Overview of Sequence Stratigraphy of Foreland Basin Deposits: Terminology, Summary of Papers, and Glossary of Sequence Stratigraphy John C. Van Wagoner Exxon Production Ressirel Co. INTRODUCTION Thhis volume grew out of an AAPC-sponsored field trip Jed by an Exxon team—I.C. Van Wagoner, CR Jones, D.C. Jennette—and Dag Nummedal from Louisiana State University. The purpose of the trip was to provide a venue on the outcrop for discussing. rapidly evolving opinions and points of view about sequence stratigraphy concepts and applications, These different opinions have been captured in the papers in this volume. Although fareland basin sefling is a common theme for all of the papers, the ideas and observations presented in this volume have a broader significance and application to many other basin types. The purposes of this introduction to the volume are to provide a historical perspective to the terminolagy used In the papers, to summarize the papers for the reader's benefit, and to provide a glossary for sequence sleatigeaphy terminology to facilitale communication, As sexjuence stratigraphy fuas evolved, terminology has {grown more complex and confusing. This és im part because of an early dichotomy embeded in seismic steatigeaphy (see Mitchum et al,, 1977). The following section reviews the evolution of the terms and contrasts several different ways of looking at sequences and systems tracts. SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY TERMINOLOGY The ideas and interpretations expressed in this volume represent new directions in sequence stratigraphy, Sequence stratigraphy concepts were originally developed feom studying strala deposited slong, passive margins, where subsidence geneeally increased basinward from 8 hinge point, shelf edges marked a change in depositional dip and separated shallow: fom deep-ater environments, and tectonic events were muted. Early block diagrams illustrating sequences and systeiny tracts reflected these fundamental controls. Over the last several years, sequence stratigraphy has been increasingly applied and tested in foreland basins, where subsidence genetally increased landward toward an active fold belt, depositional dips were more or less uniforms, and deep-water environments were generally absent or rare. Because of the differences in Gepasitional controls between these two stratal patterns in foreland basins can differ from patterns observed along passive margins, [n spite of the impact that tectonics can have in controlling stratal pattems in foreland basins, sequence boundaries are still critical surfaces to identify and map, as most of the papers in this volume demonstrate. As the application of sequence stratigraphy expanded beyond passive margins, the concepts, terminology, and stratal patterns predicted by the model have been scrutinized and modified. Fer example, the concept of type-2 sequence boundaries (Van Wagoner et a., 1987) has been largely abandoned by some; a model of forced regeostion hay been proposed {Posamentier et al., 1992); criteria for Identifying sequence boundaries in outcrop, well logs, and cores have been refined and emphasis has shifted from cycle charts and euslasy to stratal patterns and relative changes in sea level. As sequence stratigraphy evolves and matures, debate continues and includes discussions about how # sequence should be defined, how sequence boundaries are expressed in the rocks, how sequences are recognized in nonmarine strata, what variations exist in systems tracts within a sequence, how systems tracts should be identified, ane What constitutesa parasequence. Many of these questions reflect a dichotomy stemming from differences in interest, experience, and point of view of workers In seismic steatigraphy during the formative years of development the mid 1960s, at Exxon Production Research Co. During these years, a team of researchers developed new concepts and techniques for interpreting the greatly improved generation of multifold seismic data being, shot alongx ‘Van Wagoner the continental margins of the world. Peter Vail was the leader of this team of geologists, geophysical interpreters, processors, and biostratigraphers.. This team placed great emphasis on developing. concepts of custasy to explain basinwide uncon- formilies they observed on seismic data and matched around the world using biostratigraphy. Formalion of these worldwide unconformities was considered to be caused by cyclical eustatic changes. Charts of this global eyclicity were, and still are, the hallmark of this emphadis. Equally important was the recognition by this team of large-scale depositional patterns, stratal contig urations, and prediction of lithology from se data. This seismic facies work was tied closely to frontier exploration by Exxon’s domestic and overseas affilintes. Emphasis was placed on prediction of reservoir, source, and seal rocks, masily fom seismic data. Paired with the ongoing work on eusta cyclicily, this facies analysis emphasized sea level control of depositional patterns. Pioneering early work by CY. Campbell (1967) had shown the chronostratigraphic significance of bedding surfaces, as well as the importance of beds and bedsets as fundamental sedimentary units. Campbell's reservoir-seale medels from outcrop and subsurface core studies were tied into well-log sections for prediction of facies. These sturlies laid the groundwork far recognizing these same patterns in the lower resolution data of scismic sections, where reflection patterns paralleled stratal surfaces as chronosteatigraphic surfaces. Campbell's emphasis on outerop and cores provided tuch of the ingpization for later work by a group of younger EPR Co. geoscientists, including KM, Bohies, KM. Campion, V.D. Rahmanian, and [.C. Van Wagoner (Van Wagoner et al., 1990). ‘The interaction of these twa groups—one led by Vail and the other influenced by Compbell—in the late 1960s and early 1970s produced & number of important breakthroughs for Exxon in the form of a technique called seismic stratigraphy. Techniques for the stratigraphic interpretation of seismic data were developed, unconformity-bounded stratal units based an a subdivision of these of Sloss (1963) were recognized as the building blocks of stratal successions, the role of eustasy asa driving mechanism was promulgated, and the first global cycle charts we made, These aod other resulls were summarized in AAPG Memoir 26, published in 1977 Even then, the seeds for some of today’s most fundamental disagceements in sequence stratigeaphy were planted. Vail and his co-warkers understood that sequences were bodies of rack, defined by stratal geometry, Yet much of their effort was focused on sea evel and the impact of eustatic change on stratal geometry. By the Late 1970s, emphasis at Exxon was Being placed on custasy and the glatal cycle chart. But, urged on by Sam Thompson, the sequence was specifically defined in terms of physical relations, not sea level Mitchum etal (1972, p. 9) wrote: "Because it is determined by a single objective criterion—the physical relations of the strata themselves—the depositional sequence is useful in establishing + comprehensive stratigraphie framework. Lt is not primarily dependent on determinations of rock types, fossils, depositional processes, or other criteria that generally are subjective, and varies wit sequence.” - ‘Alihough this slatement clearly disassociated the definition of the sequence from sea level and tied it to the rocks, the emphasis on eustasy and the cycle charts dominated graphy into the easly 1880s, When Jervey began to develop the concepts of accommodation (summorized in jervey, 1988), the sequence was, for many Exxon stratigraphers, the package af racks deposited between the inflection points of the eustatie cary int of view war summarized in the systems tract block diageams (Posamenticr and Vail, 1988), where the telationshi between steala and sea level was reinforced by the inclusion of eustatic curves. Stricly speaking, these curves were included to help explain the deposition of systems tracts in an idealized, simplifies accommodation model, and were nat intended to ddefine the exact limits of systems tracts, Undoubtedly, some Exxon workers and many readers interpreted these diagrams to mean that the systems tracts, by definition, were deposited during specific portions oF the sea level curves, Yet the original definition in Memoir 26 stated that the sequence, and by extension the component 4 defined only by the “physical relations of the strata themselves.” A significant step forward ogcurred in the early to midale 1980s with the advent of sequence stratigraphy, which emphasized the use of well logs, cores, and outcrop data, afong with seismic stratigraphy, to analyze sequences. The concepts of the accom modation model (ervey, 1986) and relative changes in sea level aided in prediction of facies changes in sequences, Immediately, workers at Exxon began applying the concepis of sequences, parasequences, and parasequence sets 10 the delineation and interpretation of siliciclastic stratal patterns on outcrops and in well logs. They utilized the original (Mitchum et al, 1977) sense of how the sequence was defined. Van Wagoner et al. (1990, p. 5) stated: “Each stratal unit [they were referring to sequences, parasequences, and parasequence sets}... is defined and identified only by the physical relationships of the strata, including lateral continuity and geometty of the surfaces bounding the units, vertical sticking patterns and lateral geometry of the strata within the units. - Thickness, time for formation, and interpretation oF regional oF global origin are not used to define stratal units. . .. Parasequences and sequences can be identified in well logs, cores, or outcrops ancl used to construct a stratigraphic framework regardless of their interpreted selationship to changes in eustasy.” This application had! one other practical spin-off In the mid-1980s most stratigraphers thought of tied. order units spanning 1-3 million years and up to 1000 feet thick when they thought of sequences. This was the average thickness and line span represented by the sequences on the Exxon global cycle charts. By using the concept of Ue sequence ap a stratal unitOverview of Sequence Stratigraphy of Foreland Basin Deposits x sical properties, sequences deposited in one hundred thousand to two hundred thousand years and ranging in thickness from 10 to 100 feet were recognized in well logs, cores, and oulcraps (Mitchum and Van Wagoner, 1991) and on seismic lines (Erskine and Vail, 1991). These became known. as high-frequency, or fourth-order, sequences and had all of the physical attributes of sequences previously defined. Fourth-onder sequences ace naw the building blocks of mast reservoir or field studies done by Exxon Production Research Co. Most third- order, unconformity-bounded stratal units are considered composite sequences (see Glossary of Sequence Stratigraphy his reliance on observation and description of the rocks to identify and interpret sequences, para- sequences, and systems tracts has continued to evolve sinee the late 1980s at Exxon Produetion Research Co. We have found that this approach is essential for our work, especially in the substiface. The link to sea level ig importent; relative change in sea level is the trigger that creates sequence boundaries, But sea level, especially eustasy, is not_used to identify or defi these basic siratal units, Sex level cannot be directly ahserved in outcrops, well lags, cores, and seismic lines, I must be inferred or interpreted from the integration of the data with a model of how sea level behaved and sediment responded. Reconstruction of eustatic changes in the rack record is also difficult because other processes can overprint eustasy, producing a relative change in sea level; subsidence and sediment supply are two notable examples. A sufficiently high cate of sediment supply can overcome a modest rate of sea level rise, producing a progradational parasequence set. The samme rate of sea level rise, in another part of the basin where sedimentation rates are lower, will produce a retrogradational parasequence set (Wehr, 1993), It is unlikely that these two sets of rocks would be tied to the same portion of a sea level curve. However, stratal terminations, rock types and fabrics, stacking patterns, surfaces, locations with respect to positions stich 88 3 shelf edge, and lateral and tertical continuities can be observer. These types of observations are used in sequence stratigraphy to identify sequence boundaries and systems tracts, and to make inferences as to the patterns of relative change of sea level that may have produced them. When identified, sequence boun- aries and systems tracts ean be used practically to make paleogeogeaphic maps. locate and predict reservoir, source, and seal distribution, and provide a chronostvatigraphic framework for subsequent facies analysis. Systems tract evolution of the rocks being analyzed can be interpreted in terms of sea level, but that is mot a necessary step to apply sequence stratigraphy. In only rare instances, for example in the Pleistocene, can the rocks be directly tied to sea level curves, In spite of statements on the physical, geometrical basis of sequence stratigraphy, stich as the ones in Mitchum et al. (1977) and Van Wagoner et al. (1990), many geologists still view sequence stratigraphy, expecially as practiced by Exxon, as the applica the global cyele chart and eustasy. Erroneous interpretation of the block diagrams in Pesimentier and. Vail (1988}—that systems tracts are defined by their relationship to the eustatic curve—is influencing stratigraphic thinking. This has impli cations for how sequence stratigraphy is applied today and is at the root of some of the confusion surrounding terminology. The concept of forced regression illustrates this point, As defined (Posa- mentier et al, 1992), forced regression is a model based on the idea that during a sea level fall the shoreline is forced basinward. Because of the model of the sinusoidal eustatic cycle (Posamentier and Vail, 1988}, the sequence boundary must form when sea level first begins to drop, Therefore, in the forced regression the sequence boundary is placed below the wedge of prograding strats interpreted to be deposited during the sea level fall. However, observations of the rocks in this wedge commonly show that the wedge is widespread, that the base oF the wedge is a downlap surface or no suctace is present, and that the top of the wedge is a surface of regional erosion usvally associated with a basinward shift in facies, Using a rock paradigm, instead of a sea level paradigm, this wedge would be interpreted as the upper part of the higghstand systems tract overlain, by a sequence baundary, even though the interpreted tie to sea level would indicate that these strata were deposited curing the early part of the sea level fall. The interpretation of upper highstand is based on stratal pattems, stacking patterns, position within the sexjuence, and types of bounding surlace, not on the interpreted relationship to the sex level curve, which isspeculative in most eases. While defining systems tracts by stratal relations is, practical and powerful, the terms used to name the systems tracts are confusing. ‘The systems tracts were not defined in Memoir 26 1977), although Vail et al. (1977, p. 73) cefer to "highstand deposits” as those ‘widespread on the shelf, and “lowstand deposits” as those that lap out against the slope or lower part of the shelf, inferring that stratal eriteria were originally used to define these terms. Unfortunately, the figure caption on page 73 (Vail et al., 1977) refers to the “depositional patterns during highstand and lowstand of sea level.” To clarify this ambiguity and to honor the original principle, laid down by Mitchum et al. (1973), that sequences, and by analogy their component systems tracts, are defined by stratal attributes, Van Wagoner et al. (1990, p. 23) wrote “lowstand and highstand ace descriptive terms that refer to position within the sequence; when referring to systems tracts these terms do not indicate a period of time or position on a custatic or relative cycle of sea level.” In spite of this clarification, workers still define systems tacts in terms of their interpretation of how the rocks relate to sea level {for example, see Nummecial’s use af “falling stage svsterns tract” in this volume). Unfortunately, this ambiguity in terms is a major roadblock to communication. A good example of this can be seen in the use of the terms lowstand and transgressive systems tracts, discussed below.ail ‘Van Wagoner The lowstand systems tract has been defined, using stratal relationships, as all of the rocks between the sequence boundary and the firs, widespread, major flooding surface (Van Wagoner et al, 1988). Although identifying the first major flooding surface is not always easy ata single outcrop, itis typically the base of backstepping parasequences in the overlying transgressive systems tract. By this definition, the Jowstand systems tract can contain estuarine strata; part of the systums tract may be deposited during an initial rise in sea level. In fact, well-developed tidal sirata are common components of the lowstand systems tract. This is a practical definition for reservoir delineation because it places most of the strata within the incised valley Into the lowstand, Typically, these fluvial to tidal lowstand strata fll the incised-channel network eroded into the shelf by fluvial systems in response to sea level fall. These rocks commonly have good to excellent reservoir ality, are oriented normal to or at a high angle to the underlying highstand shoreline, are areally festricted, and stack in a progeadational-to: sggradalional pattern. A major, widespread flooding surface, easily identified in well logs and cores, typically forms the upper boundary of the lowstand systems tract. The overlying transgressive systems tract is composed of marine and coastal-plain strata deposited widely across the shelf. These racks commonly have moderate to poor reservoir quality, are oriented parallel to the underlying highstand systems tract, are widespread, and stack in a retrogeadational patters. By using tek properties ta identify and define these Systems tracts, twa stratal units with very different reservoir properties are placed in diferent systems tracts. Although a broad genetic link with relative sea level is assumed, sea level is not used to divide the stratigraphic revord, The alternative way to define systems tracts is based on whete they ate interpreted to form on the sea level curve, Some workers interpret the Towstand systems tract to include all of the strata deposited between the beginning ancl end of the fall in sea level or during the falling limb of the curve. They interpret the transgressive systems iract to inchade all of the strata deposited between the beginning and about the middle part of the rising limb of the curve. By this definition, much of the stata upelip of the shelf edge, between the sequence boundary and the downlap surface at the base of the highstand systems tract, would be part of the transgressive systems tract. This is complicated by the fact that some, perhaps locally most, of the fluvial fill within the incised valley is ackaally deposited during the fall in sea level (Kos ct 1904}. More fundamentally, this definition obscures the real stratal differences between the rocks within the inciged valley and the overlying rocks on the shelf. These differences are also reflected in the coeval fluvial strata. ‘A similar problem with the definition of highstand and lowstand occurs in Pleistocene strata in the Gulf of Mexico, where thick, extensive wedges of progeading strata build actoss the shelf to the shelf ecige (Suter and Berryhill, 1985). The wedges are underlain by a downlip surface and overtain by an erosional surface, commonly marked by incision ‘These wedges can be tied with oxygen-isotope data to cuistatic falls. Becauise they are tied fo falls in sca level, the wedges aro called lowstand systems tysets. Yet, based on stacking patterns, types of bounding surfaces, anc pasilion on the shell, they would be termed highstand systems tracts, overlain by a sequence boundary. The difference is much mare than semantic, If these strata are lowstand systems tracts, then their most downdip shoreline deposits are logically assumed to be lowstand shorelines; no further shoreline reservoir is expected basinward. But if the strata ate late highstand systems tracts deposited during the early phase of eustatic fall lowstand fluvial reservoirs may have been deposited farther basinward, pechaps just beyond the shelf exige. Additionally, this difference affects the way paleogeographic mapsare made. Whether one chooses to define systems tracts using sock properties or the felationship to a sea level curweis currently 3 matter of personal preference; hence the confusion about what is meant by the terms lozslard, transgressive, and highstand systems tracts, For most applications, definition using stratal properties is a practical approach and is consistent with original usage, but the alternative may be useful for certai applicalions, such as modeling. Whichever definition an author uses, they should state what theit terms mean so that communication is clear. Liko systoms tracts, the definition of a sequence és another area of disagreement. A depositional sequence has been defined both as strata bounded by unconformities or their correlative conformities (Slitchum et al, 1977; Van Wagoner et al, 1988, 1990) and os slrata bounded by regional flooding events (Calloway, 1989). This difference in definitions derives from the different experiences of two geologists, David Frazier and Peter Vail, at Exxon Production Research Co. in the late 19608 and eatly’ 19703. During this time period, both of these geologists were engaged in some of the most important work of their careers, In the late 1980s, Frazier was completing a major study of the stratigraphy and sedimentology of the sy. ofthe etigcapy ad sedi fhe study of the numerous deltasand theis lobes within this thick complex, Frazier concluded that these strata, and by analogy any strata in ofilappedfilled clastic basins, sdlamentally composed of facies sequences and depositional-complexes deposited during depositional events and depositional-piscdes, respectively (Fraztes T8971). A facies-sequence is the product of a single della lobe and is bounded by the teansgeessive surface formed by lobe switching and abandonment. A depositional-complex is an association af facies- sexjuences stackes! in-a progradationall pattern overlain and bounded by an association of facies-sequences stacked in a retrogradational pattern, In terms of sexjuence stratigraphy, a facies-seqquence is analogous to & parasequence (Van Wagoner et al., 1990); aOverview of Sequence Statigtaphy of Foreland Basin Deposits xi depositional-complex is analogous to a progradational parasequence set overlain by a reteogradational parasequence set (Wan Wagoner et al., 1990). Feaziee's terminology emphasizes stratal packages bounded by transgressions because that is the style of deposition observed in deltas and delta complexes where lobe abandonment is. common process. Frazier’s formative expertence was in the Quaternary Mississippi delta deposits, where flooding surfaces are common and unconformities sparse. This experience shaped his view of the rock record. fn tum, Frazier liad a significant impact on Bill Galloway's thinking about stratigraphy (Galloway, 1989), Galloway bases concepts of a genetic stratigraphic sequence on Fraziet's work and datines his fundarsental stestigraphic unit, the facies-sequence, as the strata between major transgressive surfaces. As Galloway (1989) points out, Frazier’s model predicts the presence of a subacrial hiatus within the depositional-complex, or genetic siratigraphic sequence of Galloway, but this occurrence isnsatmed by Calloway to be of local importanee uly, In contrast to Frazier, Peter Vail worked with reflection seismic data in the 1960s. While Frazier was analyzing strata with tools that gave hin resolution of feet in a thick depocenter, Vail was analyzing sirata with a tool that gave him resolution oof 100-200 feet in a wide variety of basing containing depositional seitings ranging from high to very low sediment supply. At Vail’s working seale, the ubiquitous stratal pattern was regional truncation and onlap onto tincanformities or downlap onte surfices at the Iases of clinaforms, At frst, all thro types of stratal termination were considered indicative of sequence boundaries (Mitchum et al., 1977), Later, sequence boundaries were interpreted to be marked by truncation and enlap; downlap surfaces within the sequence were marked by downlap only (Vail, 1987) and foreted the boundary of a parasequence set (Van Wagoner et al., 1988). With access lo the seismic and biostratigraphic data, Vail formed the concept that the rock record was fundamentally subdivided by these regional uncanformities and their related conformities. The apparent synchroneity of major unconformities between basins enhanced Vail’s impression of the importance of these surfaces and led to the concepts of eustatic control, The terminology develaped by Vail, Mitchum, and others, based om aecess to the reflection seismic records, emphasized unconformity= bounded stratat units and became the basis of seismic stratigraphy (Mitchum et al. 1977) Today, we can look back on the historical development of the lerminology and recognize that Vail and Frazier were both corrcet. Within elflapping silicielastie complexes, the dominant stratal unit is 3 progracational bundle of beds and bedsels bounded hy flooding surfaces, called a facies-sequence by Frazier. These faciesssequuences stack to form langer packages of strata also bounced by flooding surfaces, called depositional-complexes by Frazier and genetic stratigraphic sequences by Galloway. But as Vail observed on regional seismic data, sttatal packages bounded by flooding surfaces are punctuated by regionally extensive unconformities or sequence boundaries. Frazier (1974) recognized the importance of these unconformities as well and discussed them in his section Glacially controlled deposilionat episodes (Feaziee, 1974, p. 8-16). His gures documenting the siratal patterns associated with these episodes presaged the development of the concepts of systems tracts. But Frazier still bounded a depositional episode in [hese figures with mejor flooding surfaces. In the early 1580s these two different ways of subdividing strata were partially reconciled by the suggestion that the sequence of Vail was actual composed of punisequences ane pantseyuence sets (Van Wagoner, 1985; Van Wagoner et al., 1990). The partsequence was synonymous with the facies. sequence of Frazier, and named to coincide, more or less, with the paracycle of Vail et al. (1977). The paracyele was detined as a small-scale relative cycle of sea-level change in which sea level rose rapidly, reached a stillstand, and then rose rapidly again, with no intervening fall. Parasequences and para: sequence sets were intended to include steata deposited by allocyclie and autoeyclic pracesses (Van Wagorer et'al., 1990}, and s@ extended the concept of the paracycle to include watersdepth deepening, as well as relative changes in sea level. The term purasequence set incorporated the different stacking patleras observed by Frazier. In this way, local depositional events related to delfa-lobe shifts, small- scale episodic relative rises in sea level, and the stacking patterns of the resulting parasequences were integrated with the more regional sea level cycles stuclied by V. This did not end the controversy for two reasons, First, many Exxon geologists, wedded to the concept of sea level cycles, maintained that parasequences formed only ia response to sea-level changes; therefore, they interpreted parasequences as small sequences. A cursory reading af Vail et al. (1977) seemed! to confirm this interpreiation, Vail wrote (Vall et al., 1977, p. 64}, “Ifa cycle contains two or more paracycles, at least two sequences are likely to be deposited during the cycle, The boundary between the sequences would be marked most commonly by dawnlap of the averlying sequence." At the time Vail wrote this, Exxon seismic stratigraphers used a downlap sueface as a sequence boundary, a explained above. In the early 1980s this error was recognized and downlap surfaces were interpreted as parasequence of parasequence set boundaries, Therefore, at the ime the parasequence term was introduced, a cycle containing two paracycles would be interpreted to form one sequence containing two parasequences oF parasequence sels, instead oF two sequences, as Memoir 26 indicated. Also, the interpretation af the parasequence as a small sequence did not take into account that, as defined, parasequences could form from autacyclic processes, such as delta-lobe shifts, Second, Galloway (1989) renamed the depositional-complex of Frazier a genetic steatigeaphic sequence. Although Callasxiv Van Wagener (1989) maintained that Frazier (1974) had faid the foundation for sequence stratigeaphy, Frazier never ted the words genetic sirigmiptic sequence. By the time Galloway introduced this term, depositional soqience and sequence siratigraphy were terms widely associated with the ideas of Vail, Mitchum, Sarg, Posamentier, Van Wagoner, and others of the Exton school. This unfortunate similarity of tents created and still creates confusion. This all begs the fundamental question: Which Is the best approach to use? Should stratal units be fined on the basis of flooding surfaces or on the basle of bounding unconformitles? The answer Is both, depending upon the scale of the correlation Flooding-surface bounded units can be used at several scales to develop a chronostratigraphic framework. The facies-sequence of Frazier (1974) and the parasequence of Van Wagoner (1990) are the products of Variations in the rates of sediment supply and sea level. These units are typically local and, as Frazies points out, cannot be ensily correlated with other feciearseq ucnoes in the sane aiya. A facie Sequence of parasequence is appropriate for correlation ina small hydrocarbon reservoir and field, for example, The depositional-complex of Frazier (1974) is the same as a prgradational parasequence set overhnin by a retrogradational parasequence set in ¥an Wagoner’s terminology. These unity have more regional extent than a facler sequence, but a5 Frazier paints out (1974, p. 8}, “depositionalcomplenes may Ermay not be totaly correlative timewise with others within the same basin or those in other basins.” Depositional complexes are appropriate for cor- relation within 2 portion ofa basin of within afield Both facies sequences and depositional-compleses are sontrolled by sediment supply and will be lightly dinked to river mouths. For his reason, they will not necessarily be widespread or may change character laterally as the rates and amounts oF sediment supplied fo the basin drop off a8 a function of distance from the river. Finally, the large-scale tinits that ate thousands of feet ick, also called depositional-complexes (Frazier, 1974, his figure 10), dre typically mote reyionally extensive, These thick, offlapping stratal successions are bounded by major transyreseive deposits, typically thick transgressive shales. These basinwice boundaties could be-used to map gross reservoir thickness and Facies trends, even though thick depositional;complexes are also strongly influenced by sediment supply. In contrast, the unconfermity-bounded unit, ot depositional sequence, is appropriate to provide the framework within which the more focal units discussed in the previous parngraph are placed. The unconformity and coerelaive conformity, o¢ sequence boundary, have several advantages over the transgressive surfaces bounding the facies-sequence and depositional-complex for chronostratigeaphic correlation. First, the sequence boundary forms independently of sediment supply (Wehr, 1993), In areas of low sediment supply, Ihe sequence boundary is expressed as a widespread surface of subaerial exposure, such as the surfaces documented by Frazier (1974), In areas of high sediment supply, the Sequence boundary is expressed by regionally extensive incisext valleys marked by truncation and a basinward shift in facies (S00 Van Wagoner el al, 1990, Van Wagoner, this Volume). For these reasons, the sequence boundary is likely to be nearly synchronous everywhere itis found. Second, sequence boundaries are widespread (see the papers in this volume documenting the areal extent and importance of sequence boundaries in stra~ tigraphic analysis). They separate all of the rocks above from all of the rocks below. Third, recognition of secquence boundaries, especially those that occur with a high Frequency, is essential for accurate paleo- geographic reconsteuction. Walther's Law (Walther, 894) can be used ta predict lateral Facies relationships unless the vertical section of rocks being used to construct the lateral facies relationships is punctuatedt by an unconformity, [f the unconformity goes unrecognized, the lateral interpretation of facies upon which paleogeogeaphic reconstruction depends will most likely be incorrect. Sequence boundaries ate appropriate for chronostratigeaphie correlations ranging in scale from the field to the basin. Finally, reservoir distribution in siliciclastic strata is strongly controlled by sequence boundaries. Sequence boundaries must be identified, especially in producing fields, for hydrocarbon contacts to be understood, for reservoir pressure data to be accurately assessed, and for reservoir distribution maps to be made. The disagreement over how a sequence should be defined will undoubtedly persist. As practiced by Galloway, sequences are bounced by major flooding surfaces but can contain unconformities of the types defined by Vail and others, From his experience, Galloway concludes that these unconformities are local and are unlikely to have regional chrone- stratigeaphic significance (Galloway, 1989). As practiced by Vail and others, sequences are bounded by unconformities of theie correlative conformilies bul contain numerous units bounded by flooding surfaces as well as 2: maximum flooding surface (Gal loway’s sequence boundary). Each approach is valid, but if seems most reasonable to use all of the key faces in a stratigraphic suecession to develop an interpretation This introduction attempts to provide a historical perspective and opinion of the use of terms such a8 systems tract and sequence. Historically, these terms have been defined in terms of stratal attributes, not terms of eyeles of sea level. However, the link between the systems tracts and sea level has always been made to provide a unifying concept of process to help explain deposition. It is essential to dis- linguish between the criteria foe definition andl the interpretation of process; toa often, these lwo aspects of sequence stratigraphy have been confused or lumped together. This confusion is at the heart of many of the terminology debates in sequence stratigraphy today, A glossary of sequence stratigraphy is provided at theend of this introduction.Overview of Sequence Stratigraphy of Foreland Basin Deposits w SUMMARY OF PAPERS Although the papers in this volume de not all adopt the same sequence stratigraphy terminology, there is a remackable uniformity of terms, The papers represent mix of documentation and observation with concept. They span topics from models for topset play types to the sequence stratigraphic significance of trice fossils. The following is a brief summary of the papers in the order that they appear in the book. 1. Topset Play Types and Their Controls by N. J. Milton (BP Exploration) and G. T. Bertram. {Stratigraphic Research International AS). Prograding basin margins consist of two elements, topsets and clinoforms with associated toesets. This paper presents a mostel for topset formation that explains how sandstone percentage varies in a systematic manner within, topsets, Play types associated with topsets are influenced by the relative abunelance within the topset of reservoir and seal. 2 Lateral Variability of Sequence Stratigraphic Framework in the Campanian and’ Lower ‘Maastricitian ofthe Western Interiar Senzoay by LF. Krystinik (Union Pacific Resources Co.) and B. Blakeney Delarnett (Independent Consultant). A chronostratigraphic framework created for the Upper Cretaceous strata in western North, Aimerica suggests that sequence boundaries over part of this basin are not correlative. Perhaps fectonie activity played a major role in controlling. relative changes in seo level, especially in Utah and Wyoming. In central Montana and southern. “Alberta, where tectonic activity during this time ‘was more subdued, sequence boundaries seem to occur generally ducing the times predicted by: global cycle charts. 3.Stratigraphy and Facies Architecture of Paraseguences with Examples from the Spring Canyon Menther, Blackkacok Formation, Watt by L. Kamola (Old Dominion University) and 1. €. Van Wagoner (Exxon Praduction Research. Co). Parasequences are upward-shoaling successions of beds and bedsets bounded by: flooding surfaces, They are the building blacks of sequences but are not small sequences. Bath. beach and deltaic parasequences are docu- inented trom the Spring Canyon Member Parasequence boundaries arv used to create shronostratigraphic frameworks to link genetically related envisonments 4.Contrals on Sequence Stacking and Fluvial to Shatlow-Marite Architechure faa Foreland Bosh by P. Schwans (Exxon Production Research Co.}. Two zones in the Cretaceous foreland Basin in the western United States influenced deposition: a zone proximal to the thrust Toad cack swith high tecto immodiation and a zone of reduced tectonic subsidence located farther basinward. The stratal patterns in the Foreland basin fll reflect this structural partitioning, In the proximal zone, sequence be merged 3rd-orcer unconformities consist af amalgamated sheets of braided- stream deposits. In the more distal zone, tequence Doundaries are high-frequency unconformities; lowstands consist of Huvial- and estusrine-dominated incised valley fils. 5. Sequence Stratigrapliy of Turonian—Santonton Strata, Kaiparowits Plateca, Southern Uta, S.A Implications for Regious! Correlation and Forcland Basin Evolution by K. W. Shanley (Shell Development Co.) and P, McCabe (United States Geological Survey). Five sequence boundaries were identified in Turonian to Santonian steata in the Kaiparowits Plateaur these boundaries are marked by regional erosion and basinward shifts in facies, and have been correlated regionally over much af southern Utah and northern Arizona, including the Wasatch Plateau, Black Mesa zegion, and the San Juan Basin. Generally, the ages of the seguence boundaries agree with the global eycle chart af Haq et al., with some modifi cations. Recognition of the relationship between sedimentary architecture and position within a sequence results in a model that allows the geometry and interconnectedness of sed mentary strata to be presticted within the coy textof parasequence slacking palterns, 6, Sequence Sholtigraphy and Marine ts Nonmarine Facies Architecture of Foreland Basin Steata, Bask Cis, Utah U.S.A. by J.C. Van Wagoner (Exxon Production Research Co). Two major and six minor sequence boundaries controlled deposition within the Desert Member, Black- hawk Formation, and Castlegate Sandston: Lowstand systems tracts or sequence sels within. these strata contain braided-steeam sheet sandstones composed of a complex of down- stream-aceretionary bars, These strata were deposited! within incised valleys up to 50 miles wwitle. The lowstand fluvial sandstones form terminal fans; their downdip ends do not reach the lowstand shoreline, but terminate in splay complexes into lakes anc swamps. This model provides an alternative way to correlate and map lowstand deposits in the subsurface. T.Sequence, Parasequence, and btraparasequence Architecture of the Grassy Member, Blackhazk Formation, Book Cliffs, Utah, U.S.A. by C. J O'Byrne (Amoco Production Co.) and 8.5, Flint (University of Liverpool). The late Campanian- age Grassy member consists of two Frequency sequences. Sequence boundaries are marked by incised valley fll deposits consisting of multistory fluvial-estuarine complexes representing lowstand and early transgressive systems tracts. Several additional orders of stratal surfaces define the internal architecture ‘of each sequence and constituent parasequences. 8 High-Frequency Sequence Stratigraphy and Paleogeography of the Kenilworth Mencber,% 10, i ‘Van Wagoner Blackhurek Formation, Book Cliffs, Utak by D. R. Taylor (Chauvco Resources) and R. W.W. Lovell (Imperial Oil Resources, Ltd.). The Campanian Kenilworth is interpreted to contain parts of two sequences: fhe highstand of an okfer sequence, truncated by a sequence boundary, which is overlain by lawstand and transgressive systems tracts. The amount of sea level fall necessary to cut the sequence boundary is estimated 10 be about 20 meters. Five wave-dominated para- sequences, each witha north-south to northwest southeast paleoshoreline orientation, compose the Kenilworth, Four of these parasequences are in the underlying highstand systems tract; one is in the younger transgressive systems tract. The Kenilworth provides a model for the inter- pretation and prectiction of other high-frequency sequences in foreland basins Sequence Stratigraphy of Ranip-Sctting Strand Plain Successions: The Gallup Sandstone, New Mexico by D, Nummedal (Louisiana State University] and C. M. Molenaar (United States Geolagical Survey). The Iste Turonian to early Coniacian age Gallup Sandstone is composed of a seties of tongues that prograde across a gently dipping ramp in response to relative falls in sea level. These falls are interpreted to be superimposed on a long-term rise in sea level Regressive surfaces of marine erosion, and regressive surfaces of subaerial exposiere, also kknoten as the sequence houndary, are proposed for surfaces interpreted with the Kongales. Strata between these two surfaces are placed in the falling stage systems tract Sequence Stratigraphy of the Upper Cretaccous Tocito Sendstoue: A Model for Tédally Influenced ed Valleys, San Juan Basie, New Mexico by D.C. Jennette (Exxon Production Reseateh Co.) and C. R. ones (Exxon Production Four high-frequency seqeiences 10 Sandstone. Lowstands for each sequence consist of fluvial and estuarine strata enclosed within incised valleys. The southeast-ilowing valleys parallel basement- involved fauli trends in the basin and are nearly perpendicular to the progeadation direction of the older northeatt-prograding Gallup highstand system, Cretaceous systems in the Western Interior of North America, ike the Tocito, have been interpreted as offshore bars or shdreface complexes. The Tocito Sandstone in a Scouence Stratigraphic work: An Example of Landuward-Slepping ic Sequences by D. Valasek (Amoco Production Co.). The early to middle Coniacian age Tocito Sandstone in the San Juan basin, New Mexico, Is interpreted to contain palimpsest shelf Geposils and estuarine deposits. The distribution of these steata is controlled by depositional sequence boundaries and floeding surfaces, Both regressive and transgressive Gallup and Tocito deposits are nade up of small-scale genetic sequences that compose a thirceorder sequence. Recognition of small-scale sequences is erucial for proper Stratal correlation and interpretation. Structurally Aligned, Sediment-Starved Fluvial Vaileys Excased ia Marine Deposits: Sequence Boundaries Between the Carlile Shale and Niobrara Formation, Cetra! Powder River Basin, U.S.A. by D. K. Larue (Exxon Production Research Co}. The basal contact af the Niobrara Formation with the underlying Carlile Shale is a regional unconformity, of sequence boundary, which formed about 88.5 Ma. Recause these two units both represent offshore to basinal deposits, most previous workers have suggested that etosion and truncation at the sequence boundary occurred in a submarine environment. How ever, detailed mapping based on the correlation oF 750 well logs coupled with field observations indicates that the sequence boundary is marked by incision forming north northwest trending valleys parallel to the Gillette/Keeline steuctugal lineament. The valleys form a subparallel drainage pattern which is part of a larger valley system at least 70 miles wide. Calcareou's concretions, components of basal channel lags, collected along the sequence boundaries have isotopic signatures indicative of meteoric diagenesis. These observations suggest that the paleowalleys were cut by fluvial processes, This Interpretaiion suggests that the origin of these “deep-water” deposits theoughout the Crota- ceous seway may be more complex than pre- viously thought. 13, Sequence Strativeaply of Hilight Field, Powder River Basi, Wyorniag, LLS.A.: Unconformity Control cx Muslty Thicknesses and Distributions by A. D. Donovan (Exuon Production Reseatels Co). The ‘Muddy Sandstone in the vicinity of the Hilight Field in the Powder River basin, Wyoming, isa complex steataf unit over and underlain by sequence boundaries. Incised valleys associatedt with the basal sequence boundary truncate the Skull Creek Shale and provide accommodation for reservoir deposition. Postdepositional beveling associated with the upper sequence beveling secpent wh he uppers controlling reseevoir distribution. This boundary is overlain by the Shell Creek Shale. Beveling ofa hydrocarbon reservoir below a sequence boundary that is, in turn, overlain by mudstone ‘occurs commonly and can control large hydeo- carbon agcumulations. Sequence Stratigraphic Significonce of Trace 5: Examples from tee Crelaceous Toretand Basin of Allert, Canada by S. George Pemberton (Depaitment of Geology, University of Alberta) and James A. MacEaciern (Department of Geology, University of Alberta), Trace fossils and trave-fossil suites can be used to recognize different types of stratigraphic discontinuities and to aid in their genetic interpretation. In 12, FossOverview of Sequence Stratigraphy of Foreland Basin Deposits xv particular, recognition of basinwand shifts in facies, sequence boundaries, juxtaposed sequence boundaries and foding surfaces and simple flooding surfaces can all be enhanced through the use of trace fossils. GLOSSARY OF SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY Sequence stratigraphy is a methodology for analyzing time and facies relationships in’ sedi- mentary rocks. Although the application of sequence stratigraphy relies, in part, on traditional geological techniques such as pattern correlation of well logs and facies analysis, the results of the application can be revolutionary in terms of how the evolution of sedimentary successions is interpreted. Abnonmal Subacrial Exposure; A type of basinward shifl in facies marked by subaerial exposure of subtidal facies. Abnormal Vertical Association of Facies: See Rasinwwant Shift in Facies (Van Wagoner et al, 1990). Accommodation: Space, created by sea level rise, subsidence, or a combination of these two processes. in which sediment can bee deposited (Fervey, 1985) Aggradational Parasequence Set: A parasequience set in which successively younger paraseqences are deposited above one another with no significant Interal shifts; overall, the rate of accommodation approximates the rate of deposition (Van Wagoner, 1590) Baselevel: Effectively sea level, although rivers erade ghtly below it (Schamm, 1993). In large lakes, baselevel is lake level, Basin-Floor Fan: A portion of the lowstand systems tract characterized by deposition of submarine fans on the lower slope or basin floor. Fan formation is associated with the erosion of canyons into the slope and the incision of fluvial valleys into the shelf, Siliciclastic sediment bypasses the shelf and slope through the valleys and canyons to feed the basin-floor fan, The basin-floor fan may be deposited at the mouth of a canyon, although it may occur widely separated from the canyon mouth, of a canyon may not be evident, It has no. age-equivalent rocks om the slope or shelf. The base of the basin-floor fan (coincident with the base of the lowsiand systems tract) is the type-l sequence boundary; the top of the fan is a downlap surface (Van Wogoner etal, 1987) Basinward Shift in Facies: A vertical juataposttion of cies such that shallow-marine to nonmarine strata deposited above a sequence boundary lie directly on strata deposited in a much deeper depositional environment, with no intervening. rocks deposited in intermediate depositional environments, & basinward shift in facies is also marked by abnormal subaerial exposure (Van, Wagoner etal., 1990}. Bed: A relatively conformable succession of genetically related laminae or lamina-sets bounded by surfaces (called bedding surfaces) of erosion, nondeposition, or their correlative conformities (Campbell, 1967) Bedsct: A relatively conformable succession of genetically related beds bounded by surfaces (Called bedset surfaces} of erosion, nondeposition, or their correlative conformities (Campbell, 1967). Composite Sequence: A succession of genetically related sequences in which the individual wuences stack into lowstand, transgressive, and jhstand sequence sels. Composite sequences form in 1-3 million years (Mitchum and Van Wagoner, 1991) Condensed Section: A Facies consisting of thin hemipelagic or pelagic secliments deposited as the parasequences step landward and as the shelf i starved of tersigenous sedim test diversity and abundance of fauna within the sequence are found in this terrigenous-starved interval. Deposition within the condensed section is continuous, although commonly the section is thin, accumulates at very slow rates, and encompasses a great deal of time (Loutit et al., 1988). Conformity: A surface separating younger from older strata along which there is na evidence of erosion (neither subaerial nor submarine) 67 nondeposition, and along which no significant hiatus is indicated. It includes surfaces onto Which there is very slow deposition or low rates of sediment accumulation, with long periods of geologic time being represented by very thin deposits (Mitehum et al., 1977; Van Wagoner et al, 1987, 1988, 1990). Correlative Surface: The pI marine-flooding surface delining the parasequence boundary. The correlative surface ih the coastal plain is not marked by significant subaerial erosion, stream rejuvenation, downward shift in coastal onlap, or onlap of overlying strata; it may bbe marked by evidence of subaerial exposure such as soil horizons, coals, of ront horizons. The correlative surface may also be marked by low net to gross coastal-plain mudstones and thin sandstones resting on high met to geoss fluvial sandstones. This facies juxtaposition an be traced over a significant regional extent. In other coastal- plain successions, the correlative surface is marked, by bay and lagconal deposits resting on fluvial strata such as poiat-bar sandstones. The correlative surface on the shelf is a conformable surface with no significant hiatus indicated and is marked by thin pelagic or hemipelagic deposits. These deposits include thin carbonates, organie-rich mudstones, glauconites, and voleanic ashes indicating terrigenous-seciiment starvation, Strata across correlative surfaces may not indicate a change in water depth, In some cases the correlative surfaces in the coastal plain or on the shelf can be identified only by correlating ical extension of the‘Van Wagoner updip or downdip from a marine-flooding surface (Van Wagoner et a, 1990) Cycle: A period of time during which sea level falls from a highstand position, through a lowstand, and returns fo a highstand. Cycle is not used as a rock term {Wail etal, 1077; Mitchum, 1977). Depositional Sequence: See Sequence Depositional Systems: Three-dimensional assemblages of lithofacies, genetically linked by active (modern) processes or inferred (ancient) processes and environments (Fisher and McGowan, 1967}. Depositional-Shoreline Break: The position on the shelf landward of which the depositional sucface is AL of near base level, usually sea level, and seaward of whieh the depositional surface is below sea level (Van Wagoner, 1990) Eustasy: Synchronous global changes in sea level (Gary et aly, 1974), For example, a change in the level of the ocean surface measured by a geosynchronous satellite is a eustatic change, Eustatic sed level is redundant; however, it is a convenient term parallel to relative change in sea level and is commonly used. [tis synonymous with eustayy Flooding Surface: A surface separating younger from older strata across which there ig evidence of an abrupt increase in water clepth, This deepening Is commonly accompanied by minor submarine erosion oF aondeposition, but not by subaerial erosion due to stream rejuvenation or 4 basinward shift in facies, including abnormal subserial exposure, with a minor hiatus indicated. The amount of submarine erosion associated with a flooding surface varies, but probably ranges from a few inches to tens of feet, with several feet being mest common. The flooding surface has a coteelative sueface in the coastal plain and a correlative surface on tite shelf (Van Wagoner et al, 1987, 1988, 1990), Fourth-Order Sequence: A high-frequency sequence formed in approximately 100,000 to 150,000 years (Mitchum and Van Wagoner, 1981), High-Frequency Sequence: A sequence (see Sesience) formed with eyclicities of approximately 100,000 years, 40,21) years, or 20,008 years (Mitchum and Van Wagoner, 1291), Highstand Systoms Tract: A systems tract bounded below by the downlap surface and above by the next sequence boundary. The early highstand commonly consists of an aggradational paca- sequence set; the late highstand is composed of one oF more progradational parascquence sels (Van Wagoner et al, 1987, 1988; Posamentier and Vail, 1988). Incised Vatleys: The channels or walleys formed by fluvial systems that extend their channels basinward and erode into underlying strata in response to a relative fall in sea level. Incised valleys can be up to several hundred feet deep and range in with from a balé mile to many tens of les (Van Wagoner etal, 1990) Lamina-set: A relatively conformable succession of genetically related! laminae bounded by surfaces, (Called Isminasset surfaces) of erosion and nondepositian (Campbell, 1967), Lowstand Systems Tract: The lowstand systems tract is bounded below by the sequence boundary and abowe by the first major flooding surface, call the transgressive surface. It may consist of a basin. floor fan. a slope fan, and a lowstand wedge (Van Wagoner et al, 1987, 1988; Posamentier and Vail 1988). Lowstand Wedge: One or more progradational parasequence sets making up a wedge that is restricted seaward of the shelf break and that onlaps the slope of the preceding sequence. The most proximal part of the wedge consists of incised-valley fills and theit associated lowstand- shoreline cleposits on the shelf or upper slope. In basins with shelf-slope breaks, the major part of the wedge is composed of a thick, mastly shale-prone, prograding wedge-shaped unit that downlaps onto the slope fan and consists of shallowing-upward lowstand deltas and associated sediments that prograde basinward and pinch out landward (Van Wagoner et al, 1987, 1988; Posamentier and Vai 1986). MarinesFlooding Surfac Wagoner et al., 1990) Paracydle: A small-scale relative rise and stillstand of sea level, followed by another relative rise with ne intetsening fall (Vail ot al., 1977). Paracycle can also refer to an autocyelicaliy’ controlled change in water depth such a$ a rapid rise and stillstand followed by another rapid rise produced by two deltaclabe shifts. Parasequence: A relatively conformable succession of genetically related beds or bedsety bounded by Tooding surfaces or their correlative surfaces. In spetial positions within the sequence, parasequences may be bounded eilher above or below by sequence boundaries (Van Wagoner, 1985; Van Wagoner et al. 1887, 1988, 1990), Parasequence Boundary: A flooding surface and its correlative surfaces. It isa planar surface af local to basinal extent and exhibits only minor topographic relief over large areas. Parasequence Set: A succession of genetically relatect parasequences forming a distinctive stacking pattern bounded by major flooding surfaces and their correlative surfaces (Van Wagoner, 1985; Van Woxoner et al., 1987, 1988, 1990) Parasequence Set Boundary: A type of flooding surface, with all of the aitributes of a parasequence boundary, bounding a parasequence sct (Van Wagoner el al, 1987, 1988, 1999). Progeadation: Outbuilding o¢ Lasinward building af the shoreline occurring when the rate of sediment supply at the shoreline exceeds the rate of relative rise in sea level (Gary et al., 1974). AS a cesult of progradation, te distal toes af successively younger paraseyuences are deposited farther basinward. Mrogradational Parasequence Set A parasequence set in which successively young deposited farther basinwa ce Flooding Surface (Van Tdeetail the eae of