Central Luzon State University

Science City of Muñoz 3120

Nueva Ecija, Philippines

Instructional Module for the Course

PSYCH 2104 Psychological Statistics

Prepared by: Robinson Z. Lumontod III

E-mail Address: robinsonlumontodiii@clsu.edu.ph
 PSYCH 2104 (PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS)

Module 4

I. Title: Introduction to Hypothesis Testing

II. Overview

In this module, we will explore some statistical processes that will help us figure
out whether the assumptions of research can be held correct or not using the data
from the sample understudy. Upon completion of this module, you will be able to make
your testable assumptions about the variable(s) in question and conduct hypothesis
testing.

III. Objectives

Upon completion of this module, you will be able to:

a. construct testable hypothesis

b. conduct hypothesis testing

IV. Discussion

Hypothesis Testing

Hypothesis testing is a decision-making process for assessing assumptions and

whether those assumptions are supported by the results of the study from a sample size
coming from the population of interest (Aron, Coups, & Aron, 2013). In other words,
hypothesis testing allows the researcher to determine whether the prior assumption about
a phenomenon is true. There are a few steps you can do throughout this process.

Before embarking on the entire process, there are some terminologies and concepts
you need to get familiarized with. The following are the most common ones:

1. Null Hypothesis – is denoted with the symbol H o. It is a statistical hypothesis which

states that there is no existing difference or relationship between parameters under
study.

2. Alternative Hypothesis – denoted as H1, is a statistical hypothesis which states that

there is an existing difference or relationship between the parameters under study.

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In the actual research process, the null hypothesis is something that may or may
not true. You can reject or accept it depending on the result of the analysis. However,
there are two possible errors or faulty decisions a researcher can commit: Type 1 and
Type 2 errors. Type 1 error occurs when a researcher rejects the null hypothesis while in
fact, it is true. In other words, you commit a type 1 error when you say that there is a
significant difference between the parameters while there is none. In contrast, you
commit the type 2 error if you fail to reject the null hypothesis when it is false. In other
words, Type 2 error occurs when you say that there is no significant difference between
the parameters while in fact, there is.

In hypothesis testing, a significance level is used to determine whether or not

there is a significant difference or relationship between the two parameters. The
significance level is denoted by α (alpha) which pertains to the probability of committing
a faulty conclusion known as type 1 error. In social sciences, especially in psychological
research, the common significance or alpha levels being used are .01 and .05. The lower
the alpha or significance level, the lesser the chance of committing a type 1 error. For
instance, if the alpha is .01, there is only a 1% chance of making faulty conclusions.

The critical value indicates a certain point in the distribution that separates the
critical region. The critical region aids the researcher to determine whether a significant
difference exists between the parameters and that the null hypothesis should be rejected.
The critical region can be found on either side of the distribution. This depends on
whether the test is one-tailed or two-tailed. For instance, in a left-tailed test, an alpha of
.01, the critical value is -2.33, and the area from that point toward the extreme left side
will be the critical region. In a right-tailed test, the alpha level of .01 has a critical value
of 2.33. Notice that the only difference is the sign. Therefore, all left-tailed tests have
negative critical values and all the right-tailed tests have positive critical values. In the
two-tailed test, on the other hand, the critical value or the critical region is located on
either side of the distribution.

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One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Tests

In hypothesis testing, there are two main procedures in terms of determining

which side (left or right) of the distribution to be considered when rejecting the null
hypothesis: one-tailed and two-tailed tests. As mentioned, the only difference between
the two is that in a one-tailed test, the rejection region is located on one side of the
distribution (left or right) depending on the prior assumption of the researcher. The usual
symbol of the one-tailed test is Ho: μ1 > μ2; H1: μ1 < μ2. As you can see, the rejection
region is located on one side of the distribution, which in this case, on the left side. If the
symbol goes like this, Ho: μ1 < μ2; H1: μ1 > μ2, the rejection region is on the right side
of the distribution. In other words, in a one-tailed test, the rejection region is based on
the direction of the symbol of the alternative hypothesis.

In a two-tailed test, the rejection region is located on either side of the distribution.
The direction is not specified. This is the reason why the two-tailed test is also known as
the non-directional hypothesis. The symbol will look like this Ho: μ1 = μ2; H1: μ1 ≠ μ2.
This happens in studies where a researcher predicts that there is a significant effect but
he/she does not know what will be the effect is (positive or negative). Another thing to
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remember is that, in two-tailed tests, the alpha level or the significance level is divided
into 2. So if the alpha level is .05, the rejection region will be 0.025 on both sides of the
distribution which has the z score of -1.96 on the left and +1.96 on the right. These
values are the critical values from which the rejection of the null hypothesis will be based
upon. Let us see how one and two-tailed tests look in the examples below.

The common statistical test being conducted in a large sample size is the Z test.
This is applicable if the population is equal to or greater than 30. The following is the
formula you can use (Z Test: Formula & Example, 2017).

Z = x̅ - μ/ σ/√n

Where:

x̅ = is the sample mean

μ = estimate population mean
σ = population deviation
n = is the sample size

Steps for Conducting Hypothesis Testing

Step 1: Identify the claim and state the hypothesis

Step 2: Determine the critical value
Step 3: Set the decision rule
Step 4: Determine the test value
Step 5: Decide whether to retain or reject the null hypothesis
Step 6: Make a result summary

One-Tailed and Two-Tailed Test Examples

Example 1

Now, let’s work on one sample problem using a one-tailed test (left-tailed test).
Suppose that you heard a claim that students spend a lesser amount of time
watching television than the general public. The existing claim also states that on
average, the general public spends 28 hours per week on their TV set with a standard
deviation of 3. To your curiosity, you conducted a study wherein 40 college students
participated. From the data, you found out that the average hours spend by the
participants watching television is 24 hours. Using an alpha level of .01, test the validity
of the claim.

Applying the steps for conducting hypothesis testing, you can follow the steps below:

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Step 1: Identify the claim and state the hypothesis

H0: μ ≥ 28
H1: µ < 28 (less than the existing claim)

Or

H0: μ1 ≥ μ2
H1: µ1 < μ2

μ1 = amount of time the students spent watching TV

μ2 = amount of time the general public spent watching TV

Note: To determine the direction or symbol of the alternative hypothesis, go back

to the problem, and understand what is the prior assumption is about. For this example,
the highlighted statement provides the clue (the word “lesser”). Sometimes the clue is
not clear so you need to examine the problem carefully.

Step 2: Determine the critical value

Using the alpha of .01, and since this is a left-tailed test, the critical region is at
the left side of the distribution equivalent to Z = -2.33 (this value is derived from the z
distribution table).

Note: To find the z score of any given alpha level, look for the value nearest to
the alpha, in this case, .01 on the Area Beyond Z, and then look for its corresponding
value on the Z column. In this case, the closest value to .01 is .0099 and the
corresponding Z value is 2.33. Since the test is left-tailed, it should be negative (-2.33).
Also, note that there are no negative values in the table because the other half of the
distribution has equal value or area.

Step 3: Set the decision rule

Reject Ho if the test value is less than Z = -2.33

Step 4: Determine the test value

Use the above formula:

Z = [24– 28]/[3/√40] = – 8.43

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Step 5: Decide whether to retain or reject the null hypothesis

As you can see, the test value is -8.43 less than the critical value of -2.33 and falls
in the rejection region, therefore, the null hypothesis should be rejected. (Note: If the
test value is greater than -2.33, do not reject the null hypothesis)

Step 6: Make a result summary

The result provides evidence to support the existing claim that college students
spend less amount of time watching television than the general public.

Example 2

Now let’s use the same example using a one-tailed test (right-tailed test). Suppose
that you heard a claim that students spend more time watching television than
the general public. The existing claim also states that on average, the general public
spends 24 hours per week on their TV set with a standard deviation of 3. To your curiosity,
you conducted a study wherein 40 college students participated. From the data, you
found out that the average hours spend by the participants watching television is 28
hours. Using an alpha level of .01, test the validity of the claim.

Step 1: Identify the claim and state the hypothesis

H0: μ ≤ 24
H1: µ > 24

Or

H0: μ1 ≤ μ2
H1: µ1 > μ2

μ1 = amount of time the students spent watching TV

μ2 = amount of time the general public spent watching TV

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Note: To determine the direction or symbol of the alternative hypothesis, go back

to the problem, and understand what is the prior assumption is about. For this example,
the highlighted statement provides the clue (the word “more”). Sometimes the clue is not
clear so you need to examine the problem carefully.

Step 2: Determine the critical value

Using the alpha of .01, and since this is a right-tailed test, the critical region is at
the right side of the distribution equivalent to Z = 2.33 (this value is derived from the z
distribution table).

Note: To find the Z score of any given alpha level, look for the value nearest to
the alpha, in this case, .01 on the Area Beyond Z in the table and then look for its
corresponding value on the Z column. In this case, the closest value to .01 is .0099 and
the corresponding Z value is 2.33.

Step 3: Set the decision rule

Reject Ho if the test value is greater than Z = 2.33

Step 4: Determine the test value

Use the same formula:

Z = [28– 24]/[3/√40] = 8.43

Step 5: Decide whether to retain or reject the null hypothesis

As you can see, the test value is 8.43 greater than the critical value of 2.33 and
falls in the rejection region, therefore, the null hypothesis should be rejected. (Note: If
the test value is less than 2.33, do not reject the null hypothesis )

Step 6: Make a result summary

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The result provides evidence to support the existing claim that college students
spend more time watching television than the general public.

Example 3

Now let’s use the same example in a two-tailed test. Suppose that you heard a
claim that the time spent on watching TV greatly differs between students and
the general public. The existing claim also states that on average, the general public
spends 24 hours per week on their TV set with a standard deviation of 3. To your curiosity,
you conducted a study wherein 40 college students participated. From the data, you
found out that the average hours spend by the participants watching television is 28
hours. Using an alpha level of .01, test the validity of the claim.

Step 1: Identify the claim and state the hypothesis

H0: μ = 24
H1: µ ≠ 24

Or

H0: μ1 = μ2
H1: µ1 ≠ μ2

μ1 = amount of time the students spent watching TV

μ2 = amount of time the general public spent watching TV

Note: To determine the direction or symbol of the alternative hypothesis, go back

to the problem, and understand what is the prior assumption is about. For this example,
the highlighted statement does not provide a clue about the direction of the rejection
region. Therefore, it could be on either side of the distribution.

Step 2: Determine the critical value

Using the alpha of .01, and since this is a two-tailed test, the alpha will be divided
into 2 which is equal to .005. The critical region is below Z = -2.58 and above or greater
than Z = 2.58 (this value is derived from the z distribution table).

Note: To find the z score of any given alpha level, look for the value nearest to
the alpha, in this case, .005 on the Area Beyond Z in the table and then look for its
corresponding value on the Z column. In this case, the closest value to .005 is .0049 and
the corresponding Z value is 2.58.

Step 3: Set the decision rule

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Reject Ho if test value is less than Z = -2.58 or greater than Z = 2.58

Step 4: Determine the test value

Use the same formula:

Z = [28– 24]/[3/√40] = 8.43

Step 5: Decide whether to retain or reject the null hypothesis

As you can see, the test value is 8.43 greater than the critical value of 2.58 and
falls in the right rejection region, therefore, the null hypothesis should be rejected. (Note:
If the test value is less than 2.58, do not reject the null hypothesis )

Step 6: Make a result summary

The result provides evidence to support the existing claim that the time spent in
watching TV differs between college students and the general public.

Additional Learning Materials

Video Presentations

 Hypothesis Testing
 Intro to Hypothesis Testing in Statistics
 Intro to Hypothesis Testing in Filipino
Journal Articles
 Hypothesis Testing

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Online Resources
 Hypothesis Testing
 What is Hypothesis Testing

V. Assessment

Module Quiz 4

Read the following statement carefully and try to answer the given question.
Follow the exact format from the previous examples. This is a 30-point quiz.

Rubrics

This quiz will be graded using the following criteria:

1. Hypothesis 4. Test value

Correct = 5 points Correct = 5 points
Incorrect = 1 point Incorrect = 1 point

2. Critical value 5. Decision to retain or reject the null

Correct = 5 points hypothesis
Incorrect = 1 point Correct = 5 points
Incorrect = 1 point
3. Decision rule
Correct = 5 points 6. Result summary
Incorrect = 1 point Correct = 5 points
Incorrect = 1 point

The new memory enhancer X recently gained a reputation in the market as the
most effective memory enhancer ever produced by XY Pharma. The recorded average
memory level among people who had taken the enhancer was 95 with a standard
deviation of 10. As a neuroscientist, you want to test the claim and conducted a study
and measure the memory level of 50 participants. The average memory level of the
participants came out to be 80. Is there enough evidence to support the claim about the
new memory enhancer?

VI. References

Aron, A., Coups, E. J., & Aron, A. N. (2013). Statistics for Psychology: Sixth Edition.
Pearson Education, Inc.

Z Test: Formula & Example. (2017, March 22). Retrieved from

https://study.com/academy/lesson/z-test-formula-example.html.

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