structural syztene Structural steel 1s used for such a variety of types of structures, Fanging from reeidential buildings to industrial plants, fram mill Batldtngs to cranes, from transziselon toers to silos, ete, that no Eingle approach could porsitly be expected £0 cover ali applications. in any instance the structural achewe will Largely depend’ on the purpose of the construction. It should be ureful, however, to try to Find soue general features vhsch are conmon to ali steel structures and to provide guide Lines for structural design criteria, in the following, thereiore, some aatters which can help in the stroctural Choice are considered in relation to the main probleas involved in the Sovign of tho of the most common types of structure: the mlticstorey Building and the single storey industriel building. ‘Obviously, what is said concerning these structures can be extended ‘to other systems: the choice of there two types can be considered ss a potent for iliustrating certain logical patterns whieh are Sefticiently general to be greful for a proper design conception of Sny Kind of steel, structure - ‘sone cutstandiig text hocks Gealing with the structural analysis of stee! systons are given in references |1-20| at the end of the Chapters Design rules and constructional details may be feund in [21-20], an international survey of the present state of tho art on Stool structures [29] also contains # most extensive BibLicgraphy on Gitferent aspects. 14.4 Hinematioe of structures A steel structure is the result of assembling the various parts which re pretapricated, generally £16a cections or profiles and sheets, ‘vay Eran the building site. ‘fa order to explain this definition better, the noraal sequence of events leading to the completed structure are (a) Production of profiles and sheets in stoslnorks (8) Seanaformation of profiles and sheets into pro-assexbled Structural elegents or seructural sets in the fabrication shop(c) Transportation and erection of the structural eleoents or sets on site ‘the form of construction of 2 steal structure is widely influenced by thie sequence, which can be considered the converse of thas which chazacterises a ton-grefabriestes concrete, structure ‘The latter is entirely produced on site by casting the concrete into the forms, 20 that a monolithic and therefore extremely hypexstatic structure is created. Consider for example typi wo column consection of a concrete structure (Pig. Ii). the constraint of the meshers composing the structure is such that the Joint can be considered az baile im (Fig. isla). If a greate: freedom Of "relative sovesent between the menbers 45 required, speci technological or constructions! devices must be applied (Pig. 1.4). Pho By » Fig. 1a ‘The steel structure, on the contrary, produced by axsenbliag various parts, has a fairly low degree of mutual constraint between tthe structural members and special ‘technolagical or consteuct.onal Govices must be applied to Increase redundancy of the structure Fig. 12a schenstically shows one of the siaplest and most economical connections Linking @ beam to a coluan, Tf a greater Figidity of the connection is required, gore complicated and expensive procedure mist be applied (Pig. 12h) i ' 4 ” Fig. 1.2 ‘The econoaic need of minimizing the working processes and simplifying the exection operations therefore requires. a low degree of fmtual constvaint between the structural genbers. in designing 2structure and its joints in his way, due consideration gust be given fo possible instability, which mist be overcone by introdueing stabilizing slenents, for exenple, consider » succession of beam to colin connections of the type shown in Fig. 1.28. They cat belong to 5 structural system #2 shown in fag, 13a. Tt eah be seen that it to Recessary to introduce Bracings (Fig. 1.30) to stabilize the structure fad thor enable it co resist external load, watever their direction ight be. 1.1.2 Stability of the etruotuaal elenente stool is» material whose stress atrainreletionship fig the Dar performs Glasto-plastically and te shortening 4s greatel than that foreseen tnthe nypothesis of a perfectly elastic material, xt is possible to tvatuste the Loed fi defining the maxinun lord carrying capscity of Por i>lgy @ state of equiltbriom ix impossible and for bb the bar can be in Squltibrin urdar e load hej, ccrescenaane or inStabio branch» Tn conelusion, a staple compression sember {8 a structural element having an asymmetrical H= A relationanip (Fig. 1-6)- Sension members fan be consigeredy in_good eppromination, as bchaving in a erfectly Slasto-plastie way, with a lisiting load of Hey = fA, ahere A ie the Erore sectional aren and fy de the yield sexeB of Uno materiat ‘Under compression the IX law is Gurvilinear and the isiting toad fora given slonderness depends on the geometrical and strostural Sspertections of the inawserial ber | 1.1.3 Spaze behaviour of structures ‘The tho foregoing sactions immediately suggest # third: in order to correctly the buckling phendaena of its atructurel elements, one mst Sluays conceive the structure in three-dimeneional specs, even when it an be considered and atalysed ex conposed of variour substructures Dehaving in one plane. ‘Consider for exaspie a structure consisting of a set of identical frames (Fig. 1.7), the upper joints of which cannot translate Eraneversely. This can be examined as a nusber of single frane substructures each of which can be represented and analysed az a‘pupoRY AND OESIGI OF STEEL STRUCTURES planar structure (Fig. 1.7) in order to evaluate the stresses Fesulting froa tho applied loads F. ‘the buckling effects must be considered not only in the plane, but also outside the plane of the Frage (Fig. 1-7e), to find the mdst unfavourable conditions for the Rig. 1.7 1.1.4 Dead Load effeete ‘The density strength ratio is particularly favourable for steel Structures: It 18 only 20-308 of chat for concrete structures. Ia Stool structures, therefore, dead load effects are often negligible Compared to those due to Live or imposed loads. This iz an advantage fost of all during the structural calculations: structure dea 1osd (Can be agsuned very approriaately as t does aot aigatéieantly infiuence the results. On the other hand, some effects Which are usually neglected in the design of concrete structures often become Inportane for steel structures, ss illustrated in the following ‘ximples: (2) A plane steel root weighs about 9,15 - 0.30 Ws" while a concrete structure weighs 2 ~ 3 kim'4 A anow load of 0.715 ="? is therafore equal to about 70-08% of the total amount for a steel structure and to about 20-208 of the totel snount for a concrete Structure, Consequently, although the saal reduction in permanent oad of a steel structure is cortainly an advantage as far as stisnie resistance 1s concerned, a snowfall is gore dangerous for steel structure than for a concrete one ‘i (@) On the sane spof structare, wind can create a auction of 0.30 = 0.50 kNa (Fig. 1.8). Usually, this 1s not taken Lato Gonsideration in the case of a concrete structure because It 8 on the safe side az it reduces dead lond effects. In the case of Stecl structure, the forces in the weabers can change these signs Gigs, Lf the 2008 beam tz a truss, the bottom bar, whieh normallycomm mo 4mm cum) ped EEE Pig. 1.8 49 én tonston, might become compressed and therefore be subject te buckling. If slendernese fe great, a slight comprese.on can be nore decisive than tension in deteruining the size of mesber. 1.1.5 Deformabétity of atmuctural elenente ue to service load and material elastic modulus is 3-4 times higher than in the case of concrete structures. Purthermore, am pointes out in 1.1,4, the seabor carrying capacity is often totally available for serviceability if dead load effects are negligible, Ar a consequence, ‘the deflection of a steel menber under service load ie often rather igh and say sonetines be Snaccoptable. ‘Therefore doflection controls in'nervice conditions are of great importance. Consider for example a simply supported Tebean under a uniforaly distribated load qr © Ze = iy2 1 Myae Gar Er T= MA SsSmax 1 ‘aa! 30 an where 9 /L is the ratio of mid-span deflection to Lengthy Z/h the Tengen BBY depen ratio; F the naveriai elastic modulus; W the elastic ods of the beam section and o._, the maximum stress produced by the bending monent due to the serB¥Ee loads on the structure. "Fig. 1.9 shows the Lines corresponding to Equation (1.1) for varions values of ¢,-, and the field where the usual valves of /h Iie Te can be seen that"Gfsplaconent Limstations within the range of) 11/380 - 1/500 can be nore restrictive than those required by the faaterial strength. Thay therefore strongly influence the design, Darticvlarly when the ateel structure is used together vith otier Constructional elepents requiring sufficiently rigid structires for their satisfactory performance: e.g. brick walls for fagade or partitions supported by steel decks or beans.mat 2 ~ ‘40m velues of th : Fig. 1.9 1.1.6 Interaction between bending moment and axial Load 4m many common types of structures used for buildings the ver=ical Glenents are compressed by the vertical loads and bent by horizontal Forces due toy for example, wind or earthquakes. In steel structures, dus to bookling phenonsna, interaction between bending moment and axial action is always unfavourable and, ere Stenderness 1s great, extremely lovering. The situation 19 different {in the case of concrete strvctares, in witch colum slesderness i= ‘tually #acher low and furthersore axial force/bending momen interaction can also be favorable. Fig. 1-10 illustrates such» facts 2 zteel section (Pig. 1.108) iz aluys Iesr resistant in compression than in tension (= 3) and the presence of a Bending moment in any case reduces Lts load carrying Pig. 10.eepanity. A concrate section (rig. 1-108) sbriousty roasts better in Comprestion than in tension and vith iow valwes of axial loading wil) hot be adversely affected by bending until the bending tensile stress exceeds the axial compression, Dending/axial action interaction {9 typical of franod structures Imerefore, it 1s not stxprising that iv 1s not particularly economical to design a atest structure to resist horizontal forces, These can be Seale with in other ways, A multi-storey butlding can he represented, in itz simplest fora, by 2 Series of floor systems bearing upon colums (Fig. 1.11). Tt is not Sntended to define the various structural possibrlities aor deseribe Gitferent types of structure, The aim here i= to sLlustrate a postible approsch to the structural problen with @ sufficient. degr: Of generality to allow the identification of poseible design schemes Sha calculation xodelz. nh possible approach can consist in analysing the effects of external 2oaés on the structure and then classifying then according to the type of internal ection that the load itself Greates in the various parts of the structure. a ° X Pig. 11112.1 ffecta of vertioal Loade Consider 9 vertical toad F concentrated at a given point on aay floor fof the butlding (Pig. 1.118). By neans of appropriate structatal Glemonts, its effects aust be transmitted to the foundation s/stex. ‘These structurel elesents and the main functions they aze to Fulfil By means of elezents capable of covering saall spans, load P can be Drought to bear upon beans that are disposed at a saxistse sparing ‘compatible with the resistance of these elements (Fig. title). these (Secondary) "beans are ez long az one of the colima spacings aid bear upon other principal beans whieh discharge the effects of Load # into the colians. ‘Aaong other solutions, the roofing slab elegents can be: Panels made of nomal or prostressed concrate or of concrete mixed With Bricks, cast in situ (Figs 1.12a,b) oF prafabeicated (Pige TeiRe,a) = corrugated shoots filled with inset material (Fig. 1.126) Corrugated shoots filled with concrete (Fig. 1.126) Pig. 1.12 Pig. 1.13Fig. 1.13 dllustrater few examples of corrugated shect shapes. [An example of steel corrugated sheste with reinforced concrete 1 Sliseersted in Fig. 11d, U Zt Lo thus posstble to recognize the main effects croatat by a vertical load on the sesbers of a multi-storey boilding. In accordance with equilibrium conditions, the horizontal elesents are mainly bent in the vertical plane and tho vertical elevents are Compressed, Possible axial load in the Deane and bending in the oluans depend on the conpatibility of the rotation of the geubers fat their junction. 1.2.2 Byfeots of horizontal toads Consider a horizontal load P concentrated én any point of the musiding (Fig. 1.15a), By moans of a cladding elenent (fagede) se ts Srans~ ited ‘to. tao continous floors (Fig. 1-15b).Thexe £2 90 loss in (Generalization if one considers a load # acting in the flocr slab and Gpplied at any point, Jes effects must etill zeach tho foundation systen: the supporting elements of each floor slab will distribute the effects of H to the colum joints and thence to the foundation (Fig. hase) Prom the foregoing it is clear that tho horizontal cleusnts are axially loaded and bent in their oun plane, while the vertical Glements are salnly bent. 1.2.3 Structural types ZE the effects of horizontal and of vertical loads are nox combined, £€ can be seen that it 1s possible to conceive the structure as a systen Of toators capable of resisting sisi, bending and shearing actions. Such behaviour 1s hovever possible only if there are rigid ‘Connections between the vertical weabers (colume) and the horizontal jones (Deas), creating a framed strvcture with s high degree of hyperstatics.‘me joints between the various elenents aro cong! serictional dotsila of joints betwenfof the beam and the coluan web mist bear the shearing force only. ‘These site welded Joints are expensive and cause delay in erection. ‘This is why bolted Joints with end plate (Pig. 1-160) or cover plates (Fig. 1.168) offer suitabte alternatives. To avoid the problons of rigid frame construction tt = however, possible to conceive a structure capable of resisting the effects of Vertical and horizontal loads by distributing the carrying function ‘among the various nenbers, To this end a hypostatie (stmpls) Structure as shown in Fig 1.17 is capable of transferring the cftects of vertical loads to the foundation. In auch a stractare the beans ere bent in the vertical plane, coluans are sisply comressed and the hinged joints betwsen beans and Columne sist absorD only shearing ‘Te Zeeist horizontal forces and to transfer their effects to the soundation, it 49 sufficient to provide a cantilever fixed to the ‘ground (Pig. 1.172). By combining these two elenentary structures, the structure show sn Pig. Iie. 4a obtained: it ie isostatic and therefore capable of ‘carrying the effects of loads in any direction. In it Joints are simple (hinges) Deformability 12 related to the behaviour of the bracing system (caneitever) Interaction between axial load and bending woacnt in the colusn is virtually absent Rracinge, however, do present same complications. ‘Their foundation systen, for {astance, has to resist the horizontal loads where they are concentrated instead of distributing thom over the whole Building Th such a structural sehene, the columns, which are simply: compressed by the vertical loads, work mainly as pin-ended bars and yy be either continuous or interrupted et the various floors, fccording te whether the main beans are interrupted or continsows. Therefore, by means of colume and beans, it 1s Possible to absorb any bhh ob bb + = Fig. 1.17 13[TEORY AND DEST OF STEEL STRUCTURES Fig. 1.18 vertical losd and to transmit it to the foundations. Pig. 1.18 Blustrates sone constructional details of Joines connecting horizontal and vertical geabors, which are capable of cranamitting only axial and shearing forces. They are therefore suitable for ‘Bracing structures generally take one of two forms, They cen be reinforced concrete cores, usually located around stairways, or they ‘can be of steel forming vertical trusses with Glagonais betrean the bean/colmn joints. Im this case, the most comon systens re the St Redeew's croas (Pig. 1-19a) and the K bracing (Pig. 1-190). Bracing structures Gre meinly losded in shear and Dending and their decormbility sust be checked under serviceability conditions in order to Linit displacements of the whole building. In an actual structure the design of all sembers necessary for the overail equilibriun requives to take into account the space behaviour Of the building. ‘The generic horizontal load # in Fig. 1-15 gust no Tonger be distributed to all the floor/colum joints, fut only to the ‘floor/eracing ones, a8 they are the only elements capable of absorbing Fig. 1.19 “ts effects and of transmitting then to the foundation. Furthermore, there must be a sufficient number of bracing structures to allow any horizontal load however directed to be Bslances. Te follows that’ (a) Te must be possible to consider any floor system as x plane structure, restrained by the vertical Bracings (@) Bracings are external restraints of the floor aystear they therefore mist provide a system of at least three dogress of (e) The floor systen aust he capable of resisting the internal forces due to the applied horizontal leads 1 fu1Fi1 requirement (a), diagonal bracinge aust be intzoduced in the plane of the floor, thus’ transforming the floor systen itself into a horizontal truss. As an alternative, the slab or prefabricated Concrete elenente of the floor aysten can be aasused to resist the horizontal forces a2 a plane plate structure, the doforaability of whieh is normally negligible. in this case, however, the erection of he steel skeleton requires particular care because it is ietable ‘anti the floor elepents are placed. Teuporary bracing therefore must be used in this sivaation. vfo fulfil requirenent. (b), reinforced concrete bracing systems can be considared as having one, two of three Sagres of restraise, Bepending spon their resistance to bending in only one plat Dending or bivawial bending and torsion respectively. Steel truss type bBracings, acting only in thelr ovn plane, are Finally, requizenent (c) 2 fulfilled by evaluating internal forces in the floor system elemente due to the horizontal loads, dspending on ‘the location of the vertical Bracings, ‘shese considerations can be illustrated by using some classic examples. Pig. 1.20 shows a three-disensional structure for a multi~ storey butiding with steel bracing. Every point of the floor system fe fixed in two Airections. In particular, the diagonals reaching points A and B reGtvain all the pointe in line ‘1* also in the ‘z" Bixection. ‘The floor bracing is able to receive external forcea from both in direction ‘s" and "y" and to transait thew to the vertical Dracinge as follows. Under the action of Aistributed 1oad q on the ‘long #agade, ars RF, ue to the loade applied to the transverse fagade, one hast Ryo Rpe Wat Fae + RF, +P, ty ‘te spatial structure can be reduced to plane substructures whose static schenes are shown in Pig. 1.21. the fagade along axe 13" Le Gizectly braced in its plane ae weil as by the transverse Beacings of axes ‘a! and "b', Also all the joints of the intermediate transverse Exanes and tho longitudinal franss on sxex '1" and 12! are prevented fron any displacement because they are all connected to the vertical Dracinge through the floor Bracings. 1sFig. 1.20out © © @ seamen. inermadine Fig. 1.21 Fig. 1.22 represents the spatial structural echowe of a aulti~ storey bullding with a reinforced concrete bracing core. ‘The floor Dracthg solution illustrated sn Pig. 1.234 S2 corzect 1f the four Tf omly three sides Of the staircase core ave efficient, it is necessary to distribute the forces acting in the longitudinal Sirection to the wall which ie able to receive then (Pig. 1-230), tusing aaastional floor aiagonals.oFig. 1.22 ye | yeahslopes for the sheading of water and sndv. Th fdr to identify possible structural systens the ate Kind of approach a2 described for multi-storey buildings in Section 1.2 will be followed. 1.9.1 Effects of vertieat toads A generic vertical load F acting on the roof (Fig. 1.26) can be transaitted to the principal beans or trusses by asans of the pusline (Pig. 1.26a). 18 the principal beans are more than aay 6 m apat, secondary noans or rafters must be provided to Keep the span of the urlins Yeasonable. he spacing of the poring vill extent on the form of 200f sheeting used. Profiled how available which can safely span 4m or nore alth Fig. Purling aze mainly subjected to bi-axial bending due to the root slope. ‘The vertical load ? mist therefore be resolved into the to coaponents f= F cos a, perpendicular to the slope, and F, =F sin a, fangontial © ene siope (rigs 1.27). As the flexural bebaDiour of the profiles noreally used for garlins is weaker in the direction of the Slope it is often necessary co provide them with additional sipport in ho" form of threaded bars (sag bars) at the middie or third points of ‘the opan (Fig. 1.28). obviously, they must be supported at the top if their purpose is'to be fulfilied. Tin the slope plane the purlin can thus be considered as a continuous bean, Since the saxisun comercial Length of structural steel purtin 20eeprofiles 1s about 12 m, the spacing botieen the xoof principles dows fot gonerally allow more than to spans to be covered with one bar (Fig. 1-23). To simplity joints between the vartous Lengths of One continuous purlin (points A and # of Fig, 1-29) « web, connection only ie goncrally used (Pig. 1.30). It aay be entizely bolted (Figs, 1-203, b) or only partially boltca (Pig. 1-30e). Joints of Pigs. 1.J0dye are Sesiqned to allow relative rotations betwaen tao contiguoss lengehe, ‘Two typical connections for purling to the rafters of @ truss are Shown in Pig. 1-31. A connection for an unbroken continuous purlin is Shown in Pig. 113{a and that for two contiguovs Lengths whose Separation occurs at the truss rafter ie illustrated in Fig. 31. ‘The purlins transfer the vertical Load to the principal bem. if enis is'a trusg, the rafters are generally subjected to pure compression if the purlins fall on the joints (rig. Love). rf theySTWEORY AND DESIGY OF STEEL, STRUCTURES faze Located away from the Joints (Pig. 1.328) ox if the roofing lesent transmits the load directly to the truss rafter (Pig. 1.320) , ‘they undergo compression and bending. ‘The principal bean an in turn transit ite Loed to the coluans ether Qizectly (rig. 1-33) or indivectly by neans of a laters! beam (Pig. 1.338), watch wili therefore be bent under a concentrated load. Shapes and Schemes of trusses can vary az required, Sone classical types are shown on the loft hand aide of Pig. 1-24: (a) scissores (8) Fink o Potonceau; (€) english or Howe; (@) ‘warren; (e) Pratt of wonnigy (2) Bowstring. is ‘The schenes on the Tight hand side can be derived from the classical ones by introducing saditional bars, their positions are ‘chosen in order to Limit the buckling deagth of the principal bars tn Compression and also to receive the Goneastracad lead of a purine ‘The buckling ox e€fective lengths of the compression neabers can be easily defined in order to evaluate their slendseness in the erase Plane, Referring to Fig. 1.95, the effective length of the top boom Slononts in the plane of tha truss [jy can be aasuned equal to the fi ‘Sistance between the nodes. . ‘compression poabers can also be subjectid to lateral buckling, i. ‘they can backle outside their plane. Zt is therefore necessary to evaluate tho out of plane effective length L_,,» which depends on the ‘three~dimonsional behaviour of the structures” ‘The roof schene of Pig. 1.35 shows a structure whose behaviour out Ee LOR SSSNEEE BRAGA aad AWN OOP Fig. 1.34 2Fig. 1.36 simple Gepends entizely on the flewral rigidity of the trusses, ten ia negligible. the trvsses are in fact connected by the Durline of the roofing elanent, but if one considers them t=‘Bincénded bars, sinultanodus buckling of then all might occir. one ust therefore fix all root points by providing proper bracings. ‘Tranaverse Bracing a= shown in Fig. 1.26a i8 necessary to stasilise the erusses if there are columns unde each truss. Fig. £362 shows the longitudinal Bracing, which 13 als0 necessary to stabilize the trusses Hering on a lateral beam. ‘These braciage are abooluvely conpulsory to prevent instability of meubers compressed by vertical ‘lead effects and to resist horizontal load effects (see 12-21 + 1.3.2 Effects of hovizontal toads 3M industrial buildings, one aust consider not only horizontal effects seienic forces, but also the effect of cranes which Vertical members aro generally subject to bending in one direction. Horizontal ones are bent by wind forces in the horizontal plase and by At aay be necessary to reduce their span by sing + The longitudinal fagade can be framed as the tierrods (Pigs Be 26transverse one (Pig. 1.278) wsing the colunas az vertical elesents ‘the colina are therefore bene by wind effects. ‘If the coluan spacing is too great, intermediate posts can be Antroducea to Limit the span of the horizontal meabers. Tn this case, ‘the load acting on such vertical renbers must be transferred to the columns by means of longitedinal bracing in the plane of the roof (Fig. 1.37). ‘Suing te, due to wind effects on the fagade elenents: Borizontal bars are bent in the horizontal plane and furtheraore Dear the fagade weight VYertsoal bare can be considered az bent beans supported at the (ground and at the roof (and st the rail level, if any) foot bracings transait forces fron the vertical bars to she roof Fixed support points. Horizontal transverse (Fig. 1.38) and longitudinal (Pig. 1.386) ‘erate loads gust be trananitted to the colusns together with the Yertical loads. Crane girders can be of various designe depending on ‘the type and load carrying capacity of the crane. The size and type lof crane rail fixed to the top of the exane girder will als> depend fon the crane capacity. : In the case of modest exanes, it might be conventont to ise an I~ beam and to increase its performance in the horizontal plans by welding one or two angle bars (Fige.1.39a,8) of a channel section (ig. 1.390) to the upper Flange. for hoavicr cranes, 2 fabricated T-beas with proper horizontal bracing is weed, Such beacing can be provided by means of = erusz where the upper flange of the eas becouos a truss mouber (Pig. 1.390), Grit can be act between two coupled girders (jg. 1.390). If vertical Sha lover horizontal beacings are provided in M@eition £0 the upper Rorizontal bracing, toraionally effickent bor section is abtained (ig. 1.338). TE an inspection platfore, parallel to the crane girder, is available, the platsore deck can be incorporated in and form part of the upper bracing (Piga 1.399,bed)-o » 0 Fig. 1.39 1.3.3 Stmotunal types ‘The foregoing brief romarks on the effects of vertical and hocisontal loads lead £9 the following considerations: 22 (a) columns (Pig. 1.40) are compressed hy the vertical Loais ezananitted by the Zoof (V,),and by the crane (Vy), and by the dead oad {V,) snd clasding woigne (V4). ‘They are algo bent by the wind forces transmitted at the roof (#,) and at possible suppor:e of the horizontal fagade members (W,). so the horizontal. force: due to the crane (i,) produce bendidg’in the colwane * (©) In order"to. transfer ehe horizontal forces to the fixed points and to stabilise the structure auyiliary structires are nesded. ‘They gust be able to render the roofing servcture isostatis at lease in {te ova plane,” There are two possible solutions 20 thts problen. one can consider the entire roof as just one ben: olement, Ehe web of which consists of the roof panels (Pig. 1.dta), Im thisKK ST. ‘SrROCTURAL SYSTENS case, the panéls must be of corrugated sheets and must resist shear forces (etresned skin derign) [30]. They must be Joined together in a sentially efficient may and aloag both directions to the other Footing elements (Pig. 1.818) [A more conventional. approach 1s to provide # sufficient muaber of Atagonals so ae to render the roofing structure isostatic in its own plane, once the outer restraints consisting of the vertical resistant Slenonts bave been introduced, Fig. 1.42a represents a bracing systen ‘hich makes isostatic a roof comporea Of purlins, prinetpel Deans and Interal beans. The longitadinal bracing prevents the displacement of the mid-point of the lateral beans and consequently determines free ending length of the compression neners. Sransverse Dracing 1s Proviaed by diagonals which meet it and join the middle purlin. The effective length of the upper meabers in the main truss is therefore Ej. The £008 shown in Fig, 1-42b differs froe the previous one for we oasons,. ALL the trusses ave supported by the columns and therefore a longitudinal bracing ie no longer necessary at their Intersection. ihe trusses are not connected to the intermediate pirlins, 20 the effective length of the compression member iz tice the previous one. ‘she next matter to be considered iz how to provide external, restraints to prevent roof structure movenents, fg. 1.43 shove three typical ways of providing adequate vertical structures to acheive this (a) Peanes in both directions (Fig. 1.423) () Frames in the transverse Sirecvion and braced pin-erdea Structures in the longitudinal Strection (P8g. 1-638) (c) Pinvended structure with bracing in both dircetions (Pig. 1.434 ‘the solution (a) {2 not suitable for T-shaped columns having & preferential direction in bending. ‘The solution (c) optimizes the coluan behaviour by minimizing the ending in it.” On the other hand, it aust take advantage of x00! boam-like behaviour and therefore it reqairer solutions hased on the ‘hear diaphragm action in the sheeting or leading to» considereble Snorense in bracing. ‘This solstion therefore implies a greater complication of constructional details and limits the possibility of ‘The solution (b) with frones in the transverse dtrection and pin~ fended braced structures in the longitudinal Aizection is tie moot onsen one (Fig. 1.430). ‘The longitudinal Bracings absorb the horizontal forces in the longitudinal direction, such ar wind against the facade ané starting vup and stopping forces of cranes, Wind londs (Fig. 1.44) must be ‘EEanamteted from the fagade to the vertical bracing by seats of the ‘teaneverse xoof bracing and the purlins or beams which are placed long the edges. To reduce the slenderness of these elenerts which are in compression, it iz ueeful to introduce longitudinal bracing in the roof, even thaigh it is not needed to guarantee equilitriua of the root in its own plane, Vertical Iongitudinal bracinge can be @ problem in respect of the use of the Building. Por this reason, besides the St Andrey"s Crossa ated { web 1 aleileat bebebel fetat=} tetSTRUCTURAL SYSTEMS (rig. 1,450), other solutions which permit easier passage (7699 1.45, 21d) are often adopted. ‘The bracings are preferably located at the middie of the side of the Dutlding (Fig. 1.46a). Placing then at the ends (Pig. 1.46b) 1s best avoided a thera) variations can create a state of constraint leading to compression in the longitudinal menbers and additional foroes in the bracings, ‘on the other hand, the solution with only one bracing ca1 entail excessive expansion, specially if the length 1s considerable (i= 60'~ 100m). It 1s therefore necessary to Introduce expansion Joines, which can be provided by slotting the bolt connection holes ‘Graneverse frames vary considerably according to whether there aro cvane girders or not, ‘Those illustrated in Figs 1.47a,b ace typioal Solutions without eranes or with Limited capseity cranes, the Solutions illustrates in Pigs 1.476, are typical of mill usldénge with heavy cranes, They include stepped columia formed by + lower part and an upper part with reduced inertia eet between the vail level Bnd che root. ‘The solution shown in Fig. 1.87e is aesthetic, but expensive: its height allows space for the horizontal rail bracing. Sa a H a » a a “ Rasically, 11 solutions can be sued up in the three typical schenes siiaserated in Fig. 1.49, couperable to the coluan stiffness (Fig. 1,dGa), the scheme behaves as f classical frane, If tranqverse Doan stiffnens Je great compared to Column stiffness, the beam can be considered wndeformsle (Fig. 1.800), In this case, each colon ir subjected to a bi-triangular bending moment Sistribution, which vanishes at the aid- Deight (2/2) snd reaches itz gaxioun value (W = Hh/t) at the ende. Consequently, if the Dean ia a truss, its top and bottom umbers are ‘eaded by tension ond compression forces having a value of WTH/a* alta, vsich cova become Gangerous as they also tend toconpress certain lover aoabers near the columns. As the Lover part of tthe: truss is not usually beaced, even a sodest compression might play fn important role due to the high slenderness involved. Finally, one can coneider the truss a2 a pin-ended neaber, which is useful only for the purpose of aistriuting forces # to the continuous columns, In order co obtain this strictiral scheme, surfictene te make the Joints at points Aof Pig. 1.8 flexible, e.g. Y slotting the holes if the joints are bolted. In this vay, the @iagran show in Fig. 1.48 becomes possible. This solution Leads to theeximun bonding sosent in the column, but {9 hae the advantage of not Creating axial compression in the roof girder elenents, in addition to that alzeady existing due to vertical loads, for which a slendernost Limitation 18 in any case necessary. This solution is particularly advisable vnen the column has a great inertia as in Figs 1.47¢,¢. ‘As a consequence of the compressive forces induced in the lover bars of the roof truss in the scheno illsstrated in Pig. 1.40by © my bbe necessary to restrain the truss against lateral buckling. This is achieved by introducing longitudinal bracings on the nodes (Fig. 1-49n), oF by vertical crost bracing between lower and upper nodes, one meaber of which will be in tension whichever direction the Duckling tends to take place (Pig. 1-495) 1.4 caxcotarton NODES ‘me foregoing considerations relate to an ideal. structure ving perfect constraints. On the other hand, the cozsesponding Constructionsl details have shown that the connections between the Various members which comprise the structure are considerably Gifferent from the assused idealizations. It is therefore iaportant to point out that any approach to stroctural design must. bo based on Hinplitying hypotheses and echeues which ake the transition between ctual and model structure possible. only the model can be studied by the methods of structural analysis. The corresponding results will be ‘Sr mich closer to the actual behaviour of the structure a the model nore nearly interprets the structure itself. ‘An obvious question to ask is whether the introduction of simplifying nypothezer leads to define © model whose behaviour {= on the safe side oF not. In other words, it iz necessary to check Ultimate load carrying capecity at collapse ~ are safe or optimistic 1h answering this question it may be helpful to apply the plastic design static theoren. in e structure undergoing a systen of external forces Pay a, Fz are the values of the loads that, Aya ‘the Joint section ¥ - Tiauat xeaist not only a shear force ¥ = Ry, but also a soment # = Ry (ate) Coisan 2 1 compressed UI = Rig fg) ad bent by & mont 12 yy ~ tye) concentrate the ode Coioon fle codftessed” G's Ry) ad bent by a nonent M = Ra Scncentete at the mde ETS ES the epon for ealcslatiog the beam Som joint suction X= K'aust only'a theer force 7 =F ie Joint snction 4 ~ F met seelet sot only s anenr force ¥ = A, Tit alan a coment w= Rye fd. (= Ryy + Rag) and dont by a momen: (a +e) concedbrated®at the node N= (Rp ~ cotsan'f is Bepressed and bent by a moment N= Py (a +e) concentrated at the node B= 2(a+ 0} is the span for calculating the beam ‘The Joint section X-Imust resist e shear force VR, and a ‘The Joint eedtion J - Faust resist a shear force V = R only Ray) Each of these three models is on the asfe sie and can therefore be structural elenent or the joint that is the weakest part of the 36 -‘structures the wodel unfohBininizes the internal forces in that part will be chosen. In the first case the state of stress in the coluan is the lowest. In can therefore be chozen when coluans are oriented according to their lover stiffness (Pig. 1,51a)- Bonding effects in the coluans are, in fact, eliminated in spite of slight moments in the Joints due to d.xelatively spell eccentricity of the bolt connection. ‘The second Cage is often conservative if the columns are otiented ‘according to saxinun stigeness, Ia this ease, in fact, eccentricity {is greater than hale the column dagth and could necessitate larger connections. ‘This also entails a greater stress in the coluane, die to bending moments. Their disteinution can be evaluated by soeting Ininges at the mid-point between floors end by considering the columns supported by the bracing structures (Fig. 1.525) - ‘So, each vertical row can be considersd by means of the isostatic ‘scheme shown in Pig. 1.520. Tea horisontal reaction fly 1s given by equilibriom at rotation around the hinge muaber ¢ mm, ta oe ihe TE Me The effects of forces Hy, for each floor and for each column, Loads ‘the vertical Beacinge encolgn the floor Bracing. heir intensity i= approximatively Mf o/h, wherein AR Ls the diffevence between the reactions of tvo contiguous beans and o/h 19 the ratio between the hinge eccentricity and the floor height. Tn the types of stricture Doing Considered, az the beam spans are comparable, Ai depends only on any Unbalanced accidental loade. Purthermore, as s/h is essentially, Geall, these effects are generally negligisle compared with tose dve 9 external loads. ‘Om tho contrary, bending monent effects on the colsmns are not negligible. ‘he corresponding increase in stress gust be considered inthe calculations. oor sy 1 | ' + lay 8) i r+) | 4] i pe i Fig. 1.51os hate Ra : an “pO Lit og 7 Mie (Ri: Rae 1.4.2 fies and lattice gindere ‘rrusses and lattigo girders, whether their joints aro bolted (Pig. 1-535) of welded (Pig. 1.535), aro umuslly analysed sesunirg each bar hinges et ier ends. hia calculation podel this does not. take account Of the bending moments due to joint rigidity, bat considerr the bars Fig. 1.53‘under siete tension oF eouprezeion. ‘Such a calculation model is certainly conservative, provided the to following conditions are satisfied: tn the truss plane, buckLing Lengthe J of compressed bars are ‘Assumed equal’ to the distance between €he ideal hinges ‘The truss is defined by snterascting the centrofdal sex fenbers at nodes, Rffective lengths are certainly less then the distance betveen to ideal hinges if the bars are rigidly joined. On the other hand, ending moments arising from such a connection might decrease the lead Dearing capacity of the structure, As soon as a Dean-column zeaches ee powimim load bearing capacity, its ends begin to rotate and its eftective length increases, as a consequence, the model bebariour tends to the actual one a2 the external loads increase, ‘On the contrary, 200) in order to ensure that ven the strese reverses and the Siagons) becaper @ strut, © will remain elastic even if 1€ buckles, Under thir condition the bar in compression is redundant and the foreer sre wholly resisted by the tension bar. Bracing cesigned in this way are generally mre Sconomical, but stracture deformability ix greater. Furthermore, the possibility of buckling of compression Giagonals sakes this solation Snagvinable vnenever the bracing ie located in the plane of fagades or partition walls, ‘The above considerations ere applicable also to other types of "The blecing shown in Fig. 1.593 for example consists of two inclined bars connected to'a horizontal bean capable of restating bending. It-con be calculated by the method indicated in Fig. 14595 for By that of Fig. 1.592, according to whether the coupression bar i= taxen into considazation or net. he bracing in Fig. 1-59, corresponds to nesbers of a truss bearing axial loads only.” sloped bare are one in tension and one in cospression. As both bars are mde Sdentica, one must check that they can satisfactory resist the ‘Soupressive load. In Pig. 1.590 only the tension Har is considered operative. Consaquently the horizontal beam mist slo resist beading ‘aFig. 1.60 ue to the external force Hl, In thts case also the bracing.cin be ‘economical, provided the compression bar 1s sufficiently slender to Buckie while remaining elastic. ‘The ane approach ean be followed for the bracing aysteas shown in Pig. 1.60a. “In Fig. 1.60 the bracing bars ara designed to act in both tension and comprossion and this siniaizes bending in the Dorizontal bean, whereas in Fig. 1.60° the bracing 2 designed to take Tension onty, the seaber in compression being ignored. ‘This inoresses ending in the horizontal bean, 1.4.4 Roof bracings Hoots consisting of a succession of parallel trusses or Lattice girders (those for industrial buildings are typical) must be provided With bracings to provent lateral bucking of their compression musber= (ig. 1.618). Due to initial inperfections (Fig. 1.615) foxes acting against lateral buckiing of the trusses are indvoed at the [porlin connections which are fixed in position. These forces are Belanced by reactions # applied to the eruss supports. in each Joint of each of the m trusses, threfors, a force Z is txanssitted to the parLin. he bracing iz this loaded by forces having « value ni hore y ig the usher of trusses to be stabilized, which produce reactions mF (Fig. 1,61¢). Te trieses buckle in che direction show in Fig. 1,61b, pucling are im tension due to a maximum axial force 1, whereas the lateral beam is compressed. “4oni "Gas BuppdEe that Bact BE" the two end bracing supports n/2 ~~ trusses, Bracing forces are thus ainiaized, but the purlins mist be lable to absorb compression as well as the forces due to bending under he vertical loads. Ganerally their slenderness 15 s0 great chat they ‘cannot withstand even aaall compressive forces. ‘Alternatively, it can be supposed that trues buckLing is prevented by porline acting only in tension. This prerupposes that only one Of the two Beacings aust react, sccording co the sirection of the possible truss buckling. hile this means that each of the Bracing Bust be designed to carry the fall load, the purline can be considered Simply bont, aa the effects of the tensile stresses are neslizible compared to those due 9 bending. 1.4.5 Roof potins lone uethod of designing purline loaded én the plane perpendicular to he Toot slope iz By the so-called Gerber-type Doan (Eig. 1.6ia) where * * + i COA —} e I ” 1 bof the joints are located at appropriate points betwesn the roof girders pointe 2 of Pig. 1.29) and are of the types {llvstrated in Figs Hi3od,e.. On the contrary, ££ the joints are located at the supports Gointe A of Fig. 1.29), purlin behaviour oan be referred’to thse of = bean on three elastic aupporte (hig. 1.628) for which apring stifeneas depends on geonstrical and nechanical characteristics of the Principal beams and varies according to the mitual position cf parting find bean supports. Furthermore, in the oss of Holted truna Principals, supports can no longer be simulated with springs alone. Fe is also necessary to consider the possibility of inelastic” STRUCTUMAL SYSTEMS settlevent due to slip of bolts in the joints of the roof principals, hence, even the ost sophisticeted elastic analysis of the sroblem can~ pot determine with absolute certainty what ie the actual beading Tt is therefore preferable to sek an equi.sbrated solution, independent of the compatibility conditions between deflections of the principal beazs and purlin supports. ‘The! probles can be schematically represented as in Fig. 1.63e. Let the generic bending uonent at the intermediate support be M,"= agi”, ‘The Feactione ssrociated with Hl; con Be expressed a follow: By rQl/t- Msi ¢ | Re gh+ W/L ror saximan ending nonent within the epan the shear V = Ry’ qr se ‘equal to sero, whence = = (0.5 ~ a) ands Wage * QE?{ 0-125 = 0.5 a(t = 0d] ‘Therefore, any equilibrated solution for the purlin will be on the She porlin, the table (Pig. 1.68) indicates, for aifferent values of 4a, the naimon span ané support monent values and the consezuent ® Moo % R ° aye ° @ eos | uty s.c0| aitr0 | a1 ae 0.0525 | qutroce| autre | s.125q0 o.00570] qutvss.so | ai?/ai.es | 1.17190 Pig. 1.64 values of reaction R. For a = 0 the load on the beam is reduced, bot the stress in the purlin increases, For @ = 0.09579, the porlin te optimized and moments are equally distributed between span and support, DUE the principal Deon is penalized "To avoid penalizing the beam and to relieve the purlins from the axigun stress condition arising when @ = Oy Joints mst be staggered in plan. thus one ensues that the sane principal bean alternately Dears loads having values R and 2%,, vhich on average aro mtually Dalanced. For the purlins one can“therefore assume a = 0.08579 and the underlying bea is loaded by forces vhich are equivalent to those ue to a distribeted load gb. By this moans material saving is optimized bot standardization in fabrication and in connection desisn suffers.TES DEaERIDtOn oF Rawtiontal forces i vertioal bracings ‘re has alzendy been show that structures with one or gore floors Often require vertical Bracing systens to discharge the effects of horizontal ines to the foundation. one sist therefore solve the problem of distributing the horizontal forces acting at each floor Soong the individuel bracing elements. Sich Alstrizution 1s smmeatate Mhenever the bracing systen ia isoutatic ie, when it producer three Gogrecs of restraint for each floor (Pig. 1.65a). Tt is sufficient to evaluate the mutual reactions between slabs and individual beaciag Glenents in order to give a complete solution to the problem. In (particular, one mist Kow the value of the forses acting on cach racing element at each floor and the bending and shear forces in the flab, which are needed for the calculation of possible hortzoatal Pig. 1.65 ‘he problen is different ‘¢ the bracing systen offers nore than tree degrees of restraint. In this case, eich slab is restrained in a hyperstatic way (Pig. 1.658) and the solution dopends on the Seifenesoes of slab horizontal elesents and of the individual elements Of the bracing syst In this chee it 2 Sapossible to define the solution exactly. The stiffness of the individual elenests iz in fact Largely influenced by the Behaviour of the connections, For example, the pomsibiliry of slip in Bolted joints due to clearance holes can significantly sodify he: calculation results. fone generally prefers to distribute horizontal forces according to equilibrium diagrans, which may be derived from a consideration of the Fequirenents for displaconent compatibility in the elastic rage. tn this respect the horizontal elements aze usually assumed to D2 rigid 9 that the solution depends only on the stiftness of the.vertical ‘The structure can therefore be considered.as a three-dinenrional fxage for which exch floor has three dleplaccaent components, eferring to Pig. 1.66 and applying the deformation nethed to = building having m floors, one has unknown quantities: wy J, 8 at each floor. Horizontal loads applied to the building between its top 4" rig. 1.66, land 2 generic floor produce three components. F., Fy, M= eViE TF For each frane and for cach bracing beam, the Fanltsng ceactTon Roe horizontal forces # (with cenponents Rand fin tho assuoed reference systen) and their torsion noSent 7 kan be expressed, at each Floor, as functions of the 3 unknowns. ‘teach floor one has the 3 equslihrfum equatéone: re =o; -P-ty- mz =0 F,- Ty aM ® ny By A Linoar systen of 31 equations in the 31 unknome uy 9, 6 42 thus . Such & method is complicated and its application might te justitied in cases which are complex either due to the bailding plan or due te bracing system heterogene:ty, This method could lead to interesting results if torsionaily efficient bracing elenents were present in Addition to plane elenents, but without these conditions it 2 Ravisable to distribate the horizontal forces ina sispler sanner Peglecting the intercomection between the various floors of the Dullding.. in this vey, it is possible to distrimite externa forces‘mony AND DESIGN OF STHEL svaUCTURES apptied to the tN Fiesr, inaependentiy of tid Behaviour of the esaining floors. In this cage, a generic Floor (usually the top one) Eovconsidered as being supported on springs having stifeneas & =~ /ue ‘where wis the displacesent of each individuel Bracing element at the {Bloor tinder consideration when it 1s loaded by alt force at tho sano point. ‘Tho probles {s thus reduced to one of the equilibrium of a rigid slab which is restrained by aeans of springs having a given stiffness (Fig. 1.67). The distribution so obtained 12 then extended > all the floors of the building and used to calculate the bracing eleasnts. 1.5 brvessrown, TOLERANCES Steel structures consist of prefabricated slesoats which must be Ssceabled together. Dinensional tolerances uring fabrication and rection are therefore quite taportant [31,32]. Experience has shown that generally @ structure which has been produced and erected in accordance with common sccuracy rules perforas Estisfactorily, even with respect to the actachnent of prefabricated Einishing elesents. Einieations to dinensional tolerances, IDwevery fast also be got for statical requirenents. Internal stresses due to foreing operations during erection, for exauple, which have not been ‘Enken into consideration {9 calculations might alter structural behaviour of render incorrect the methods and hypotheses adopted as the basis for design. ‘the maxim values for dimensional tolerances given bolow are for the steel structure loaded only by its own weight, ‘Greater deviations than those Listed are aecepeable provided that both dinensional controls of such inperfections ané calculation of the corresgonding effects on the structural sembers are performed, The Limitations are valid for private residential buildings or pwblic buildings (ectocls, hospitals, sto.) having one or sore floors, but they can also be assumed for industrial builings. ‘They can De Gonsidered az attainable throagh normal fabrication and erection procedures aid therefore they 6o not imply aéditional costs. ‘Referring to Fig. 1.68, it Ja advisable that the folloving Limitations be complied with for the assembled bullding |33| Dimensional deviation of the busing (Fig. 1.688) < 20 =m for LS 308 £29 Mo.25u - 30) for E> 30m <2 sm for h S30 0 Retghts tS 29 $5,250 - 30) for > 308 column spacing: A; $15 am Length: Ab Floor height: Why £5 mm : Inclination of coluan (Fig. 1.685) Between adjacent floors (height Aj): 2; 0.0035 hy Maxinon deviation for the verticsl Line of floor nuaber n ehzough soIT [1 —+ 1, pajereapeermeeexearpee cient 2 iy 0.098 gaz Eh out of straightness of colums between floors (height hy} (Fig. T.éeb): 9, = 0.0015 2.0015 By Lateral deflection of ginder (span J) (Pig. 1.686) + uy £ 0-004 Defect In atstably of fabricated beans (Fig. 1.608)+ Sho: Shy 1 0, 0m. 52SrRUCTURL, SYSTENS 4, Baker, a. F. (1960) The Steed Skeleton, Vol. 1, Blastic behaviour and Deeiim, University Prese, Cambridge 2, Bakery J. F-y Borne, N. R. ald Beyaan, J. (1960) The Steel Skeleton, Vol. 2, Plastie behaviour ard leolgn, University Press, ‘canbridge 3. Baldacct, Re, Coradint, G. and Giangreco, B. (1971) Plastietta, erst, tan 4, Baldacet, Rey Ceradini, C. and Giangreco, E. (1971) Dinaniea @ stabitith, cista, milan 5. Bresler, B., Lin, 7. ¥- and Seale, J. 8. (1968) Design of Steet Seruchaes, "2nd Bas, Wiley, New York Dantelt, D: and be Strands, F. (1970) Strubture én asctato per Vedilisia civite e industriaie, cIstA, Milan 7. Baussy, R, (1965) Guide pruttqne de charpente métallique, tahure, Paris 8. Pinat, L. and sova B, (1965) Slonenti etrutturalé, crszA, witan 9. Gaylota, E. B, and Gaylord, C..N- (1972) Decign of Steck Stnuotures, 2 Graw Bill, tow York 40, Grinter, %. B. (1862) Theory of Modern Steel Structures, 2rd ean, ‘The Bac Miitah Company, New York LL. Me Guise, ti, (1966) Steed Stucturee, Prentice Hall, New Jersey 42; Johnston, B. 6. (1936) Guide to Stability Design Cettanta for Metal Strusiumee, 318 Edn, Wiley, Now York 43, ohnston, B. Guy Lin, F. de and Galanos, ‘TU. (1980) Basie Stzet Doctgn, Prentice Ball, hew Jersey 414, toxin, 'P._ (1968) Construction métallique, Duned, Paris 45, Lothers, J.B. (0972) Design tn Stuctuntl Steet, 3x4 edn. Prentice Ball, New Jersey 46, mast, F. (955) Cootrustont metatliake, Hoeplt, Milan a7! Tall, 1, Beedle, L. 8. and Galanboo, f. ¥. (0964) Semetunal Bizet Design, The Ronaia Press conpasy, New York 48, Trahatr, 1. 8. (1972) The Behaviour and Design of Stes! Structures, Ghapan’‘and Bail, tendon 49, ¥5, WW. (1993) Cold-Fomed Steel Struotures, Mo Graw B21, 20. zignolt, V. (1966) Costmsiont metalliohe, UBER, Turin 21. alse (1900) Manat of Steel Construction, th edney RIS, Chicago 22, aise (1968) Plastve Decign of Braccd Inilitetoney Steet Frames, 23, tse’ (1959) ‘Plastic Design in Steel, n1SC, Chicago 24, atsc (1968) Tron and Stee? Beane, aise, Chtcago 25. ate (1966) Structural Stect Detailing, AISC, chLeago 26, BCHAana CONSTRADO (1978) Handbook on Sinustural StoeTwork, UCSA, Tendon and Constrado, Croydon 27, mersitt, P. 5. (1972) Struotunal Steel Designere’ Handbook, ‘Bo Graw BLL, Nev Yoo 28, vie (1953) Staki im Hookbax, stabteisen, Dosceldort 28, council on Tall Buildings, Group Sb (1979) Struatoal Design of Rall Steed Butidings, Volime SB of Monograph on Planntzy and Design of Tall Duflaings, ASCE, New York 5{C65 U1977)" Butopean Recommendations for the Snevved Skin " Testgn of Steel Strusturee, Constrado, cro¥don a1, Dal Post, B. and Hazes, V. (1975) Teontohe di montaggio, cISIA, witan 32, Magenta, G. (1970) Lovorasiont én offfioina, crSIA, man 4331 caew-nece (1978) Buropea Recommendations for Steet Conat-ustion, 5aReliability oF Steet Structures 2:1 CRITICAL, COSIDERATIONS COSCERNING ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN vents.” Consider for example an element in tension carrying a Static load #. To check shether st ie safe weane checking that stress GF) dus to F does not exceed a given 2init fyyq, beyond which inadsiseible conditions or dasage could arist’:” the folloxing operations are this needed Define the load F and calculate the stress o(F) Define the Limit f,,,, comreazondig to en acmuned Sanage level coopare & £0 Fae et the damage level be defined az the yielding of the material. ho Limit fig thus coincides with the yield strongth fq. If however one assumes iF) << fy as a control condition, it is not possible to Guarantee that Yielding te never reached in the elements mis is due to the possibility that: Actual load is greater than that foreseen Yield strength ie lover than assuned Tt ig therefore possible to define allowable stress as onan = faim / Vs equal to Linit stress fyje divided by a sifety coefficient v >'1. the contzol accoraing to the allovable stress bethod thus becomes: CUP) < Cndm. ‘This method iz widely applied in structrual design, but it has sone faults, specially when used to check safety concerning Limit stater other than. the elastic one. 3h this original version, in fact, the allowable stress method con bbe appliod only to check whether the material resists elascically to the effects die to the so-called service loads. it i2 an extrapolation fo use Jt to determine a safety index for the structures, 55at the allowable stress method be used for the design of the steucture shown in Pigy 2elae iF ale bec we ” » - ‘Consider the bending of the most stressed section of the Heam and column stability under the service load #. Yor the beam the maxiaum bending moment must be MF) < Mo/V, Mg = fa¥ being the manent corresponding to the elastic limit of the section, For the colin one mst have lc Me whereas the load fq (Pig.2- le) corresponds to the ultinate capattty of the column: the degree of safety (or, vather, the reliability) of the two structural elements ia therefore Aigceréne. Even though the foregoing exanple sight seem absutd in a2 Structural elenents, (strengeh for the beat, stability for the column) the applied approach iz bared on the allovable stress method according fo actual recomendations. ‘The allovable stress sethod 1 open to another oritictam: st ss impossible to operate correctly when tho of gore independent loads ust be combined. ‘Consider a column of building: it can be bent by the wird and couprassod by permanent and inposed loads. Bending moment. ard axial orca therefore depend on independent causes, ‘et a serviceability situation be characterized by values i! and 2h (of axial and bending effects, ‘They intersect at point P (Pig. 2.20), which mst Lie within the section resistance region. * ‘Me allovable stress wathod quarantess that GA/0P > Vv, i.e. it considers only a similtaneots snorease. in axial Loed and’ in fending foment. For increases of a different Kind, safety nargins are greater: if only axial load increases, thon C/CP >'v and 1f only bencing soaent increases, then R3/PR > V. Now consider che caso of a reinforced concrete column: ite 86» » Fig. 2.2 resistance region is of the type show in Fig. 2.2. Recording to the Allowable stress design OL/OP > v, but for an sncreace in the bending owent alone, it could be BC/8P <'v. Coo + fauauavasvwaueeeruverreversunvaerenels COO ‘Another typical exauple can be found considering roof structures of single storey buildings in areas vhere snow loads are small (Fig. 2.3): the truss lover chord Ls in ension because of self weight g and imposed load 6 due to snow, wind might create a suction on the roof, having a valve ¥. ‘Suppose the values of self veight, snow and wind axial forces in the chord are respectively: (g) = 100 we + Ce) = 200 40 ; Ws) = 120 eR ‘the out of plane lower chord slenderness is uevally very highs thus the ultinate capacity in compression Mg Will be lov, compared to its Ultimate strengen in tenoion Mg. Assute:sok my = 450 WT Max tension: M(g) + Me) = 100 + 200 tax compression: W(g) + Mw) = 100 -.120 = = 20 > - 50/1.5 300 < 450/15 Bt Js sufficient however, that wind effect he only 1.25 times the Wig) + 1.2508) = 100 ~ 1.25 x 120 = - 50 | gore rational approach to the problen of structural safety ts the Probabelitetic one [ty2y2y¢], Ascording to th, in ores to aasess Stress resultants (acial and cheer forces, bending and twisting foaents) 5(P) can be determined. Te is possible to define the reatetance region of the sane sections, in torms of a function A/S, 4q) mutually correlating Limit values Sq. of the internal stress zestitants, sich a function depends on nator a) resistance f: R = R(St1q (f)) = R(f) The probabiiity of S(8) being comprised within the corresponding region detined by A(f) can be Sostned as the asaaure of structural reliability. Te such a probability value were independant of the type of structure and vere only a function of material strength and load Eandonnesa, one could btain a cousin reliability assesenant for all Structures, indopendent of the type of material. Unfortunately, this 1s not the case: resistance and load Aistribution being equal, colLapse probability depends on che sodel land on the variables used in defining the structure. Before introducing sone simplified control methods, the main characteristics of the definition of resistance and of load randomness ‘SIL be exanined (evan though only from the qualitative point of Hew). 2.2.1 Reotatance randommece ‘the resistance of a material can be defined by a refecence stress (rielding fer steel, resistance to compression for concrete] fof structural carbon steel [3,6]. Represent sy ordinates (Pig. 2-4) ‘the musber of times” when a valus betweon fy and f, * Af, occurs (in the figure, 7, = 10 Naa). A Matogran 1s Ehus obfained! which can be appronimtéa by a sultable proability deneity function ptf) (@.D.P.)- Is general, Lf the probability that the value of random vatiable ie inside the interval # and 2 + Ae, the probability, Genoity function pCa) ise $8 -