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JOURNAL OF IRON AND STEEL RESEARCH, INTERNATIONAL. 2013, 20(6): 68-74

Strain Hardening and Strain Rate Sensitivity Behaviors of

Advanced High Strength Steels
F Ozturk’ , A Polat’ , S Toros’ , R C Picu’
(1. Department of Mechanical Engineering, Nigde University, Nigde 51245, Turkey; 2. Department of Mechanical,
Aerospace and Nuclear Engineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy 12180, New York, USA)

Abstract: The mechanical properties of commercial dual phase (DP) , transformation induced plasticity ( T R I P ) , and
high strength low alloy (HSLA-340) steel sheets are investigated and compared at various strain rates ranging from
0. 001 7 to 0. 17 s-’ at ambient temperature. TRIP steel outperforms the other two materials, having comparable
ductility and twice as large strength relative to DP steel. TRIP has larger strength and much larger ductility than
HSLA-340. The exceuent ductility of TRIP800 is due to its high strain hardening capability, which promotes stable
plastic deformation. It is observed that the strain hardening rate in TRIP800 does not decrease to zero at failure, as
common in most materials in which failure is preceded by necking.
Key words: steel; advanced high strength steel; HS1.A; DP; TRIP; hardening

Numerous efforts have been made in recent years to
reduce vehicle mass in order to increase fuel efficiency
and reduce carbon dioxide emission. Therefore, the use
of metallic materials with high strength per mass ra-
tio has become a requirement for safe design and in-
creased crashworthine~s~’-~~. Prominent members of
the advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) class are
the high strength-low alloy ( HSLA ) , the dual-
phase (DP) , transformation induced plasticity (TRIP) ,
and twinning-induced plasticity ( TWIP) steels. HSLA
steels consist of ferrite, fine carbides and nitrides.
Dual-phase steels have microstructures containing
ferrite and martensite, with the martensite usually
distributed along grain boundaries. T h e soft ferrite
phase provides ductility and toughness, while the
hard martensite provides strength14’. In TRIP steel,
phase transformation of austenite to martensite
takes place during deformation under the action of
stress. This enhances the apparent work hardening
of the material and improves its ductility. In the un-
deformed state, the material contains ferrite and re-
sidual austenite ( stabilized by an increased concen-
tration of Si) , which provide ductility. TRIP steels
may be compared with T W I P steels, which are aus-
tenitic in the undeformed state. Austenite is stabi-
lized by a large concentration of Mn and remains sta-
ble during deformation. However, intense twinning
leads to strong strain hardening which is almost con-
stant ( i n some cases even increasing) with strain.
The phase composition of these materials is con-
trolled through the selection of the annealing tem-
perature, quenching rate, and chemical composi-
tion. In order to produce a strong and ductile AHSS
with the appropriate phase distribution, selecting an
adequate intercritical annealing process is essential.
There have been numerous studies of the effect
of the phase volume fraction and tempering condi-
tions on the mechanical properties of these steelsC5-’”.
M R Akbarpour and A Ekrami[’l investigated the
effect of annealing time on the phase structure
(mainly the volume fraction of ferrite) and mechani-
cal properties of DP steel. The strength of this ma-
terial decreases and elongation increases as a result
of increasing the ferrite volume fraction. These au-
thors also investigated the work hardening behavior
of high bainite DP steels with increased volume frac-
tion of ferriteC6’. A Kumar et all7’ investigated the
structure-property relation of ferrite-bainite and fer-
rite-martensite DP steels ; the hardness and tensile
properties were evaluated as functions of the volume
fraction of bainite and martensite. A similar study
was performed by N Saeidi and A EkramiCIZ1and

Biography:F Ozturk(1971-), Male, Doctor, Associate Professor; E-mail: fahrettin@nigde. edu. tr; Received Date: September 27, 2011
Issue 6 Strain Hardening and Strain Rate Sensitivity Behaviors of Advanced High Strength Steels
tensile properties of martensite/ferrite and bainitel
ferrite dual phase steels were determined a t room
temperature. These works indicated that steels with
bainite/ferrite microstructure have better ductility
and Charpy impact energy than steels with martens-
ite/ferrite microstructure, however, the yield stress
and tensile strength of bainite/ferrite steel are smal-
ler than those of martensite/ferrite steels. Similar
results are reported in Ref. [15].
In addition to the dual phase steels, TRIP steels
find applications in the automotive industry due to their
good formability and high energy absorption properties.
T h e forming processes improve the mechanical per-
formance of T R I P steels due to the transformation of
retained austenite into martensite during forming.
During the transformation, retained face centered cubic
(fee) austenite transforms to body centered cubic mar-
tensite as the strain increases, and this leads to im-
proved strength. T h e strain at the beginning of the
transformation is generally related to the carbon con-
tent and the size of the retained austenite grainsC16-18’.
In T R I P steels, the large strain-hardening rate per-
sists at higher strains, while in DP steels strain
hardening diminishes with strain. This pronounced
strain hardening delays localization and leads to the
apparent large ductility observed in uniaxial tests. It
is also the primary reason for the enhanced form-
ability of these steels. In forming operations, the
thickness of the formed parts is more uniform for
TRIP steels than for DP and HSLA steels. HSLA necks
more than TRIP steel, while DP fractures without any
necking. However, proper comparative evaluation
should be based on the identification of the limits of
formability under different forming modes/paths,
e. g. with the aid of the forming limit A tained from optical micrographs are shown in Fig. 1.
Table 1 Chemical composition of HSLA-340, DP800, and TRIPS00
Grade C Mn Cr
HSLA-340 0.048 0.323 0.012
DP800 0.158 1.67 0.414
TRIP800 0.195 1.48 0.015
(a) HSLA-340 steel;
Fig. 1 Microstructures of as-received materials
69
comparative study of the formability of these steels
was also performed by Wolfgang Bleck et alCzol,who
determined the forming limit diagram for T R I P ,
DP, I F , IF-HS, AO, A3, and ZStE 180 BH steels.
Increasing the formability and reducing the manu-
facturing costs of these high strength steels have been
discussed in the l i t e r a t ~ r e [ ~ ~H- ~Huh
~ ~ .et alC4linvesti-
gated the dynamic tensile characteristics of TRIP600
and DP600 steels. It was observed that the flow stress
increases with increasing strain rate ( positive strain
rate sensitivity). T h e fracture elongation and form-
ability of T R I P steel sheets were found to be better
than those of DP steels at intermediate strain rates.
In the present study, a comparative study of the
tensile deformation behavior of commercial HSLA-340,
DP800, and TRIP800 steels is performed. This infor-
mation helps classify these materials with respect to
their formability.
1 Experimental
1. 1 Material
HSLA-340, DP800, and TRIP800 advanced high
strength steel sheets with thickness of 1. 2 , 1. 5 ,
and 1. 5 mm respectively were studied by performing
tensile tests at various strain rates. T h e chemical
composition of these materials is given in Table 1.
As-received steel samples were etched in order
to delineate the microstructures for metallographic
observation. After grinding and polishing, HSLA
and DP steels were etched with 2% nital solution.
For the T R I P steels the specimens were first etched
with 5 % nital and rinsed with pure water, followed
by etching in a 10% sodium metabisulphite solution.
T h e microstructures of the as-received materials ob-
(mass percent, % )
Ni Si P A1 S Fe
0.025 0.015 0.012 0.031 0.0053 98.6
0.056 0.22 0.0120 0.046 0.0041 95.9
0.031 1.43 0.011 0.026 0.0026 96.3
(b) DP800 steel; (c) TRIP800 steel.
 70 - Journal of Iron and Steel Research, International VOl. 20

With these etchants retained austenite appears white,
ferrite appears grey, and bainite and martensite ap-
pear blacki2". T h e volume fraction measurements
were performed using the 100 grid-point counting
method in accordance with ASTM standard E56ZLZ6].
T h e Heyn linear intercept method, which i s de-
scribed in the ASTM standard El12'27', was used to
measure the average ferrite grain size. Quantitative
metallographic results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Quantitative metallographic results in
as-received conditions
Volume fraction/%
Grade Retained
Ferrite Martensite Bainite
austenite
HSLA-340 100
DP800 74 26
TRIP800 71 3. 8 11. 4
1 . 2 Experimental procedure
Uniaxial tensile tests were performed at ambi-
ent temperature and strain rates of 0. 001 7 , 0. 008 3 ,
0. 083, and 0. 1 7 s-'. A t least three samples were
tested for each strain rate. Samples of dimensions as
specified by the ASTM E8 standard were cut from
the sheet in the rolling direction by water jet cutting.
All samples had 50 mm gauge length. It is known
that the sample cutting method is important as it
may influence the mechanical behavior. This is at-
tributed to the formation of heat affected zones along
the edges of the sample, in which the phase compo-
sition is modified. Such difference was observed in
the hole expansion testsC281,where drilled holes ex-
hibited a much larger expansion than punched holes
under the same far field loading. Water cutting min-
imizes such structural changes in the material.
All tensile tests were performed with a Shimadzu
Average Autograph 100 kN testing machine and the material
grain size/ deformation was measured with a video-extensometer.
Pm Each test was repeated at least three times and aver-
12. 2 aged.
5. 16
13. 8 4. 7 2 Results and Discussion
True stress vs true strain curves for the three
materials at different strain rates are given in Fig. 2.
T h e figure indicates that the flow stresses are very
different at all strains, with the HSLA steel carry-
ing significantly smaller stress than the other steels.
The HSLA steel exhibits a yield point elongation
(YPE) phenomenon including the formation of loca-

c--
-#/-
c

7
o /
q'
400 -
200 -
0 1 I I I
D 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.20 0.24 0.28
True strain

(a) 0.0017 s - ' ; (b) 0.0083 s-l; (c) 0.083 s-l; (d) 0.017 s-l.
Fig. 2 True stress vs true strain curves at different strain rates
Issue 6 Strain Hardening and Strain Rate Sensitivity Behaviors of Advanced High Strength Steels
-
lization bands. This is usually attributed to static
aging produced by the interaction of carbon atoms
and dislocations. T h e length of the Luders plateau
decreases as the rate increases. A t the lowest strain
rate used the YPE is about 7. 5% and decreases to
2. 5% at the highest strain rate. This phenomenon is
not observed in other steels. In many alloys, YPE is
negligible either because the material has been suffi-
ciently temper rolled or because it is inherently free
of YPE at the given temperature (e. g. , fully stabi-
lized steels, dual phase steels, and various alumi-
num alloys)CZ51.This phenomenon is generally unde-
sirable since it is associated with stretcher marks
(strain localization bands) and poor surface quality
during stamping operations.
The strain at failure is comparable in HSLA-340
and TRIP800 and significantly smaller in DP800. As
discussed in Ref. [ 291, the deformation of ferrite
grains is more pronounced in T R I P steels than in DP
steels because the austenitemartensite transformation
leads to localized deformation in adjacent ferrite
grains. T h e large ductility of TRIP800 is clearly due
to its high strain hardening capability which pro-
motes stable plastic deformationC301. Therefore,
T R I P steels are more suitable for complex applica-
tions than DP steels.
T h e combination of high strength and ductility
of T R I P steels depends on the amount of retained
austenite in the structure. T h e percentage of re-
tained austenite is controlled by the chemical compo-
sition, particularly by carbon, silicon, and manganese.
A comprehensive study of the effects of retained
austenite on mechanical properties of TRIP800 was
performed by K S Choi et alc31-321.They have ob-
served that the austenite-martensite transformation
does not take place during the elastic and beginning
of plastic deformation. As the deformation pro-
ceeds, a rapid decrease of the retained austenite vol-
ume fraction from 15% to 2% (close to sample failure)
is observedC311.
T h e ability of the material to strain hardening
controls localization retardation and indirectly the
tensile strength. Strain hardening is characterized by
&/dE or by the strain hardening exponent n. T h e
exponent is obtained by fitting a power law to the
stress-strain curve, i. e. loga= logK -tnloge, where
K is a fitting constant or strength coefficient. Fig. 3
shows &/& versus the flow stress for strain rate of
0. 0083 s-l and for the three materials. T h e curves
show the typical decreasing trend observed in most
materials. It is interesting to note that T W I P steels,
71
which exhibit large hardening rates that are almost
constant during deformation, provide an exception
to this typical behavior. T h e monotonic drop of the
strain hardening rate during deformation in T R I P
steels (Fig. 3 ) is likely due to two factors: 1) the
volume fraction of the material affected by the phase
transformation is smaller in TRIP steels than in
TWIP steels, and 2 ) twinning takes place in a more
gradual manner in T W I P steels than the austenite-
martensite transformation in T R I P steels. Neverthe-
less, TRIP800 outperforms the other two materials
considered in this study. It is important to observe
that the hardening rate in TRIP800 does not de-
crease to zero at failure, as seen in most materials in
which failure is preceded by necking.
--- TRIP800
-.-- HSLA-,%O
12 000
:I$
8 000
4 OOO
0
True stresslMPa
Fig. 3 Comparison of strain hardening rates vs
true stress for HSLA-340, DPSOO , and
TRIP800 steels at 0.0083 s-'
T h e values of the strain hardening exponent n
are shown in Fig. 4 for all strain rates considered.
T h e exponent decreases with increasing strain rate in
DP800, while it is constant or decreases slightly in
TRIP800 and HSLA-340.
Fig. 5 shows the variation of the 0. 2 % yield
strength (YS) with the strain rate for the three materi-
als. The yield stress of DP800 is highest for all strain
0.20
A HSLA-340
0.08
-0.02 0 0.02 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.18
Strain rate/s-'
Fig. 4 Variation of strain hardening
coefficient with strain rate
 72 Journal of Iron and Steel Research, International
i (
3 480
440
400 M
380 , A
fi
A
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
Strain rat&-'
Fig. 5 Variation of yield strength with strain rate
rates and increases with the rate. A similar trend is
seen for TRIP800. However, HSLA-340 has a strain
rate-independent yield stress in the entire range of
strain rates.
The strain rate sensitivity is important in deter-
mining the stability of plastic deformation. Further-
more, the energy absorption capability of a structure
strongly depends on the strain rate sensitivity and
strain hardening characteristics of the material. In
general, positive strain rate sensitivity and large
strain hardening lead to large energy absorption be-
fore failure.
T h e strain rate sensitivity of these steels was
measured by performing strain rate jumps. Jumps were
performed between 2. 8 X l o p 4 and 2. 8 X lo-' s-' ,
i. e. with a strain rate differential of 100. T h e strain
rate sensitivity is positive for all materials. The strain
sensitivity parameter m [m=log(al /a, )/Iog(El/&
versus stress was fitted with a linear equation, which
led to the following expressions: m = ( 0 . 015 X - three materials (Haasen plot)
9. 083X10-6) 0 for DP800, m=(1. 7 9 X 1 0 - 4 - 2 . 2 2 X
l o p 5) 0 for TRIP800 and m= (0.018 7 X - 2.22 X
l o p 5 ) 0 for HSLA-340. It results that the equation
for TRIP steel has a positive coefficient of 0 , which
means that the strain rate sensitivity of the material
increases with deformation. In the expression of m ,
o1 is stress level which depicts the start point of the
jump, and oz is the peak stress after performing the
jump operation. Similarly the strain rate values at
the measured stress levels are symbolized with and
EZ. T h e strain rate sensitivity coefficient S [S= (ol-
uz )/log(& /Ez I] was also evaluated and is shown in
Fig. 6 as a function of the flow stress (Haasen plot).
T h e Haasen plots of DP800 and HSLA-340 are al-
most horizontal-a behavior similar to that of solid
solutions. The curve corresponding to TRIP800 has
a positive slope and a negative intercept of the verti-
Val. 20
-
cal axis. In this case, the large slope of the Haasen
plot of TRIP800 is attributed to the austenite-mar-
tensite transformation. As discussed in Ref. [I2 9 1 ,
the transformation takes place faster at higher rates,
phenomenon that may lead to the effect observed
here. T h e slope of the curves in Fig. 5 at the left end
of the strain rate range can be compared with the
values of S in Fig. 6 at low stresses (i. e. close to the
yield stress). The DP curve has the highest slope,
i. e. highest S value, which is in agreement with the
data in Fig. 6. Fig. 6 also indicates that the strain
rate sensitivity of the yield stress of HSLA-340 is
slightly higher than that of TRIP800. T h e noise in
the data in Fig. 5 at rates close to 2. 8 X s-'
( t h e base rate of the strain rate jump tests) does not
permit an accurate comparison of these two materi-
als. T h e results of strain rate jumps (Fig. 6 ) are, in
general, more accurate since in this type of test the
rate sensitivity of the material is probed at given
structure and at a given strain rate (rates close to
the base rate considered).
20
o DP800
,, S14.237 22+6.332 64 x 10-'(21
16 - A HSLA-340
12 - S=11.10206-0.004 13 (TI
cc
8-
S=-8.678 17+0.02193 (21
4
2- 0
>I
Fig. 6 Comparison of strain rate sensitivity Coefficient for
Another interesting parameter that may be ex-
tracted from the uniaxial tension results describes
the post-uniform deformation capability of the material.
It is a measure of the deformation at constant ( o r
nearly constant) maximum load which continues over
a certain strain range beyond the maximum uniform
elongation. T h e ratio of the current deformation
load F to the maximum load F,, observed in uniaxi-
al tension is plotted against the post-uniform exten-
sion for the strain rate of 2. 8 X s-' (Fig. 7).
As shown in Fig. 7, HSLA-340 has the maximum
post-uniform extension ( neck extension) , followed
by the T R I P and DP steels. It is also observed that
neck extension decreases with increasing strain rate.
T h e orientation of the sample with respect to the
rolling direction has an effect on the strain hardening
Issue 6 Strain Hardening and Strain Rate Sensitivity Behaviors of Advanced High Strength Steels ' 73 '

formation is available for these specimens, this re-

1.0 1 I mains a conjecture at this time.
Ir D d O

'I
nn
3 Conclusions

"i
u'y

1) TRIP800 steel has large ductility, compara-

b 0.8 HSLA-340
O.'t
0.6 I T R I P is due to the deformation-induced phase trans-
0 1 2 3 4 5
Neck extensionhvn
Fig. 7 Loss of load carrying ability as a
function of neck extension
rate and on the stress-strain curve, in general. Spe-
cifically7 one expects for T R I P steels higher strain
hardening, leading to higher ultimate tensile strength
(UTS) when samples are cut in the rolling direction
relative to the transverse and diagonal (45") direc-
tion~[~~ T 'h. e comparison of hardening rates of sam-
ples cut in different directions is shown in Fig. 8.
T h e strain hardening behavior of DP, T R I P , and
HSLA steels are significantly different as also seeh
in Fig. 3. T h e DP steel shows very large strain hard-
ening rate immediately after yielding (Fig. 3) and a
rather strong dependence on the direction in which
the sample is cut relative to the rolling direction.
Samples cut in the rolling direction strain harden
more than those corresponding to the transverse and
diagonal directions. Very little directional sensitivity
of the strain hardening rate is observed in the HSLA
steel. T h e T R I P steel exhibits no dependence of the
hardening rate on the specimen direction. Direction-
al sensitivity is expected if a strong texture exists.
This may explain why DP shows strong sensitivity,
while the other materials do not. Since no texture in-
20 000
16 MM
Rolling direction
12 OOO
Diagonal direction
Transverse direction
212
8 000
4000
0
400 500 700 900
Fig. 8 Comparison of strain hardening rates vs
true stress for different steels for loading
in different directions at 0.0083 s-'
ble with HSLA-340, and a large flow stress. Its
yield stress is lower than that of DP800, but its ulti-
mate tensile strength is higher. T h e pronounced and
weakly strain-dependent strain hardening rate of
6 7
formation.
2 ) All these materials have positive strain rate
sensitivity, and the rate sensitivity of TRIP800 in-
creases significantly during deformation, while that
of the other two alloys remaining constant.
3 ) HSLA-340 has the maximum post-uniform
extension (neck extension) , followed by the T R I P
and the DP steels.
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