Unit 1: Introduction to Counselling

1.1 Basic concepts, bio-psycho-social model, Counselling Relationship, Roles

and qualities of a counsellor
1.2 Principles and Process (steps) of counselling,
1.3 Types and techniques of counselling
1.4 Theories of Counselling- Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Cognitive,
Behavioural

1.1 Basic concepts, bio-psycho-social model, Counselling Relationship,

Roles and qualities of a counsellor

Key Points
• The goal of counselling is, to help individuals overcome many of their future
problems.
• The major objective of all counselling is to help individuals become self-sufficient,
self-dependent, self-directed and to adjust themselves efficiently to the demands of a
better and meaningful life.

Introduction

The twentieth century has brought in tremendous changes in the life style of human
beings. Today, we live in a complex, busy and changing world. However, many a times we
are not well equipped with skills to adapt to this change. We get stuck in finding solutions to
our problems. Though most of the time we find ways of dealing with such problems through
help and advice from close associates like friends and family, during certain critical
moments, we may find that as not sufficient. Counselling is a useful option at these moments.
Persons of any age, in any walk of life, and with almost any kind of problem can be helped
through counselling. The purpose of counselling broadly conceived is to empower clients to
cope with life situations, to reduce emotional stress, to engage in growth-producing activity,
and to make effective decisions. This service is provided by trained counsellors, those with
Masters in Social Work, psychologists, and psychiatrists. Counselling is cost effective and
easily available. In counselling, the counsellor does not diagnose or label the client, but
listens to him, understands and tries to find the best ways to help resolve his problems.

Definitions of Counselling
• A popular definition is, "Counselling is an interactive process conjoining the
counselee, who needs assistance and the counsellor who is trained and educated to
give this assistance".1 The counsellor can initiate, facilitate and maintain the
interactive process, if he communicates feelings of spontaneity and warmth, tolerance,
respect and sincerity.
• Smith2 defines counselling as “a process in which the counsellor assists the counselee
to make interpretations of facts relating to a choice, plan, or adjustments which he
needs to make."
• Counselling also has been defined as "a process which takes place in a one-to-one
relationship between an individual beset by problems with which he cannot cope
alone and a professional worker whose training and experience have qualified him to
help others reach solutions to various types of personal difficulties".3

• Pepinsky and Pepinsky4 state that counselling is that interaction which occurs
between two individuals called counsellor and/client; takes place in a professional
setting and is initiated and maintained to facilitate changes in the behaviour of a
client.

• Patterson5 characterizes it as "the process involving interpersonal relationships

between a therapist and one or more clients by which the former employs
psychological methods based on systematic knowledge of the human personality in
attempting to improve the mental health of the latter."

• Blocher6 explains it as "helping an individual become aware of himself and the ways
in which he is reacting to the behavioural influences of his environment. It further
helps him to establish some personal meaning for this behaviour and to develop and
clarify a set of goals and values for future behaviour."

• Rogers7 describes counselling as the process by which the structure of the self is
relaxed in the safety of the client's relationship with the therapist, and previously
denied experiences are perceived and then integrated into an altered self.
From a careful reading of the several definitions quoted above, it can be seen that the
emphasis placed on the various aspects of counselling by different authors is not the same.
The early concern was with cognitive factors and later this was widened to include the
affective aspects as well. The counselling process was also viewed as a one-to-one process
and in more recent years the relationship is increasingly becoming less restricted to a dyadic
relationship and the scope is being widened to refer to more than one client.

1.1.1 Basic concepts

The main aim of counselling must always serve the purpose of the client- ‘In the best
interest of the client’. Some of the different aims that are espoused either explicitly or
implicitly by counsellors are as follows;
1) Acquisition of social skills. Learning and mastering social and interpersonal skills such
as maintenance of eye contact, turn-taking in conversations, assertiveness or anger
control.
2) Behaviour change. The modification or replacement of maladaptive or self destructive
patterns of behaviour.
3) Cognitive change. The modification or replacement of irrational beliefs or maladaptive
thought patterns associated with self-destructive behaviour.
4) Empowerment. Working on skills, awareness and knowledge that will enable the client
to take control of his or her own life.
5) Enlightenment. Assisting the client to arrive at a higher state of spiritual awakening.
6) Generativity and Social action. Inspiring in the person a desire and capacity to care for
others and pass on knowledge (Generativity) and to contribute to the collective good
through political engagement and community work (Social action).
7) Insight. The acquisition of an understanding of the origins and development of
emotional difficulties, leading to an increased capacity to take rational control over
feelings and actions (Freud: ‘where id was, shall ego be’).
8) Problem-solving. Finding a solution to a specific problem that the client had not been
able to resolve alone. Acquiring a general competence in problem-solving.
9) Psychological education. Enabling the client to acquire ideas and techniques with which
to understand and control behaviour
10) Restitution. Helping the client to make amends for previous destructive behaviour
11) Relating with others. Becoming better able to form and maintain meaningful and
satisfying relationships with other people: for example, within the family or workplace.
12) Self-awareness. Becoming more aware of thoughts and feelings that had been blocked
off or denied, or developing a more accurate sense of how self is perceived by others.
13) Self-acceptance. The development of a positive attitude towards self, marked by an
ability to acknowledge areas of experience that had been the subject of self-criticism and
rejection.

1.1.2. Bio-psycho-social model

The interaction of biological, psychological, and social aspects of developmental
psychology form the essence of the holistic bio-psycho-social perspective. The bio-psycho-
social perspective attributes complex phenomena or events to multiple causes. In contrast to
the bio-psycho-social perspective is the reductionistic perspective, which reduces complex
phenomenon or events to a single cause. This bio-psycho-social model of developmental
psychology may be applied to the case of ‘X’, a depressed adolescent male, who finds it
difficult to socialize with his peers. His/her problem may be the result of any one of a number
of causes. For example, injunctions, or messages received during childhood, may be
considered one possible cause of depression. Injunctions may include messages regarding
worthlessness and shame, distorted perceptions, fears of rejection, and inadequate
communication and social skills. His overly critical parents raised him to believe that he
would never amount to anything or have any friends. As he experiences distress over his
negative injunctions about relationships (psychological), he “tries too hard” to make others
like him, which causes his peers to distance themselves from him (social). In time, he may
experience rejection and become more depressed (psychological). Berating himself
(psychological), he may become less concerned with his outward appearance and hygiene
(biological), which in turn may cause his peers to avoid further contact with him (social). For
obvious reasons, developmental psychologists are cognizant of these types of interacting
biological, psychological, and social components when considering life‐span events and
issues. In a case such as his, a psychologist may choose to conceptualize and treat his
problem from all three perspectives, rather than focusing on one. Because of the
psychologist’s method of exploring all three perspectives, he benefits from a holistic and
comprehensive approach to his difficulties.
1.1.3. Counselling Relationship

The therapeutic relationship is the connection and relationship developed between the
therapist and client over time. Without the therapeutic relationship, there can be no effective
or meaningful therapy. This applies to all forms of counselling and psychotherapy, and
regardless of the theoretical orientation of your therapist or counsellor, the relationship
developed between you will be considered of high importance. A strong bond is crucial to the
success of counselling and psychotherapy. It can be especially valuable to clients who may
have struggled forming relationships in their past, and those who experienced traumatic
events in their early years, leading them to find it difficult to form relationships in adulthood.
Therapy allows clients the chance to explore their relational attachments, bonds and
experiences through their relationship with their therapist, which is why this relationship is so
important.

The therapeutic relationship is unique in that for many clients, it may be one of the
first times they have formed an intimate connection with another person, where the feelings,
thoughts or ideas have been allowed to be heard, understood and valued, and where they have
not had to censor themselves. This unique nature of the therapeutic relationship means that it
is unlike those relationships we form and maintain in the real world. It is a relationship that is
impartial, not based in the past or does not carry the judgements, feelings or dynamics that
can be associated with our external relationships. The therapeutic relationship has many
components and varies between each individual relationship. However there are some
common themes and characteristics as listed below;

Genuineness: It is crucial that the therapist be a ‘real’ human being, meaning that they are
able to freely and deeply be themselves, not an all-knowing expert. They must be a real
person who can relate to another genuinely.
Empathy: This is the therapists’ ability to recognise, identify and understand the situation
their client is experiencing and to understand their feelings, ideas and motivations. This is the
basis and foundation for a therapeutic relationship, because it establishes a personal
connection between the therapist and client, allowing the client to see their therapist hears
them, values and understands their needs.
Trusting and a non-judgemental attitude: For a therapeutic relationship to develop, grow
and flourish, it is crucial a clients feel that their therapist is trustworthy. For clients who find
it difficult to open up or explore their feelings due to worrying that it is not safe for them to
do so, it matters greatly that they can feel confident that their therapist will not judge them.
Care and warmth: When entering into a the consulting room for the first time, or even
meeting a new therapist after a break from therapy, there can be a sense of fear, trepidation
and nervousness. Therefore, it is crucial that a therapist provide an environment that feels
warm, caring and safe, in order for the client to feel that they are able to share their feelings,
ideas and thoughts.
Insight and experience: The insight and experience of a therapist allows them to understand
at more depth, things that may have been said to draw attention to language used, or a certain
way that a client may be presenting within any given session. It is also important to note that
experience and insight of a client is also hugely important. A therapist and client may be two
very different people from different walks of life, but in this relationship, evolves the ability
to understand sharing experiences and to find new knowledge emerging. This joint learning
and creative experience can make therapy so rewarding for both client and therapist. It is this
mutual meeting and exchanging of experiences that increases the power of talking therapies.

1.1.4. Roles and qualities of a counsellor

Professional counsellors provide counselling to people facing a variety of life stresses

and psychological problems. They help people with relationship issues, family problems, job
stress, and many other challenging problems that can impact feelings of well-being and
happiness. To be effective in their roles, counsellors should enjoy helping others and possess
specific attributes and skills.

The qualities of a successful counsellor include;

(i) Genuineness- Interest in helping people, sustained commitment to facilitating positive

transformation and human-to-human connection. Counsellor should be a real person to a
client, a counsellor needs to be genuine and empathetic – in his or her communication,
listening, and professional persona.

(ii) Perceptual sensitivity- Should perceive and understand the thoughts and feelings of the
client and should be sensitive to the cues, (a) ability to listen – on multiple levels - a
counsellor has to listen, what is being said, how it’s said, why it’s being said, and what it
means in the context of that particular client. They also need to listen “between the lines,” so
to speak, for those things that aren’t being said. Perhaps most importantly, a counsellor
should know how to listen without judgment or evaluation (b) sense of humour - a person's
ability to appreciate humour, to form a relational connection with someone to the point of
developing a shared sense of humour.(c) flexibility - the ability to adapt and change the way
you respond to meet your clients' needs. Counsellor has to be flexible in the views and
understanding of multicultural issues in clinical practice. The transition from one perspective
to another based on each client is a skill that should be developed.

(iii) Perceptual adjustments- Should cope with his problem in a constructive manner and
should not attempt to try and solve all the problems of the client (a) self-awareness - the
ability to look within and identify your own unmet psychological needs and desires, such as a
need for intimacy or the desire to be professionally competent. This ability prevents your
issues from affecting or conflicting with those of your clients

(iv) Communication skills - Counsellors need to have a natural ability to listen and to clearly
explain their ideas and thoughts to others. (a) acceptance - the ability to accept with an open,
non-judgmental attitude -- accepting the client for who she /he is and in their current
situation. Counsellors need to be able to convey acceptance to their clients with warmth and
understanding (b) empathy - The ability to feel what another person is feeling. Counsellors
help people through some of the most difficult and stressful times of their lives. Empathy
help clients feel understood and heard. (c) good listener - counsellors will do more listening
than talking. One must be content to give the client time to express their story and their
feelings.

(v). Problem-Solving Skills - It is not up to a counsellor to solve clients' problems, but

counsellors must have excellent problem-solving skills to identify their negative thought
patterns and other harmful behaviours and necessitate changes to contributing issues.

(vi) Rapport-Building Skill - Unconditional relationship between the counsellor and

counselee. Counsellors must give their undivided attention to clients in order to cultivate
trust. They should avoid being distracted by their own personal problems or concerns, when
they are in a session.
(vii). Multicultural Competency - Understand the client regardless of their race, ethnicity,
religious or political beliefs or socioeconomic status. One must not push their cultural or
religious views upon them.

(viii) Patience - Counsellor need to have patience with clients as they progress with the
discussion. It may take time to accept certain things and to move towards positive changes.

(ix) Non-judgmental - Counsellors should refrain from being judgmental and instead
communicate positive regard, regardless of their sensitive/ punitive secrets from someone’s
past involving things like sexual or criminal behaviour.

(x) Encouraging - One of the primary jobs of a counsellor often involves instilling hope in a
hopeless individual where clients are struggling to find hope in their situation.

(xi) Confidentiality - Client can trust you with their most intimate concerns only if you
maintain confidentiality.

(xii) Research-Oriented - One will need to stay current on the research in order to help your
clients.

To conclude the good counsellor should respect the norms, values, and attitudes of an
individual, a group, or a community whilst counselling. Continuously build a rapport with the
parents, family, community, and individual to protect, care for, and rehabilitate the individual
through positive developments. Establish interest, trust, and confidentiality with the
individual. Assist the individual or parents to find support from society, or their environment.
Be a good role model by showing empathy, patience, respect, optimism, etc during the
counselling sessions.

1.2 Principles of and Process (steps) of Counselling

Principles of Quality Counselling: According to Mc Daniel and Shaftal, the counselling

process is based on some basic principles;

i. Principle of acceptance: According to this principle, each client must the accepted as
an individual and dealt with as such. The counsellor should give, due regard to the
rights of the client.
 ii. Principle of respect for the individual: All the schools of thoughts of counselling
advocate for the respect of the individual i.e., respecting an individual’s feelings must
be an integral part of counselling process.
iii. Principle of thinking with the individual: Counselling emphasizes thinking with the
individual. It is essential to differentiate think for whom? And ‘why to think’? It is the
role of the counsellor to think about all the forces around the client, to join client’s
thought process and to work collectively with the client regarding his problem.
iv. Principle of consistency with ideals of democracy: All the principles are associated
with ideals of democracy. The ideals of democracy desire to accept a person and want
to respect the rights of others. The process of counselling is based upon the ideals of a
person’s respect. It is a process with accepts individual differences.

Process of Counselling

The process of counselling involves many steps, that may vary a bit from situation to
situation. In the medical scenario, contraceptive counselling offers years of experience and
learning, particularly with regard to personalised counselling.

Step 1. Establish and maintain rapport with the client: Establishing and maintaining rapport
with a client is vital to the counselling process and for achieving positive outcomes8. This can
begin by creating a welcoming environment and should continue through every stage of the
client encounter, including follow-up. The contraceptive counselling literature, possibly
dealing with more intimate personal issues, indicates that counselling models that emphasized
the quality of the interaction between client and provider have been associated with decreased
teen pregnancy, increased contraceptive use, increased use of more effective methods,
increased use of repeat or follow-up services, increased knowledge, and enhanced
psychosocial determinants of contraceptive use.9,10

Step 2. Assess the client's needs and personalize discussions accordingly: Each visit should
be tailored to the client's individual circumstances and needs. Clients come to family
planning providers for various services and with varying needs. Standardized questions and
assessment tools can help providers determine what services are most appropriate for a given
visit11. Contraceptive counselling studies that have incorporated standardized assessment
tools during the counselling process have resulted in increased contraceptive use, increased
correct use of contraceptives, and increased use of more effective methods.

Step 3. Work with the client interactively to establish a plan: Working with a client
interactively to establish a plan, including a plan for follow-up, is important. Establishing a
plan should include setting goals, discussing possible difficulties with achieving goals, and
developing action plans to deal with potential difficulties. The amount of time spent
establishing a plan will differ depending on the client's purpose for the visit and health-care
needs. A client plan that requires behavioural change should be made on the basis of the
client's own goals, interests, and readiness for change.12 Use of computerized decision aids
before the appointment can facilitate this process by providing a structured yet interactive
framework for clients to analyze their available options systematically and to consider the
personal importance of perceived advantages and disadvantages.13 The contraceptive
counselling literature indicates that counselling models that incorporated goal setting and
development of action plans have been associated with increased contraceptive use, increased
correct use of contraceptives, increased use of more effective methods, and increased
knowledge. From the family planning education literature, computerized decision aids have
helped clients formulate questions and have been associated with increased knowledge,
selection of more effective methods, and increased continuation and compliance.

Step 4. Provide information that can be understood and retained by the client: Clients need
information that is medically accurate, balanced, and non-judgmental to make informed
decisions and follow through on developed plans. When speaking with clients or providing
educational materials through any medium (e.g., written, audio/visual, or computer/web-
based), the provider must present information in a manner that can be readily understood and
retained by the client. Strategies for making information accessible to clients are provided.

Step 5. Confirm client understanding: It is important to ensure that clients have processed
the information provided and discussed. One technique for confirming understanding is to
have the client restate the most important messages in her or his own words. This teach-back
method can increase the likelihood of the client and provider reaching a shared
understanding, and has improved compliance with treatment plans and health outcomes.
Using the teach-back method, early in the decision-making process, will help ensure that a
client has the opportunity to understand her or his options and is making informed choices.
1.3 Types and techniques of counselling

“Counselling” is a very broad category that encompasses many opportunities in any number
of counselling subfields. Counsellors work in schools, hospitals, rehabilitation facilities,
among other locations, or they can maintain a private practice, and there are many ways in
which to specialize during your counselling career. The most common types of counselling
are the following:

Marriage and Family Counselling

Couples and families face unique problems, which is why they often seek out help
from marriage and family therapists. These professionals are trained to deal specifically with
interpersonal issues that arise in individuals, couples, families and groups. Marriage and
family therapists assess, diagnose and treat psychological distress, within the context of the
marriage and family systems. The professionals provide counselling services in several
different areas including premarital counselling, relationship counselling, child rearing
counselling and separation/ divorce counselling.

Guidance and Career Counselling

Students are under a lot of pressure – pressure to perform academically, pressure to be
popular, pressure to ultimately, make a good life. The one thread that touches upon all these
is the choice of one’s career. It is a decision that is often taken under parental or societal
duress. However, one must seek proper career counselling and guidance to make the right
decision. Career counselling is really beneficial for students, and there are many reasons it is
imperative:
(i). Spot an aptitude: Career counselling helps a student realize true aptitude. While at
a junior level, most students perform evenly across subjects, aptitude tests, conducted by
counsellors, bring out clearly the strong intellectual areas of a particular student. This
empowers the student to make an informed decision, when choosing future studies and
making career choices.
(ii). An objective guide: Many times, students grow up with preconceived notions – “I
must become a doctor, since my father is one”. Good counselling can quell these notions, and
help the student view himself for the individual that he really is. After all, nothing prevents a
doctor’s son from being more suited to, and more interested in, being a musician!
 (iii). Evade confusion: Often, students haven’t developed a clear idea of what they
want to study, by the time they are due to make those choices. This isn’t necessarily due to
any lack of interest; one is simply too young. Seeking career counselling leads to clarity of
thought in a student that helps to identify interests, pick the appropriate subjects, and finally,
make the choice of the right career.

Mental Health Counselling

Mental health counsellors offer guidance to individuals, couples, families and groups that are
dealing with issues that affect their mental health and well-being. Counsellors may deal with
many of the same problems as other psychologists: depression and anxiety, post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), bipolar disorder,
eating disorders, personality disorders, apart from other psychological issues. Their approach
depends on their education and professional experience, but like psychologists, they may
primarily practice psychodynamic therapy, cognitive- behavioural therapy, humanistic
therapy, or have a holistic integrative approach, provided they have adequate training.

Techniques of Counselling

There are many different techniques that counsellors can use with their clients. Here is a look
at some of the techniques that are felt to be most effective during a counselling session;

i. Spheres of influence: This assessment tool will get the individual to look at areas of
their life and see which areas may be impacting and influencing them. The person’s
job is to figure out which systems in their life give them strength, and which ones give
them stress. Some spheres of influence to consider are; themselves, immediate family,
friends, husband or wife, extended family, job or school, community, culture or
religion, and any external influences.

ii. Clarification: A counsellor should often ask their client to clarify what they are
telling them, to make sure they understand the situation correctly. This will help the
counsellor avoid any misconceptions or avoid them having to make any assumptions
that could hinder their feedback.
 iii. Client expectations: When a person enters therapy, they should voice their opinions
about counselling and their beliefs about treatment. In the beginning, they should be
able to communicate with their counsellor as to what they expect to get out of
counselling. This can help the counsellor guide and direct their counselling
accordingly.

iv. Confrontation: This does not mean the client confronting the therapist, or vice versa.
The confrontation that should happen here is within the client. The client should be
able to self-examine themselves during counselling. However, the speed at which they
do this should be discussed between the counsellor and the client.
v. Listening skills: With any relationship, listening skills are needed to show that the
counsellor understands and interprets the information that their client gives them
correctly. The counsellor should do this by showing attentiveness in non-verbal ways,
such as: summarizing, capping, or matching the body language of their clients.
vi. Open-Ended Questions: Open-ended questions encourage people in a counselling
session to give more details on their discussion. Therefore, these types of questions
are used as a technique by counsellors to help their clients answer how, why, and
what.
vii. Paraphrasing: This technique will show clients that the counsellor is listening to their
information and processing what they have been telling them. Paraphrasing is also
good to reiterate or clarify any misinformation that might have occurred.
viii. Trustworthiness: The counsellor must create an environment for their client, as such
that, their client feels that they have the capacity to trust their counsellor. A therapist
must be: warm, empathetic and speak with positive regard to their client.
ix. Be Congruent (to explain). Congruence is the most important attribute, according to
Rogers. This implies that the therapist is real and/or genuine, open, integrated and
authentic during their interactions with the client. The therapist does not have a
facade, that is, the therapist's internal and external experiences are one in the same. To
be congruent, the counsellor and client must relate to each other in a genuine and open
way.
x. Working alliance: Creating a working alliance between a counsellor and their client
is essential for a successful counselling environment that will work to achieve the
client’s needs. This technique involves the client and therapist being active
 collaborators during counselling and agreeing upon goals of treatment that are
necessary, as well as how to achieve those goals.

1.4 Theories of Counselling- Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Cognitive,

Behavioural

Key Points:
• Psychodynamics in its broadest sense, is an approach to psychology that emphasizes
systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behaviour, feelings,
and emotions and how they might relate to early experience.
• The humanistic perspective is an approach to psychology that emphasizes empathy
and stresses the good in human behaviour. In counselling and therapy,
this approach allows an psychologist to focus on ways to help improve an individual's
self-image or self-actualization – the things that make them feel worthwhile.
• Behaviorism is the theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are
described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships.

Psychological theories provide a framework for counsellors and therapists to interpret a

client’s behaviour, thoughts, and feelings and help them navigate the client’s journey from
diagnosis to post-treatment. Theoretical approaches are an integral part of the therapeutic/
counselling process and the most important traditional approaches to therapy are
psychodynamic, cognitive–behavioural and humanistic. However, recently there is a
proliferation of theories and approaches to counselling. Some of these are modifications or
improvements on the basic concepts and some others relatively newer concepts.

1.4.1. Psychodynamic Approach

Psychodynamic approach to counselling has its origin in the pioneering work of

Sigmund Freud, a medical doctor of Jewish origin, one of the most influential thinker of his
times and the founder of psychoanalysis. Starting with the technique of hypnosis for
emotionally disturbed and suffering from ‘hysteria’, gradually evolved his own method of
‘free association’, which is letting the clients relax first and say whatever comes to their
mind. Overall, Freud’s thoughts were based on his firm belief that this procedure of free
 association helped to bring out; (i) strong emotions, (ii) deeply buried memories and (iii)
childhood sexual experiences of the client. There is a general feeling and rightly so that we
have over emphasised the word ‘sexual’ in English translation, without probably
understanding what Freud meant in the original writing in German as ‘life force’ or
‘emotional energy’, rather than overtly sexual. Over a period of time many psychologists
have brought in new understanding and interpretations, but have retained the essence of his
thinking. Freud’s method of psychoanalysis is broadly based on three assumptions; (i) the
client’s difficulties have their ultimate origins in childhood experiences, (ii) the client may
not be consciously aware of the true motives or impulses behind his or her actions and (iii)
the concept of ‘transference relationship’ could be effectively used in counselling situations.

1.4.2. Cognitive Approach

Cognitive therapy centres on the belief that our thoughts are influenced by how we
feel. There are a number of different cognitive therapies, including Cognitive-Behavioural,
Virtual Reality, Rational Emotive and Transactional Analysis. Each of these cognitive
approaches to counselling can help a client through the counselling process, by providing
further understanding of the way our thoughts are sometimes distorted (cognitive error).

Unlike psychodynamic approach, cognitive therapy focuses on the present. This means that
issues from the past that are influencing current thinking, are acknowledged but not
concentrated on. Instead a counsellor will work with the client on identifying, what is causing
distress in present thinking. What links these different forms of cognitive therapy is the way
in which the counselling relationship, between a counsellor and client, develops.
Assertiveness exercises, role-playing and homework are also part of the supportive one-to-
one sessions a client will have with a counsellor.

a. Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy: This cognitive approach to counselling is based on the

belief that learning comes from personal experience. Counselling will focus on a client’s
ability to accept behaviour, clarify problems and difficulties and understand the reasoning
behind the importance of setting goals. With the help of self-management training, assertive
exercises and role-playing the counsellor can help a client work towards goals.
b. Virtual Reality Therapy: This form of therapeutic approach works well in treating fears and
phobias. This is because virtual reality therapy (VRT) concentrates on accurately duplicating
the distressing situations. Counsellors, who use this form of cognitive approach during
counselling sessions, will recreate situations in order to expose the client to what triggers
their fear. VRT also works well in treating anxiety disorders.

c. Rational Emotive Therapy: Rational Emotive Behaviour therapy (REBT) centres on the
belief that human beings have a tendency to develop irrational behaviour and beliefs. These
are the ‘musts’ and ‘shoulds’ that many people fill their lives with, and which influence
thought and deed. REBT acknowledges that past and present conditions affect a person’s
thinking and utilises a framework, so that the counsellor can apply activating events that
allow the client to identify beliefs and consequences.

d. Transactional Analysis: TA, as Transactional Analysis is also known, is based on the notion
that our personality consists of three states of ego – parent, adult and child. During interaction
with others one of our ego states will predominate, depending on the situation we find
ourselves in. Certain types of behaviour are associated with each of the ego roles, and using
this form of cognitive approach to counselling allows the client to understand the different
ego stages and how they interact with each other.

1.4.3. Behaviouristic Approach

Behaviourists believe that behaviour is 'learned' and, therefore, it can be unlearned.

This is in contrast to the psychodynamic approach, which emphasises that behaviour is
determined by instinctual drives. Behaviour therapy focuses on the behaviour of the
individual and aims to help him/her to modify unwanted behaviours. According to this
approach unwanted behaviour is an undesired response to something or someone, in a
person's environment. Using this approach, a counsellor would identify the unwanted
behaviour with a client and together they would work to change or adapt the behaviour. For
example, a client who feels anxious around dogs would learn a more appropriate response to
these animals. Problems which respond well to this type of therapy include phobias, anxiety
attacks and eating disorders. Behavioural counsellors or therapists use a range of behaviour
modification techniques.
Once the unwanted behaviour is identified, the client and counsellor might continue the
process by drawing up an action plan of realistic, attainable goals. The aim would be that the
unwanted behaviour stops altogether or is changed in such a way that it is no longer a
problem. Clients might be taught skills to help them manage their lives more effectively. For
example, they may be taught how to relax in situations that produce an anxiety response and
rewarded or positively reinforced when desirable behaviour occurs. Another method used
involves learning desirable behaviour by watching and copying others who already behave in
the desired way. In general, the behavioural approach is concerned with the outcome, rather
than the process of change. The behavioural counsellor uses the skills of listening, reflection
and clarification, but rather than use them as a process of revealing and clarifying the client's
thoughts and feelings, the skills would be used to enable the counsellor to make an
assessment of all the factors relating to the undesirable behaviour.

1.4.4. Humanistic Approach

Humanistic approach, one of the three approaches in counselling psychology emerged

after disillusion with the other two prominent approaches at that time - psychodynamic and
behaviourist. It emerges as the third force in the 1950s and 1960s. It moved away from
looking at psychology clinically and more at the human being itself. The humanistic approach
as the third force in contemporary psychology, realizes the importance of learning and the
different psychological processes that are usually associated with the focus of research, but
focuses usually positively on the individual's future not the past. The therapy is
phenomenological, so it is important for the counsellor to see events exactly the way the
clients see them. The person being treated is not seen as a patient, but as a client on equal
terms to the counsellor. The main goals of humanistic psychology are, to find out how
individuals perceive themselves in the here and now and to recognize growth, self-direction
and responsibilities. This method is optimistic and attempts to help individuals recognize
their strengths by offering a non-judgmental, empathic experience. The Humanistic approach
offers a therapeutic atmosphere which allows the client to become fully integrated again as
humanistics believe that a self-actualizing tendency is essential for the success of counselling.
The way the therapeutic relationship works is not only about the theory, it is also about the
experience itself, as practiced in person-centred counselling.
Pioneered by Carl Rogers, person-centred counselling, also known as client-centred therapy
or Rogerian psychotherapy, requires the authentic personal involvement between both client
and therapist. It is a real relationship wherein both view each other as important and the client
feels valued for himself/ herself rather than for thinking, feeling, or behaving in ways others
think he/she should. Self-disclosure is mutual, meaning the therapist draws from his own
experience to express genuine understanding and empathy for the client’s situation. The
message to the client is, “I feel what you’re feeling. I know what you’re going through.”
When the client perceives the counsellor’s unconditional acceptance and positive regard, the
client feels safe exposing his/ her vulnerability and anxiety.

Unlike psychoanalysis, which seeks to probe the client’s unconscious mind for
memories of past events, person-centred therapy is concerned with the client’s present
experience. There is no particular structure to this non-directive approach. The therapeutic
relationship itself provides the means for the client to find his/ her own solutions to problems
or obstacles that get in the way of fulfilment. Person-centred counselling bridges the gap
between a client’s ideal self and his/ her actual self. Its primary goals are increased self-
esteem and greater openness to experience. The objectives may include lower levels of
defensiveness and insecurity, less guilt and more self-understanding, more positive and
comfortable relationships, and an increased capacity to fully experience and express feelings
at the moment they occur.

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