – lower osmotic pressure (water
gain). The water concentration is higher outside
4. Filtration than inside, water moves into the cell which swells
and may burst

PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Simple Diffusion
- Molecules move down a concentration
gradient.
- Spreads out randomly from higher
concentration to areas of lower
concentration until they are distributed
evenly

Facilitated Diffusion
- Carrier (transport proteins in a plasma
membrane temporarily bind with molecules
and help them pass across membrane
Filtration
- Process that forces small molecules across
selectively permeable membranes with the aid of
hydrostatic pressure.
ex. In the kidneys when blood pressure forces
water and dissolved waste out of the blood vessels
and into the kidney tubules in the first step in urine
formation
 Endocytosis
Pinocytosis- pinean, to drink + cyto, cell. Non-
specific uptake of small droplets of extracellular
fluids.
Phagocytosis- phagein, to eat + cyto, cell. Takes
in solid material rather than liquid.
Receptor-mediated endocytosis- involves
specific receptor protein on the plasma membrane
that "recognizes" an extracellular molecule and
binds with it. Creating a vesicle containing the
selected molecule.

ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Active transport processes move molecules
across a selectively permeable membrane against
a concentration gradient - from lower concentration
to higher concentration. This movement requires
ATP energy

Uniporters- carrier proteins that transport a single

type of molecule or ion
Symporters- carrier proteins that transport two
molecules or ion in the same direction
Antiporters- carrier proteins that transport two
molecules or ion in the opposite direction

Bulk transport
- Endocytosis and Exocytosis together
provide bulk transport into and out of the cell
Exocytosis
- exo, outside. The secretory vesicles fuse
with the plasma membrane and release their
contents into the extracellular environment
-

Endocytosis
- endon, within. The plasma membrane envelopes
large particles and molecules and moves them in
bulk across the membrane.
3 types:
1. Pinocytosis
2. Phagocytosis
3. Receptor- mediated endocytosis
IV. THE MODERN CELL THEORY
CELLS, TISSUES, ORGANS, AND ORGAN
SYSTEMS OF ANIMALS:

MODERN CELL THEORY

CELLS - are the basic/ smallest and functional unit
of life
- The fundamental organizational and
functional unit of living organisms

Zacharias Janssen - invented the compound

microscope

Matthias Jakob Schleiden

- Botanist
- Same structure as Robert Hooke, spaces of
Anthon Van Leeuwenhoek cells
- Own version of Microscope (300x
magnification) Theodor Schwann
- Gunk of his teeth - Anatomist and physiologist
- Animalcules - Nervous system of animals have similar
- Father of Modern Microbiology structure
- Published a book that all organisms are
composed of cells

Concluded that:
"All organisms are composed of cells"
-Plants came from plants and animals came from
animals

Rudolf Carl Virchow

Robert Hooke
- Microscope the cells and observed that
- Cork under microscope, looked like the
bacteria divided and formed other 2
spaces occupied by monks
identical bacteria
"Cellula"---> CELLS
- Published a phrase "omnis cellula e cellula"
Concluded that:
"Cells is the basic structural and functional unit of
Concluded that:
all living organism"
"omnis cellula e cellula" means "Cells arise from
Pre-existing cells"
BIOMOLECULES
- Building components of life
V. TISSUES
Major types
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Protein
4. Nucleic Acid
 These are classified on the basis of shape and
number of layers it present.

Basal Surface – surface of an epithelial cell that

faces the basement membrane

Apical Surface – surface of an epithelial cell that

faces away from the basement membrane

FIVE LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION

SIMPLE EPITHELIUM
• CONTAINS ONE LAYER OF CELLS
• NAMED BY SHAPE OF CELLS
• ALL CELLS TOUCH THE BASEMENT
MEMBRANE
Histology (microscopic anatomy) – the study of
STRATIFIED EPITHELIUM
tissues and how they are arranged into organs
- CONTAINS MORE THAN ONE LAYER
- NAMED BY SHAPE OF APICAL CELLS
- SOME CELLS REST ON TOP OF OTHERS AND
DO NOT TOUCH BASEMENT MEMBRANE

EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Exist in many structural forms. Covers or lines
something and typically has surface specializations
adapted for their specific roles as well as their
shapes and sizes.

1. Absorbs (e.g., lining of the small intestines)

2. Transport (e.g., kidney tubules)
3. Excrete (sweat and endocrine glands)
4. Protect (e.g., skin)
5. Contain nerve cells for sensory reception (e.g.,
taste buds in the tongue)
 SIMPLE CUBOIDAL EPITHELIUM
Four types of simple epithelia - single layer of square or round cells
- absorption and secretion, mucus production
Three named for their cell shapes: and movement
1. simple squamous (thin scaly cells) - liver, thyroid, mammary and salivary glands,
2. simple cuboidal (square or round cells) - bronchioles, and kidney tubules
3. simple columnar (tall narrow cells)
4. Pseudostratified Epithelium

SIMPLE SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM

- single row of thin cells
- permits rapid diffusion or transport of
substances
- secretes serous fluid alveoli, glomeruli

Pseudostratified Epithelium
Simple Columnar Epithelium
- single row tall, narrow cells
- oval nuclei in basal half of cell
- brush border of microvilli, ciliated in some
organs, may
- possess goblet cells
- absorption and secretion; mucus secretion
- lining of GI tract, uterus, kidney and uterine
tubes
- not all cells reach the free surface
- shorter cells are covered over by taller ones
- looks stratified (Pseudo)
- every cell reaches the basement membrane
- looks multilayered; some not reaching free
surface; all
- touch basement membrane
- nuclei at several layers
- with cilia and goblet cells
- secretes and propels mucus
- respiratory tract and portions of male
urethra

Goblet cells – wineglass-shaped mucus secreting

cells in simple columnar and pseudostratified
epithelia

STRATIFIED EPITHELIA
 - range from 2 to 20 or more layers of cells
- some cells resting directly on others
- only the deepest layer attaches to the
basement membrane
Three stratified epithelia are named for the
shapes of their surface cells:
1. Stratified squamous
2. Stratified cuboidal
3. Stratified columnar (rare)
4. Transitional epithelium
Stratified Squamous Epithelia
- most widespread epithelium in the body
- Deepest layers undergo continuous mitosis
- their daughter cells push toward the surface
and become flatter as they migrate farther
upward -finally die and flake off – exfoliation
or desquamation
Two kinds of stratified squamous epithelia
1. Keratinized – found on skin surface, abrasion
resistant
2. nonkeratinized – lacks surface layer of dead
cells
KERATINIZED SQUAMOUS EPITHELIUM
- multiple cell layers with cells becoming flat
and scaly toward surface
- epidermis; palms and soles heavily
keratinized
- resists abrasion; retards water loss through
skin; resists penetration by pathogenic
organisms
NONKERATINIZED STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS
- same as keratinized epithelium without the
surface layer of dead cells
- tongue, oral mucosa, esophagus and
vagina
- resists abrasion and penetration of
pathogens
TRANSITIONAL EPITHELIUM
- multilayered epithelium surface cells that
change from round to flat when stretched
- allows for filling of urinary tract
- ureter and bladder
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
- a type of tissue in which cells usually
occupy less space than the extracellular
material
- binds organs to each other
- support and protect organs
- most cells of connective tissue are not in
direct
- contact with each other
- highly vascular – richly supplied with blood
vessels
- most abundant and widely distributed
FUNCTIONS CONNECTIVE TISSUE
● binding of organs – tendons and ligaments
● support – bones and cartilage
● physical protection – cranium, ribs, sternum
● immune protection – white blood cells attack
foreign invaders
● movement – bones provide lever
● system storage – fat, calcium, phosphorus
● heat production – metabolism of brown fat
in infants
● transport – blood
COMPONENTS OF FIBROUS CONNECTIVE ● platelets – cell fragments involved in clotting
TISSUE and other mechanisms
- fibroblasts produce fibers and ground
substance
- macrophages phagocytize foreign material
and activate immune system when sense
foreign matter (antigen)
leukocytes or white blood cells
- neutrophils wander in search of and
attacking bacteria
- lymphocytes react against bacteria, toxins,
and other foreign material
- mast cells: found along side of blood
vessels secrete heparin inhibits clotting
histamine that dilates blood vessels
- adipocytes store triglycerides (fat NERVOUS TISSUE
molecules) ● Nervous Tissue – specialized for
communication by electrical and chemical
ADIPOSE TISSUE signals
- empty-looking cells with thin margins; - Consists of Neurons (nerve cells)
nucleus pressed against cell membrane - detect stimuli
- energy storage, insulation, cushioning - respond quickly
- transmit coded information rapidly to other
cells

Neuron Parts
- neurosoma (cell body)- houses nucleus and
other organelles
● dendrites
- multiple short, branched processes
- receive signals from other cells
- transmit messages to neurosoma

BONE TISSUE Axon (nerve fiber)

- Bone is a hard connective tissue that - sends outgoing signals to other cells
- Spongy bone
- Compact bone
- Has a rich blood supply consists of living
cells and mineralized matrix.

MUSCULAR TISSUE
BLOOD muscular tissue – elongated cells that are
- fluid connective tissue specialized to contract in response to stimulation
- transports cells and dissolved matter from - primary job is to exert physical force on
place to place other tissues and organs
● formed elements – cells and cell fragments - creates movements involved in body and
● erythrocytes – red blood cells – transport limb movement, digestion, waste
O2 and CO2 elimination, breathing, speech, and blood
● leukocytes – white blood cells – defense circulation
against infection and other diseases - important source of body heat
 - three types of muscle: skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth

SKELETAL MUSCLE
● long, threadlike cells – muscle fibers
● most attach to bone
● exceptions – in tongue, upper esophagus,
facial muscles, some sphincter muscles
● contains multiple nuclei adjacent to plasma
membrane
● striations – alternating dark and light bands
● voluntary – conscious control over skeletal VI. ORGAN AND ORGAN SYSTEM
muscles
ORGAN SYSTEM
gr. systema, being together is an association of
organs that together performs an overall function.
All parts of the animal body function with one
another to contribute to the total organisms- a living
entity or individual

Control and regulatory mechanisms within an

CARDIAC MUSCLE
● limited to the heart
● myocytes or cardiocytes are much shorter,
branched, and notched at ends
● contain one centrally located nucleus
surrounded by light staining glycogen
● striated, and involuntary (not under
conscious control)
animal maintain a constant internal environment.
This constant state is called Homeostasis
ORGAN
gr. organnon, an independent part of the body are
the functional units of an animal's body that are
made up of more than one type of tissue.
- Examples are heart, lungs, liver, kidneys
etc.

SMOOTH MUSCLE
● lacks striations and is involuntary
● relatively short, fusiform cells (thick in
middle, tapered at ends)
● one centrally located nucleus
● visceral muscle – forms layers of digestive,
respiratory, and urinary tract: blood vessels,
uterus and other viscera
● propels contents through an organ,
regulates diameter of blood vessels