Materials Science and Technology

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Strain hardening of high-strength steels

D. T. Gawne & G. M. H. Lewis

To cite this article: D. T. Gawne & G. M. H. Lewis (1985) Strain hardening of high-strength
steels, Materials Science and Technology, 1:2, 128-135, DOI: 10.1179/mst.1985.1.2.128

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/mst.1985.1.2.128

Published online: 18 Jul 2013.

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 Strain hardening and the loss of ductility with increasing strength have been
Strain hardening investigated for a series of cold-rolled high-strength steels. The strain hardening
of high-strength exponent n decreases with increasing strength S according to the relationship
nSP = C, where p and C are constants for a given strengthening mechanism. The
steels value of p (and hence the ductility) at a fixed strength level depends on the
operative strengthening mode. Solid-solution hardening is the most ductile method
of strengthening, followed, ill order of decreasing ductility, by grain refining,
precipitation hardening, partial annealing, and cold working. It is proposed that
the influence of a strengthening mechanism is related to the strain at which a
steady-state dislocation-cell structure is developed in the material. The lower this
critical strain, the lower the ductility, since further strain must then be
accommodated by microband formation. The critical strain is considered to be
dependent on the rate of accumulation of geometrically necessary dislocations in
the structure, which is a function of the material's geometric slip distance.
Strengthening mechanisms relying on obstacles in the microstructure - e.g.
precipitation hardening - will have relatively short geometric slip distances, and
thus low ductilities. Solid-solution hardening is preferable, because it operates
only by increasing the lattice friction resistance to dislocation motion, and so does
not reduce the geometric slip distance. The cell structure in the cold-worked steels
is expected to approach that of the steady state at the start of the tests, a
feature which, will result in very low critical strains and ductilities. MST/92

© 1985 The Institute of Metals. Manuscript received 23 July 1984; in final form
24 October 1984. Dr Gawne is in the Department of Materials Technology, Brunei
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D. T. Gawne University, Uxbridge, Greater London and Mr Lewis is with the British Steel
G. M. H. Lewis Corporation, Welsh Laboratories, Port Talbot, West Glamorgan.

under an argon atmosphere to soaking temperatur~s of

Introduction
High-strength steels can make a significant contribution to
the more efficient use of materials and energy, especially in
the automotive, construction, and packaging industries.
However, a problem with high-strength steels is that they
possess lower ductilities than conventional mild steels, and
this can restrict their application. As a general rule, the
ductility of materials tends to diminish with increasing
strength. None the less, a given material can be-
strengthened by a number of different mechanisms, some of
which may be less detrimental to ductility than others. In
this paper, the influence of the operative strengthening
mechanism on the rate of fall of ductility with increasing
strength is investigated. The mechanisms covered are solid-
solution hardening, precipitation hardening, grain refining,
partial annealing, and cold working.
Experimental procedure
Altogether, 70 steels of different composItIons were
processed by various routes to yield a total of 170 finished
materials. The ranges of composition and grain size
covered by these materials are given in Table 1. The steels
were either sampled from hot-rolled coils in the works and
cold-rolled and annealed in the laboratory, or vacuum
melted and fully processed to annealed sheet in the
laboratory. -The steels hot rolled in the works were
slab reheated at 1250°C, finished at 900°C, spray cooled,
and coiled at 580°C at a gauge of 2 mm. The laboratory-
melted steels were given a simulation of works hot
rolling: reheated, finished, and coiled at the same tem-
peratures as above, then spray cooled at 50 K s - 1 on a
run-out table with motorized rollers and cooled from
580°C at 0·4 K s - 1. All the hot-rolled steels were cold
rolled by 60% to a final thickness of 0·8 mm on a
laboratory mill, using lubrication and heavy reductions at
each pass. Simulated batch annealing was carried out
660-700°C at a heating rate of 0·5 K s -1, followed by
cooling from- 700 to 150°C in 48 h. Selected samples
were given simulated continuous-annealing treatments in a
radiant furnace, using a heating rate of 12 K s- 1 to soaking
temperatures between 715 and 800°C, followed by soaking
for 3 min, cooling at 12 K s -1 to 350°C, holding for 5 min,
and cooling at 12 K s -1 to room temperature.
Tensile testing was carried out on an Instron machine,
using a cross head speed of 40 J..lms -1, with specimens of
gauge lengths and widths of 50 and 12·5 mm, respectively.
Tensile specimens were cut at 0°, 45°, and 90° to the strip
rolling direction, average properties P being estimated
from the test results using the equation
P = -!(PO+2P4S+P90) . . . . . . . . . . (1)
where the subscripts refer to the orientation of the testpiece
relative to the rolling direction.
Grain sizes were measured on through-thickness sections
parallel to the rolling direction by the linear intercept
method, using optical microscopy. Transmission electron
microscopy was carried out on a Philips 300 using thin
foils and carbon replicas. The precipitates were extracted
from mid-thickness sections parallel to the rolling plane on
the carbon replicas.
Measures of ductility
Ductility is the ability of a material to deform plastically
before fracture. Tensile testing provides a useful indication
of ductility, since it covers a range of effective strain
broadly similar to that encountered in metal-fabrication
processes such as press forming, and is a convenient
method of evaluating strain-hardening characteristics. The
steels used in this investigation were found experimentally
to conform to the Ludwick-Hollomon equation
(2)
where (J is the true stress, e the true plastic strain, K the

128 Materials Science and Technology February 1985 Vol. 1

 Gawne and Lewis Strain hardening of high-strength steels 129

Table 1 Composition and grain-size ranges of experimental steels

Grain
Composition, wt-% intercept
C Si Mn P S Ni AI (sol.) Cu N Nb Sn Ti V length, Ilm

Mean 0·085 0·051 0-59 0-025 0·017 0·017 0-014 0·020 0·0050 0·072 0·006 0·107 0·103 7·4
Min. 0·046 <0·01 0·25 <0·01 0·008 <0·01 <0·01 <0·01 0·0015 0·018 0·005 0·016 0·011 3·3
Max. 0·220 1·050 1·40 0·287 0·033 0·045 0·063 0·065 0·0256 0'220 0·013 0·197 0·240 13·8

strength coefficient, and n the strain-hardening exponent. below; these values are plotted as a broken line in Fig. 1.
Differentiation of equation (2) gives The nominal tensile strength St is given by2
dO" 0" Knn
de = n~ . . . . . . . . . (3) St = 2.718n • • • • • • • • • • • (6)

which shows that the strain-hardening rate dO"/de of a The nominal yield strength Sy is the stress at e = 0·002, and
material is directly proportional to n,' which is thus a so, from equation (2)
convenient single-valued measure of strain-hardening Sy = K(O'002t
behaviour.
Localized necking or plastic instability in a tensile test giving
begins at the maximum load, at which the increase in stress
arising from the decrease in the cross-sectional area of the ~ = (184nt (7)
Sy
specimen becomes greater than the increase in the load-
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carrying ability of the material that results from strain The total elongation et at fracture of the tensile specimen
hardening. It can be shown 1 that, provided equation (2) is was also used to assess ductility. Although et is easily
obeyed, the limit of true uniform strain eu at which local measured experimentally, its relationship with ductility is
necking occurs in a tensile test is numerically equal complex, since it depends on the uniform elongation,
to n. Under the biaxial tensile conditions commonly specimen dimensions, and neck geometry, as well as on the
encountered in forming, the local necking that occurs in fracture characteristics of the materiaL Providing the same
uniaxial tension is inhibited; instead, the material develops specimen dimensions are used, however, et does provide a
diffuse necking at e = n, plastic instability eventually useful practical assessment of ductility.
occurring in the form of a narrow localized neck at e = 2n.
Although diffuse necking does not usually limit forming,
because thinning is spread over a large area, local necking
does represent a limit to forming, as it is readily detected Results and discussion
and quickly followed by fracture. Press designs are thus
chosen to avoid local necking, and n may be taken as a
STRENGTH-DUCTILITY DIAGRAMS
relevant indicator of material performance under these
Anyone steel depends upon a number of mechanisms for
conditions.
its strength. For example, Fig. 2 indicates that a cold-
Deformation in sheet forming is inevitably non-uniform
worked steel with a tensile strength of 450 MN m - 2 derives
on a macroscopic scale and varies substantially over a
'" 150 MN m - 2 of this from cold-work strengthening and
pressing, giving rise to strain gradients in the pressed part.
the remaining base level of 300 MN m -2 from lattice
Backofen2 has shown that the strain gradient in a sheet
friction, solid-solution hardening, grain boundaries, and
loaded in tension is given by
particle dispersions. However, .the dominant structure-

:;=-H~:rl (4)
sensitive mechanism in this case is cold work. For the other
materials, there will similarly be one dominant mechanism
responsible for generating the strength increment above the
where r is the distance from a given point. If the material base level, and this forms the basis of the classification
obeys equation (2), then equation (4) becomes system used here. Accordingly, the solution-hardened
materials consist of the rephosphorized, nitrogenized,
de 1e manganese, and silicon steels; the precipitation-hardened
(5)
dr nr materials of the titanium, niobium, and vanadium steels;
the grain-refined materials of the carbon-manganese steels;
A low strain gradient is desirable, since it means that the the partially annealed materials of the partially annealed
total strain is distributed over a larger volume of material, titanium, niobium, and vanadium steels; and the cold-
thus delaying instability. The most highly strained region worked materials of the as-cold-rolled, aluminium-killed
will have hardened the most, under which conditions mild steel.
deformation becomes easier in neighbouring elements, The tensile results are plotted as composite strength-
causing them to strain more, hence reducing the strain ductility diagrams in Figs. 1 and 3. In general, ductility
gradient. Equation (5) indicates that low strain gradients diminishes with increasing strength. However, it was found
are given by high values of n. Materials with high values of that the data for each type of steel fell into specific
n can thus distribute the strain away from critical regions envelopes on the diagram, such that some families of steels
to give low strain gradients, and consequently are suitable gave better ductilities than others at a given strength level.
for forming into deeper and more complex parts. The Each envelope in Fig. 1 can be represented by a mean
above macroplasticity considerations indicate that n is a curve of the general form
practicable measure of the strain-hardening ability and
nSP = C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (8)
ductility of a material.
The values of n for the as-cold-rolled steels could not be where n is the strain-hardening exponent, S is the nominal
measured experimentally in this investigation, but very yield strength Sy or the nominal tensile strength S1' and C
approximate values were calculated from the tensile- and p are constants for a particular family of steels. The
strength/yield-strength ratios, using equation (7) derived curves converge at n = 0·26, at strength values of

Materials Science and Technology February 1985 Vol. 1

 130 Gawne and Lewis Strain hardening of high-strength steels

0·30
(a)

0·20

PRECIPITATION (0)

0·10 ,
,
\
'COLD WORK
\
W \
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:J \
....J
«
> 0·30
c
(b)

0·20

0·10
\
,
',COLD WORK
\
\
200 400 600 800
STRENGTH I MN m-2
a tensile strength; b yield strength
1 Relation between strain-hardening exponent n and strength for experimental steels; cold-work curve is
calculated

Sy = 260 MN m-2 and St = 320 MN m-2. The gradient of
each curve, dn/dS, gives the rate of loss of ductility per unit
increase in strength, and ideally should be low in order to
ensure good ductility at high strength levels. An expression
for dn/dS may be derived by differentiating equation (8) to
obtain
dn n indication of the relative position of these materials in the
dS = - p S . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
which shows that low values of p are desirable, because
they minimize the ductility loss with increasing strength
and provide superior ductilities at high strength levels.
The values of p and C for each family of steels are
given in Table 2. The results show that the strengthening
mode with the lowest p (the most 'ductile' model) is
solid-solution hardening, followed by grain refining,
precipitation hardening, and partial annealing, the least
ductile mode being cold working. The extremely large
values of C in Table 2 for the cold-worked steels are very
approximate and are included primarily to give a broad
(9) ductility ranking. Changing the compositional and process
variables (e.g. alloying element content, cold reduction,
extent of anneal, annealing process (batch or continuous),
or hot-rolling conditions (works or laboratory) within a
given steel type simply moved the material along the curve.
For instance, reducing the time of anneal would move a
material down its curve to a lower value of n and a higher

Materials Science and Technology February 1985 Vol. 1

 Gawne and Lewis Strain hardening of high-strength steels 131

TRUE STRAIN
o 0·5 1·0 1·5
700

600
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o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
COLD REDUCT ION , %
2 Effect of cold reduction on strength of as-rolled, aluminium-killed mild steel

strength. Changing from batch annealing to continuous which is in close agreement with that found experimentally
annealing or from works hot rolling to laboratory hot (Table 2 and Fig. 1) for the grain-refined steels in this
rolling also failed to move materials off their curves. paper, over the strength levels investigated.
The strength-ductility relationship obtained here for the Composite strength-ductility diagrams, in terms of total
grain-refined steels can be compared quantitatively with elongation, are shown in Fig. 3. The results are consistent
data in the published literature. Morrison3 gives the with those in Fig. 1, except that the grain-refined steels
following equation relating n to grain size d (mm): exhibit an improved performance; this may be related to
the beneficial effect of grain boundaries on fracture
n=5/(10+d-1/2) •••••••••••• (10)
toughness.
The relationship between the nominal yield strength
Sy (MN m - 2) and d (mm) is quoted by a number of
DEFORMATION PROCESSES
workers4-6 as
Plastic deformation takes place by the generation and
Sy=60+22d-1/2 • • • • • •• • •• (11) movement of dislocations through the structure.
Transmission electron microscopy observations 7-9 on
Combining equations (10) and (11) gives
cold-rolled low-carbon steels have shown that the
n = 110/(160 + Sy) (12) dislocation density increases on straining, with the

Materials Science and Technology February 1985 Vol. 1

 132 Gawne and Lewis Strain hardening of high-strength steels

50

40
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20 o PRECIPITATION

10

COLD WORK
o
200 400 600 800
STRENGTH, MN m-2
a tensile strength: b yield strength
3 Relation between ductility (elongation in tensile test) and strength for experimental steels

formation of jogs, dipoles, loops, and dislocation tangling, dominant feature of the microstructure, and the flow stress
to outline a three-dimensional cellular structure within the (Jf has been reported to be inversely related to the cell
grains. The dislocation-cell structure soon becomes the diameter d, either by an equation of the Hall-Petch type10

Table 2 Values of constants p and C in equation (8) for cases when 5 is nominal yield
strength 5y and nominal tensile strength 5t

S=Sy S=St

% variation % variation
Type of steel p C, (MN m-2)P explained p C, (MN m-2)P explained

Solution hardened 0·31 1·41 75 0·33 1·75 69

Grain refined 0·57 6·13 90 0·66 11·9 88
Precipitation hardened 0·90 39·8 88 1·15 284 82
Partially annealed 1·38 484 77 1·72 4743 77
Cold worked* 4·77 2'66 x 1010 23·4 4·19 x 1057

* Calculated values of n used.

Materials Science and Technology February 1985 Vol. 1

 Gawne and Lewis Strain hardening of high-strength steels 133

(Jr=(Jo+k1d-1/2 •••••••••••• (13) stored dislocations). The steels examined in the current
11 investigation deform plastically in a non-uniform way,
or by one showing a linear dependence
since their constituent particles deform differently from the
(Jr= (Jo+k2d-1 •••••••••••• (14) ferrite matrix, and individual grains deform differently from
their neighbours. As such materials are deformed,
where (Jo is the lattice dislocation friction stress and k1 and
increasingly dense arrays of geometrically necessary
k2 are constants.
dislocations have to be stored to accommodate the
As straining proceeds, more dislocations are generated;
deformation gradients, thus allowing dissimilar phases to
thus, the effective cell size gradually decreases, thereby
deform in a geometrically compatible way.
raising the flow stress in accord with either equation (13) or
For the steels under investigation, the geometrically
equation (14) and producing the observed strain hardening.
necessary dislocations are expected to control strain
However, Aghan and Nutting9,12 considered that this
hardening for two reasons. First, to a first approximation,
mechanism can only apply up to strains of '" 0·10 for low-
the density of the statistically stored dislocations is a
carbon steels, since they found little change in cell size
characteristic of the material (crystal structure, shear
above this strain. The cell structure at this stage was
modulus, etc.), and so will be broadly similar for
equiaxed, with a cell diameter of the order of 1 Jlm; it will
all the steels. The density of the geometrically necessary
be referred to hereafter as the steady-state cell structure.
dislocations, however, depends only upon the micro-
Further straining triggers the formation of micro-
structure and since this varies appreciably from steel
bands9,12,13 - long, straight shear bands lying on slip
to steel, ~ny differences in dislocation substructure will be
planes and often extending across the full width of
primarily a result of the geometrically necessary
the grain. Plastic instability occurs within the micro-
dislocations. Second, the density of geometrically necessary
bands during their formation, and has the effect of
dislocations is expected to exceed that of the statistically
accommodating high local strains, producing localized
stored dislocations during the development of the steady-
structures of dislocation cells with widths of the order of
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state cell structure. Specifically, the density of geometrically

0·1 Jlm. The micro bands are superimposed on the steady-
necessary dislocations Pg is a function of the geometric slip
state cell structure, and further straining increases the
distance ,{g
width and number of bands. However, the steady-state cell
structure remaining between the bands undergoes little 1 41'
further structural change with strain.9,12 Pg=Tb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (15)
Aghan and Nutting9,12 found that the strain-hardening g

rate fell significantly above a strain of '" 0·1, and it seemed where b is the magnitude of the Burgers vector and l' the
likely that this was associated with the development of the shear strain.14 For a given strain history, ,{g depends only
steady-state cell structure and the subsequent formation of upon the microstructure. For an alloy containing a fine
microbands. Once the steady-state cell structure has been dispersion of spherical particles, ,{g is. given by ril (wh~re r
established, further strain appears to be most easily is the particle radius and I the partIcle volume fractIon),
accommodated by microband formation. The shear process while for a pure polycrystalline material, it is proportional
responsible for microbanding requires a triggering stress to the grain size. Generally, the geometrically necessary
which rises only slowly with strain, and so the consequent dislocations dominate the total dislocation density for slip
strain-hardening rate is low. It is considered that a distances < 20 Jlm, providing high strains are not applied.
material developing a steady-state cell structure at a For the steels investigated, the results in Table 3 indicate
relatively low strain will move into the micro banding-Iow-
that the slip distances are likely to be below this figure, and
strain-hardening regime early and exhibit a low overall that, in addition, the strains required for the development
strain-hardening rate. The strain at which the steady-state of the steady-state cell structure are expected to be
cell structure is formed is thus expected to have a major relatively low.
influence on the strain-hardening rate and value of n Figure 4 is a transmission electron micrograph of
measured for that material. a plain carbon-manganese steel after light deformati~n,
and shows a build-up of dislocations around cementIte
DEVELOPMENT OF STEADY-STATE particles. This is attributed to the fact that the particles
CELL STRUCTURES have not deformed with the ferrite matrix; thus,
In the cold-worked steels examined in the current geometrically necessary dislocations are needed in the
investigation, the yield strength a.n~ t~nsile stre~gth vicinity of the particles to make up the misfit. The steady-
coincide at a strain of 0·1 (Fig. 2). ThIs IndIcates that httle state cell structure is thus rapidly developed next to
or no strain hardening takes place above this strain, which particles. As straining continues? these high-d~slocation-
is consistent with the work of Aghan and Nutting,9. 12 who density regions spread further Into the matrIX b~ the
found that the steady-state cell structure developed at accumulation of statistically stored dislocations, untIl the
approximately this strain. The low ductility of the cold- steady-state cell structure has been developed throughout
worked steels, as shown in Figs. 1 and 3, can thus. be the structure, whereupon the strain-hardening rate falls to
understood on the basis that most of these materIals a low level.
al;early possess the steady-state cell structure ~t the start of
the tests and hence exhibit low strain-hardenIng rates.
Table 3 Characteristic microstructural dimensions
The e~tablishment of the steady-state cell structure in the
(CMOs) for various types of steel with tensile
other steel types requires more detailed con~iderat.ion. strengths of 450 M N m-2
Crystallint:t materials strain harden because dIslocatIons
stopped during straining become 'stored' and obstruct the
Type of steel CMD,Jlm p n (St = 450 MN m-2)
motion of other moving dislocations. Ashby14 has
proposed that dislocations are stored for either one of two Solution hardened 8·5 0·31 0·235
separate reasons: that they are required !or .compatible Grain refined 6·0 0·57 0·21
deformation of various parts of the materIal, In order to Precipitation hardened 1·2 0·90 0·18
accommodate the gradients of deformation (geometrically
* The CMD is rlf for the precipitation-hardened steels (where r a~d f
necessary dislocations); or that they are required for ~he are the mean particle radius and precipitate volume fraction,
bulk uniform deformation and accumulate by trappIng respectively) and the grain intercept length for the grain-refined and
one ~nother as a result of chance encounters (statistically solution-hardened steels.

Materials Science and Technology February 1985 Vol. 1

 134 Gawne and Lewis Strain hardening of high-strength
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4 Transmission electron micrograph of lightly deformed
dislocations around cementite particles
Similar effects are anticipated in the grain-refined steels:
each grain deforms by a different amount, depending upon
its orientation and the constraints imposed on it by its
neighbours. Geometrically necessary dislocations are thus
required in the grain-boundary regions for compatibility
between independently deforming grains. The relatively
high dislocation densities that have been observed
experimentally close to grain boundaries 7 are consistent
with this effect. The steady-state cell size is thus expected to
be reached first in the grain-boundary regions, and then to
spread into the grain interiors.
The solid-solution-hardened steels rely upon solute
atoms in solid solution generating a high lattice friction
stress (0'0 in equation (13)) to raise the flow stress. This
contrasts with the other strengthening methods, which
depend upon the presence of obstacles in the micro-
structure, these inevitably reducing the geometric slip
distance and raising the density of geometrically necessary
dislocations. The results in Table 3 indicate that the
solution-hardened steels have the longest geometric slip
distances, and so are expected to develop the steady-state
cell structure at the highest strain, thereby maintaining
high strain-hardening rates and values of n. For the various
types of steel, p and n (Tables 2 and 3) are expected
to be ranked in order of their geometric slip distances:
Materials Science and Technology February 1985 Vol. 1
steels
plain carbon steel, indicating geometrically necessary
x 20000
namely, solid-solution hardened, grain refined, precipitation
hardened. Cold working or partial annealing produces
materials that either already possess the steady-state cell
structure or have developed structures close to it, and so
exhibit the lowest values of p and n.
Conclusions
1. The strain-hardening exponent n for a given type of
steel decreases with increasing strength S, according to the
relationship nSP = C, where a low value of p indicates a
small ductility loss with increasing strength.
2. The value of the exponent p (and hence the ductility
at a given strength level) depends on the operative
strengthening mechanism. The lowest value of p (the most
ductile strengthening mode) is for solid-solution hardening,
followed, in order of decreasing ductility, by grain refining,
precipitation hardening, partial annealing, and cold
working.
3. It is proposed that the influence of strengthening
mechanism on ductility is related to the strain at which the
steady-state dislocation-cell structure is developed in the
material. The lower this critical strain, the lower the
 Gawne and Lewis Strain hardening of high-strength steels 135

ductility, since further strain must then be accommodated authors wish to thank the British Steel Corporation for
by microbanding. permission to publish the paper.
4. The cold-worked steels are expected to possess cell
structures approaching that of the steady state at the start
of the tests, and hence exhibit very low critical strains and
strain-hardening rates. References
5. It is proposed that the strain required to form the
steady-state cell structure is related to the rate of
1. I. Le MAY: 'Principles of mechanical metallurgy'; 1981,
accumulation of geometrically necessary dislocations in the
London, Arnold.
structure, which is a function of the geometric slip distance 2. w. A. BACKOFEN: 'Deformation processing'; 1972, Reading,
and the initial microstructure. Strengthening mechanisms Mass., Addison-Wesley.
depending upon obstacles in the microstructure -'- e.g. 3. w. B. MORRISON: ASM Trans. Q., 1966,59,824.
precipitation hardening - will produce short geometric slip 4. R. W. EVANS: J. Iron Steel Inst., 1967, 205, 1150.
distances, and hence relatively low ductilities. Solid- 5. T. GLADMAN, B. HOLMES, and F. B. PICKERING: J. Iron Steel
solution hardening is preferable, because it relies only upon Inst., 1970, 208, 172.
increasing the lattice-friction resistance to dislocation 6. K. TODA, H. GONDOH, H. TAKECHI, and H. MASUI: Metall. Trans.,
motion, and does not reduce the geometric slip distance. 1976,7A, 1629.
7. A. DUNN: PhD thesis, University of Liverpool, 1970.
8. c. J. E. SMITH: PhD thesis, University of Birmingham, 1968.
9. R. L. AGHAN and J. NUTTING: Met. Sci., 1980, 14, 233.
10. J. D. EMBURY, A. S. KEH, and R. M. FISHER: Trans. AIME, 1966,
Acknowledgment 236, 1252.
11. G. LANGFORD and M. COHEN: ASM Trans. Q., 1969,62,623.
12. R. L. AGHAN and J. NUTTING: Met. Technol., 1981, 8, 41.
The work was carried out at the Welsh Laboratory, British
Downloaded by [UNSW Library] at 18:10 12 April 2016

13. A. S. MALIN and M. HATHERLEY: Met. Sci., 1979, 13, 463.

Steel Corporation, Port Talbot, West Glamorgan, and the 14. M. F. ASHBY: Phi/os. Mag., 1970, 21, 399.

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Subscri ber Services Department
1 Carlton House Terrace
London SWIY 5DB
Tel: 01-839 4071 Telex: 8814813

Published on behalf of the Materials Forum

Materials Science and Technology February 1985 Vol. 1