SUMMARY

In order to assess a proposed conversion, HYSYS Dynamics TM was used to model the
compressor system of an oil platform in the Norwegian Sea. The model has been expanded to
replicate crucial processes in the new system after being validated using operational data
from the present system. The simulations, which concentrate on dynamic processes like start-
up, are meant to supplement current steady-state models. With a few exceptions, such as
temperature profiles, the validation revealed that the model successfully reproduces real
dynamics. It was discovered that the second compressor stage's Anti-Surge system performed
worse than anticipated when the compressor system's proposed reconstruction was evaluated.
The research also lists further advantages of employing simulations for dynamic process
design.
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Compressor systems are extensively employed in a variety of processes, from industrial

chemical manufacture to refrigeration cycles. One such use is the pipeline delivery of natural
gas from offshore oil platforms to land. Although gas and oil extracted directly from
reservoirs can sometimes have pressures that are much greater than those required for
transportation, the pressure drop caused by separation and other processing equipment
necessitates that the gas be compressed again before exporting. This is accomplished through
compressor systems, which include heat exchangers, separators, and anti-surge apparatus in
addition to many compressor stages that may be coupled together. Surge is a highly
unfavourable flow phenomenon that affects compressor performance and has the potential to
harm the compressor. Therefore, to manage the flow and guarantee safe operation, anti-surge
devices are uutilized(2010, Devold).

Over time, a reservoir's pressure drops, which reduces the amount of oil and gas that can be
extracted. An existing platform in the Norwegian Sea will have its compressor system
modified in 2014 to enable lower pressure production in order to address this issue. Stable-
state models are frequently employed when building compressor systems for dimensioning
and simulation of predetermined stable operating conditions. However, a compressor system
is frequently subject to dangerous dynamic events like start-up, shutdown, equipment failure,
or even human error. Previously, experience was used to account for these kinds of
eventualities when developing new systems, but as computational power has increased and
safety standards have risen, dynamic simulations are proving to be a valuable tool for
engineers when constructing compressor systems (2007's Vinod Patel)
1.1 Objective

Building a dynamic model of a multistage compression system on an oil and gas platform in
the Norwegian Sea is the goal of this diploma thesis. This model has to be updated and
verified before it can be used to analyse the design of an upcoming modification to the
current compression system. Additionally, this thesis ought to look at the capabilities and
constraints of dynamic modelling in the used simulation technology.

1.2 Scope

This project's scope involves creating a model for the platform's low pressure gas
compression component in HYSYS Dynamics TM 7.3 as well as validating and assessing that
model. The rationale for the alteration as well as the data that is currently accessible from the
current system are used in this. Modelling any more components of the platform, such as the
downstream high pressure compressor system and the three-phase separators, is out of the
question. Furthermore, it is out of the question to fully optimise any aspect of the modelled
systems. The project is also partly constrained by the modelling abilities of the programme.

1.3 Thesis overview

The reader is first exposed to a theoretical section on basic gas compressor systems in this
thesis before moving on to more detailed background data that is necessary for evaluating the
findings. The modelling part introduces more theory as well as the structure and concepts of
the compressor system model design. The validation chapter that follows presents and
discusses the outcomes of the model validation. In chapter 5, which shows how the model
performs in relation to important parameters, the results of the updated design evaluation are
presented.
1.4 Method

Before creating the model, pertinent data on the current compressor system and modelling
theory were gathered. Before connecting the complete system, starting with the compressor
equipment, the model was built in phases to ensure the stability and performance of each
component independently. To create the most realistic model possible, information from the
current platform's documentation was utilised. After that, the model was verified by
replicating particular operational scenarios and comparing the outcomes with log data from
the platform. Then, a new version of the existing system's model was created in order to
simulate and assess a suggested modification's design. The majority of this report's findings
are covered in this review and discussion. The broad options for process adjustment and
optimization using dynamic models are described in the last section.

Specific usage Evaluate

build model Validate

General usage Optimize

Figure 1 shows the constructed model's overall usage in this thesis and the various
application domains.
2.0 COMPRESSOR SYSTEM THEORY

Systems using compressors are often employed in several industrial applications. The gas
compression systems used on offshore oil and gas installations are the subject of this thesis.
In the subsections that follow, the primary types of process equipment utilised in offshore gas
compression systems will be further discussed.

The reservoir's unprocessed well flow often comprises a mixture of water, sand, gas, and oil
that has to be separated. This is accomplished with three-phase separators, where the gas is
allowed to bubble out while gravity separates the two liquid phases due to their disparate
densities. Sand and mud-like sediments are frequently removed using a different rinse
procedure. In order to enhance performance while preventing significant pressure gradients,
several separators are frequently utilised in phases with decreasing pressure.

It must have a high pressure in order to be piped from the offshore platform to the mainland
to transfer processed natural gas. Gas pressure that is too low for transportation might come
from separating equipment and draining reservoir wells. Compressors are thus employed to
increase the pressure to desirable levels. Due of their sensitivity, compressors require
additional equipment including scrubbers, coolers, and anti-surge valves.

Before they enter the inside of the compressor, where liquid might harm the impellers, liquid
droplets of water and hydrocarbons are removed by gas scrubbers. Droplet separation can be
accomplished physically by adsorption on demister pads, by gravity in centrifugal cyclones,
or by absorption in, for instance, Triethylene glycol (TEG). As a gas is compressed, its
temperature rises, and unless the gas is cooled, more compression at a greater temperature
demands substantially more energy. This is carried out through heat exchangers, which
frequently employ a TEG and water mixture as their cooling medium. This combination is
cooled using seawater that has been chemically treated to be anticorrosive.

Axial centrifugal compressors with intercooling are frequently employed for gas compression
of large volumetric flows. There are several additional compressors designs available, and the
best design depends on the required pressure differential, discharge pressure, and flow
capacity. Compressors can be powered by electrical or mechanical energy. (2010 Devold)

The many components of the compressor system are examined individually and in greater
detail in the remaining sections of this chapter, beginning with the compressor itself. A brief
introduction to system control, a crucial component of every process system, is also included.
2.1 Compressors

A compressor is a device that increases the pressure of gas by compressing it. Two primarily
dissimilar methods can be used to enhance the pressure:

 Positive displacement compressors lower the volume that the gas occupies to raise
pressure.
 Dynamic compressors work by first speeding up the gas to a high speed and then
preventing it from moving, converting the gas' kinetic energy into static pressure.

Centrifugal and axial compressors are the two primary categories of dynamic compressors.
The direction of flow through the machine distinguishes these two types. The overall design
of a single stage centrifugal compressor, one of the most frequently used compressors in
industry, is shown in Figure 2. Centrifugal compressors are the main topic of this paper.

Figure 2 Single-stage centrifugal compressor. (KLM Technology Group, 2011)

The gas is first propelled outward by revolving impellers after entering a centrifugal
compressor, then de-accelerated through diffusers, and ultimately released via the discharge
nozzle. The diffuser's construction creates a circular gas motion that prevents surges and
converts the gas velocity into higher gas pressure. In a single casing, centrifugal compressors
are frequently constructed as a succession of impeller-diffuser pairs where the pressure
steadily rises for each pair over the course of the compressor.

A compressor stage is frequently used to refer to the whole compressor section, which
includes all impellers and diffusers. A stage is basically a single multi-impeller compressor as
a result. The gas must be chilled to prevent gas deterioration and harm to the equipment and
sealing material because as it is compressed, the gas's temperature rises. Additionally, cooling
lowers the gas volume, which lowers the effort (head) required to achieve a particular
compression ratio. Two compressor stages can be connected in series on a shared shaft for
heavy-duty systems to enable cooling of the gas during compression while utilising a single
motor. The compressor system under study in this research can be thought of as having two
compressor stages on a shared shaft, separated by an intermediate cooling section and water
droplet removal scrubbers. Figure 3 depicts the general layout of a multistage centrifugal
compressor. (Brown, 2005)

Figure 3 Multi-stage centrifugal compressor. (Bloch, 2006)

2.1.1 Compressor curves

The amount of change in gas enthalpy obtained from intake to exit is used to gauge
compressor performance. This shift, like other thermodynamic processes, is accompanied by
changes in the intrinsic parameters like pressure and temperature. In compression and
pumping applications, the change in enthalpy is sometimes indicated as "head" for historical
reasons, and in these circumstances, the unit of length is frequently used. This measurement
is the height of a liquid column under constant gravity that corresponds to a certain pressure
difference. By dividing by the gravitational acceleration (g), the enthalpy per unit of mass in
SI-units may be mathematically translated to the length unit;

KJ
[ ]
×
1
Head [m] = Head KG g [ m ]
2
1

It is possible to define the head measurement for both isentropic and polytropic situations.
While polytropic processes have the potential to be irreversible and, as a result, lose heat,
isentropic processes are both adiabatic and reversible. Since the polytropic work enables one
to quantitatively separate dynamic losses from the fluid from thermodynamic losses, it is
frequently used to compare compressor performance. (ANSYS, 2009) As was already
established, the pressure change is primarily responsible for the energy required to revolve
the shaft and its impellers.

Figure 4: Compressor performance curve at a given shaft speed, displaying head vs.
volumetric flow. The points about the surge and stonewall are highlighted.
The compressor finally hits the critical surge operating point when flow separates from the
impeller or diffuser, causing severe performance variations and the possibility of machinery
damage as the flow rate declines for a certain shaft speed. Within the compressor, flow
separation alters the gas velocity and direction, leading to an unstable flow. The lower bound
for consistent compressor performance is known as the Surge point. An anti-surge control
system is utilised to maintain a safe operating volumetric flow through the compressor in
order to prevent the issues caused by surge.

The stonewall point on compressor performance curves establishes the higher limit for flow
rate. Choking, also known as stonewall, happens when there is no more room for flow rate
growth once the fluid achieves the speed of sound at a specific shaft speed. As a result,
efficiency suffers significantly as a result of mechanical damage and elevated frictional losses
at higher flow velocities. 2009's Peter C. Rasmussen

Figure 4's single curve is designed for a single compressor speed; however, compressor
curves for applications requiring varied speeds often include multiple performance curves for
speeds lower than the stated maximum speed. The Affinity laws, often referred to as Fan
laws, can be used to estimate performance curves for other speeds in the absence of
performance curves for a given speed. According to equations 2-4, these rules represent the
flow (Q), head (h), and power (W) characteristics as proportional to the speed (N). (Brown,
2005)
2
Q ∝ N h ∝ N 2W ∝ N 3 3
4
The composition of the gas, along with its average molecular weight, temperature, and
pressure, combined define the gas density. For a given constant mass flow rate, increasing the
gas density will result in a drop-in volumetric flow rate and an increase in the compressor
head in accordance with the compressor's performance curve. 2002's Golden. Less torque will
be needed by the compressor if the pressure ratio over it is likewise maintained at a constant
value since less fluid will need to be compressed.

This characteristic is crucial to take into account when assessing compressor performance
because of the vast variety of molecular weights that gas compressors may operate. The
compressor curve should thus be defined to a certain molecular weight, according to this. The
shaft effort required to achieve a specific pressure ratio is inversely correlated with the gas'
molecular weight. (Lapina,1982).
2.1.2 Rotor

The Rotor, which includes the shaft, impellers, balancing drum, thrust bearing collar, and
coupling hub, is the component of a compressor that rotates. The shaft is the main rotating
beam on which the spacer rings and impellers are placed. The shaft is frequently constructed
of high-quality steel with a high tensile strength in order to maintain stiffness and prevent
imbalanced rotation. Impellers are made up of a lot of vanes that are radially orientated away
from the shaft. Cover discs are frequently used to encapsulate the vanes on both the front and
rear sides. For dynamic compressors, the impeller vanes are often slightly curled rearward to
improve performance in terms of flow dynamics. (Brown, 2005)

If the impeller diameter is not lowered in the direction of flow, the flow volume for each
impeller in multi-impeller compressors will drop as the gas is compressed, resulting in poorer
efficiency per impeller. However, doing so would also decrease the head created every stage,
necessitating the installation of further stages in order to preserve the original performance. A
trade-off between performance and efficiency must be made since adding stages lengthens
the compressor and may cause vibrational, dynamic, and size issues. (Bloch, 2006)

As the motor speed is rarely fast enough to drive the shaft directly without gearing, power is
transferred from the motor to the shaft from the coupling hub either directly or through
speed-increasing gears. (Brown, 2005)

2.1.3 Driver

Depending on the sort of energy source they employ, the various drivers used to power
centrifugal compressors may be categorised as mechanical and electrical. Mechanical drivers
include those that are directly driven by gas turbines or by combustion engines. Electric
motors may be classified as either synchronous or asynchronous based on how the induced
magnetic field that produces torque for the rotor is formed. (Brown, 2005)

Equation 5 expresses the motor's output torque (), which may be used with equation 6's
expression for the rotor's and the gearbox's inertia (I) to determine the acceleration time (TA)
required to alter the rotational speed (). The motor's overall torque is shown as () while the
torque absorbed by the compression is shown as (). It should be noted that during the start-up
process, the torques are not constant and thus frictional losses are not taken into account in
equation 5.
 5

The amount of time required to start the compressor and accelerate it from zero to full speed
is crucial for the design of other components of the process, such as the anti-surge system, as
well as for sizing the motor system because start-up time affects how long an electric motor
can withstand its maximum current. 2013's O'Hearn

2.2 Scrubber

Scrubbers are one of the most crucial pieces of separation equipment on an oil & gas
platform, second only to the 3-phase separators that are used to separate the raw oil, water,
and gas combination.

Although a scrubber can refer to a variety of tools, it is frequently used to describe a device
that removes impurities from a gas stream. Scrubbers are separators that are used in offshore
gas compression systems to remove liquid from the gas stream before it reaches the
compressor. The same type of equipment is also known as a compressor suction drum and a
knock-out drum.

Scrubbers can have a variety of internal configurations, and the best one relies on the
separation's necessary capacity and efficiency. The most basic sort of scrubber is just an open
container where the liquid drains down naturally and the gas is removed at the top. If the gas
flow is strong and the droplets are tiny, they may become entrained with it and reduce the
effectiveness of the separation. 2009 (Sulzer Chemtech Ltd.) Demister pads and/or cyclones
are the most often added components within scrubbers. Demister pads can frequently be
utilised when the separation efficiency is greater than 99 percent and the pressure drop is
minimal. A cyclone may be made to handle high pressures and temperatures and enormous
flows, but if the velocity is too high (usually above 30 m/s), liquid may pick up and enter the
gas phase. Due to kinetic, friction, entrance, and exit losses, the pressure drop is considerably
greater when cyclones are utilised. (2009's Sinnott & Toweler)

Depending on whether phase is more dominant, a horizontal or vertical gas-liquid separator

may be used. A vertical separator is beneficial if the gas phase is predominated and there is
no requirement for liquid hold-up, as in the case of a scrubber.
2.3 Heat exchanger

In the industrial setting, heat exchangers are utilised to move heat between two distinct
streams. This is often accomplished by having two streams run through a heat exchanger that
is divided by a wall. Convection between the wall and the streams and conduction through
the wall are used to transfer heat.

The hot and cold streams can either travel in the same way via a heat exchanger, known as
co-current flow, or they can flow in the opposite direction, known as counter current flow.
Typically, a counter current flow is preferable because it produces a greater driving force and
a greater temperature differential across the heat exchanger.

Equation 7 is frequently used to explain heat transfer in single-pass heat exchangers, which
only allow each fluid to pass through the device once.

q=UA ∆ T lm 7

Where q is the heat flow rate (W), U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient, ( mwk ), A is the
2

area (m2) and ( ∆ T lm) is the logarithmic-mean temperature difference (K).

It should be observed that the heat transfer coefficient across the heat exchanger is not always
constant. A correction factor, F, can be applied to the right side of Equation 7 to account for
configurations other than the single-pass. Welty and others (2008)

The friction within a heat exchanger might result in a significant pressure loss due to the
area's frequent enormous size and complicated structure. The heat exchanger most frequently
used for compressor pre-cooling applications is the tube and shell type, with the gaseous
process stream in the tubes and the cooling media in the shell. Similar to pipes, it is possible
to compute the pressure drop in tubes.
2.4 Piping

Fluids are transported by pipes, which are crucial to the functioning and design of a facility.
Pipelines and piping are often distinguishable from one another by the fact that pipelines are
utilised for cross-country or offshore distribution and are typically much longer than pipes.
Depending on the region of usage and fluid to be handled, pipes are frequently constructed
from specified classes of metallic alloys, or occasionally polymers.

The decrease in fluid pressure over the pipe is the main effect of pipe design. The length of
the pipe and the choice of construction material's degree of roughness both affect the pressure
drop, which is caused by frictional losses at the inside walls of the pipe. Elevations, bends,
and fittings all affect the pressure drop. In the case of dynamic behaviour, the pipe volume
corresponds to a hold-up volume that adds lag and reduces system fluctuations. (2009's
Sinnott & Toweler)

2.5 Valves

By partially or completely opening or closing channels for the fluid, valves regulate or steer
the flow of a fluid. Valves can be used to control a fluid's flow or pressure, open up or
completely cut off a flow, or as safety precautions to prevent specific operating
circumstances. Depending on the function and operating circumstances of the valve, a variety
of valve types can be utilised. Manual valves can be used to initiate or halt flow and are
manually operated. Valves can also be operated automatically, either by use of a separate
controller or self-control. Self-controlled valves are valves having an internal control system
that enables them to function without any further input. Check valves that only allow flow in
one direction and relief valves that automatically open as the pressure rises are two examples
of this. A control valve must have an actuator that can open or close the valve to the position
chosen by the controller in order to be controlled by a separate controller. The actuator stroke
time is the amount of time needed for a valve to go from fully closed to fully open, or the
other way around. The valve's opening speed does not always follow a linear trajectory.

The flow coefficient (Cv), which is determined by the flow of 60 °F water through a valve
with a 1 psi pressure drop, is frequently used to describe the size of a valve. see below,
equation 8:
 Cv ¿ F (√ ∆SGp ) 8

Where F stands for flow rate in US gallons per minute, SG for specific gravity (water has a
specific gravity of one at 60 degrees Fahrenheit), and ∆ P for pressure decrease in psi.

Since Cv is dependent on the valve's opening and is thus offered at full opening to allow for
the most flow through the valve, The valve characteristics, which rely on the geometry of the
valve, can be used to define the relationship between a valve's opening and the flow (or Cv)
through it. Figure 5 illustrates several typical instances of valve characteristics, including
linear, equal-percentage, and rapid opening. When Cv grows linearly with valve opening,
such properties are said to be linear. When the opening increment is equal to the closing
increment, the CV changes by an identical percentage. Fast opening allows for big changes in
flow with very modest changes in lift. Despite variations from the ideal characteristic,
individual valves are considered to have a characteristic in reality. (2005) Fisher Controls
International

Figure 5 shows typical curves for the three most popular types of valve characteristics. These
are the curves that HYSYS uses as a benchmark. (2011) Aspen Technology, Inc.
2.6 System control

To maintain steady operation of a dynamic process, process control is utilised to regulate

variables like temperature and pressure. This is accomplished by having a controller that can
modify a system input. For instance, a controller may activate a valve to relieve pressure if
the pressure is rising over the preset level. Since every system has its unique behaviour and
necessitates a particular set of actions, the equations that govern the controller might change
amongst controllers. The process sector uses PID controllers frequently, but there are also
other, more sophisticated controllers, such the anti-surge controller for a compressor.

There is a control error, which is defined as the difference between the set point for a
variable, r (t), and the actual operating value, y (t). The mistake should then be removed by
building the controller in this manner. The control signal, u, is calculated by a PID-controller
using a beginning value for the control signal, u0, and the control error u(t). The P-only PID
controller is the most basic kind and is defined by equation 9:

u(t) = u0 + KpE(t) 9

Where KP is a constant that is typically referred to as the gain and is chosen for each
controller based on the desired behaviour. Faster control might be feasible with a high KP,
but there is a risk of instability if the entire effect of the control signal is not immediately
visible on the operational parameter for the controller. Because u0 was made to yield zero
error at the conventional operating circumstances rather than the new ones, there is a
disadvantage to P-only control if the operating conditions are changed: the error will not be
completely eradicated. 2009's Glad & Ljung

Another term needs to be included in the control equation if it's necessary to completely
eliminate the error. A PI controller is comparable to a P-only controller, but with the addition
of an integrating term. The control signal can be raised until the mistake is removed by
integrating the error over time. Equation 10 may be used to explain the PI controller.
 t 10
u(t) = u0 + KpE(t) + K1 ∫ E (τ )dτ
0

A PI controller will move slower and take longer to obtain a stable control signal because of
the integrating term. (2011) Aspen Technology, Inc. As the integrating term utilises outdated
information to determine the control signal, it will also worsen system oscillations. Similar to
Kp, boosting Ki will cause the controller to react quicker but with an increased risk of
instability and with a longer time to attain a stable value. The typical response from a P and
PI controller is shown in Figure 6 below.

Figure 6 illustrates an example of a P-Only and PI controller's response to a step change

(Aspen Technology, Inc., 2011)

When a mistake is sustained for a considerable amount of time, a phenomenon known as

integral windup affects the memory of the integrating term. When a physical limit is reached,
such as when a valve is fully open or closed, and the error is still non-zero, this is especially
problematic. When the fault is fixed, this windup will slow down the controller's response,
which will lead to a sluggish control. When a controller's set point is modified, integral
windup also causes unnecessarily huge overshoots.
A derivative term can be added to the controller to create a full PID controller and shorten the
oscillation time. The controller may respond more quickly than a controller without
derivative action by utilising the derivative of the error to determine whether it is rising or
decreasing. Additionally, this may result in a controller with derivative action being more
stable. The equation below can be used to explain a PID controller's output.

t
d 11
u(t) = u0 + KpE(t) + K1 ∫ E (τ )dτ + KD E(t)
0
dt

There are other variations of a PID-controller equation that are feasible. In the business
world, equation 11 is frequently transformed into equation 12 below.

t
1 d 12
u(t) = u0 + Kp[E(t) + ∫ E(τ) dτ + TD E(t)
τ1 0 dt

Where KP/TI = KI and KPTD = KD accordingly.

Because it is impractical to derive operational data with appreciable amounts of interference

and noise, it is usual in industry to have controllers that do not employ derivative action.
2009's Glad & Ljung

Pressure, temperature, liquid level, and flow are the four types of variables that will be
managed in the compressor system (i.e. surge control). The PID-controller is enough for the
majority of chemical engineering applications, and more complicated controllers are not
required. The adjustment of the control parameters is the key challenge when choosing a
controller.In the literature, there are several techniques for tuning a PID controller using rules
of thumb, such as the Zieger-Nichols method. Such a technique is frequently used, then a
tune by testing strategy. The parameters can be set more precisely from the beginning using
other techniques, including the internal model-based control, if there is a good mathematical
model of the system to be managed (IMC). In 1986, Riviera et al.

2.6.1 Anti-Surge control

The anti-surge control's primary objective is to stop the compressor from surging. To do this,
the compressor is followed by a recycling valve that permits flow to return to the intake. If
the flow is almost equal to the surge flow, it will open, increasing the flow through the
compressor and reducing surge. The anti-surge controller must be quick and precise since
surge might harm the compressor. A more sophisticated controller than the standard PID is
typically utilised due to the high requirements.

The surge margin, which is the distance between the set point of the controller and the
compressor's surge line, is set. The surge margin is defined differently by different
controllers, but the aim is to set a number at the right distance from the surge line to provide
the controller a safety buffer. The surge margin is continually computed while the compressor
is running. It is conceivable to have a backup line that is closer to the surge line and that, if
crossed, enables the controller to respond more forcefully. In order to prevent additional
surges, it is also possible to install a safety line at surging circumstances that, if crossed,
increases the surge margin. Below in Figure 7, these lines are depicted. (2008) Brun & Nored

Figure 7 shows typical lines for anti-surge controls on compressors. The compressor curves'
real surge point is shown by the surge line. The controller lines are the additional lines.

The molecular weight and flow into the compressor are two factors that affect the surge point.
It is advantageous to employ a coordinate system that is invariant of the inlet circumstances
or nearly invariant of them for describing the surge line. One of the most popular coordinate
systems that satisfies the necessary requirements is the ratio of the reduced polytrophic head
to the reduced suction flow rate squared. Here, the term "reduced" refers to a recalculation of
these values using equations C1 and C2 from Appendix C. (Bloch, 2006)
The following polynomial is the one used by HYSYS to determine the surge flow:

hm + A+ B∗¿FS C∗F 2S + D∗F 3S 13

Where: A, B, C, and D are user-determined parameters used to connect surge flow with head,
and Fs is the volumetric surge flow.

The surge margin or backup line is then computed by adding a certain percentage to the
calculated surge flow. Until the backup line is reached, the HYSYS controller operates like a
typical PID controller. When the flow is once again over the backup line, a more aggressive
response is done by opening the valve with a predetermined percentage per second. (2011)
Aspen Technology, Inc.

2.6.2 Scrubber, Heat exchanger and pressure control

It is common practise to use P-only or PI control to regulate the liquid level in a vessel.
Depending on the controller's goal, one of these two options is best. If the inflow is altered as
previously mentioned, the P-only controller will have a prolonged inaccuracy in steady-state.
To remedy this, the integrating action can be added, but this has the disadvantage of causing
the outlet flow to vary more widely (and overshoot). (1979; Cheung & Luyben) The liquid
level control normally produces noise, but if this could be reduced, D-action may be used.

Via controlling the flow of a cooling or heating liquid through the apparatus, the temperature
in a process stream may be controlled by a heat exchanger. Due to the goal for a gradual and
constant reaction, this is frequently done with a complete PID controller. However, the D-
action shouldn't be used if there is noise present.

Because the process reaction is often delayed and the intrinsic process gain associated to gas
pressure management is typically minimal, larger process gains can be applied without a
significant danger of instability. As a result, the derivative action is not required since a PI-
controller may be readily set to regulate the gas pressure in a system. (2011) Aspen
Technology, Inc.
3.0 MODELING
This chapter will provide a broad theoretical framework for dynamic modelling in HYSYS Dynamics TM
and a detailed explanation of the simulated models.

3.1 Dynamic simulations

Dynamic models solve the mathematical balances for specific attributes like energy, material,
and composition as a function of time, in contrast to steady-state models, which do not. This
is accomplished by adding a time-dependent "accumulation" factor and differentiating over
time in the corresponding transport equations. Due to the non-linear structure of the time-
dependent equations and the difficulty in finding analytical solutions, the approximate
solution is derived using numerical integration.

The majority of unit operations are resolved by HYSYS utilising lumped models, which
ignores directional gradients (along the x, y, and z axes) and assumes that the solution
property is constant throughout each sub-volume. Process equipment frequently has a holdup
volume, which causes a delay between when changes are introduced at its intake and when
these are observed at its output. This delay is what causes process equipment to behave
dynamically. Individual holdup models are used by HYSYS Dynamics TM to predict the
transient system behaviour of a particular piece of process equipment while accounting for its
various form factors and capabilities. Solving the accumulation term is essential for
simulating a property's reaction because accumulation causes a delay in response when
modifications are made. For this, the holdup model augments the feed stream with a
hypothetical recycling stream that effectively serves as a representation of the material
already present inside the apparatus. After that, the build-up is resolved using:

Accumulation = Flow into system + Recycle stream – Flow out of system

feeds Non-Equilibrium Flashed Products products

Flash
recycle recycle

HOLDUP MODEL
Not all properties are solved in each iteration time step in order to shorten computation
durations. With the default parameters, holdup composition is solved every tenth step, holdup
energy is solved every second step, and holdup material is solved every step.

The HYSYS holdup model is predicated on the following premises:

• A thorough mixing of each phase is assumed.

• Material already in the holdup and feeds to it are transferred with regard to mass and heat.

• In the holdup, mass and heat transfer happens between stages.

This does not include the multiphase mixing between the feed intake and the current holdup
(recycle stream) if many physical phases are present, even though each phase is believed to
be properly mixed on its own. For instance, the internal geometry and residence duration of
the equipment have a significant impact on the mixing and equilibration of two distinct
liquid-vapor streams. The time required for the holdup volume to attain equilibrium can be
changed by specifying the mixing efficiencies regulating the multiphase mixing of the holdup
volume in HYSYS. Low mixing efficiency might prevent the system from reaching
equilibrium, which could lead to the product stream, for instance, containing phases with
differing temperatures.

HYSYS uses resistance equations of the following type to solve pressure in various unit
operations and piping:

Flow=k √ ∆ P 14

Here, for a certain unit operation, the mass flow rate is given as a function of a particular
resistance parameter (k) and pressure drop due to friction ( ∆ P ) . The Cv value models the
resistance for a valve.

An actuator and a valve are two separate components that make up the Valve unit activity in
HYSYS. For the actuator and valve, additional parameters such as C v, opening time, and
valve stickiness are available.

Large rotating components, like compressors, are subject to forces from friction and inertia.
The HYSYS model for the functioning of the compressor unit may be used to describe the
impact of accelerating a compressor impeller, which is significant for dynamic simulations.
(2011) Aspen Technology, Inc.
3.2 HYSYS MODEL
The compressor served as the primary distinction between the Existing and the Modified
versions of the HYSYS model. Data from an existing compressor system on an oil and gas
platform in the Norwegian Sea is utilised in the current version, which is afterwards used for
validation. The second version is based on a system adjustment that would be made in the
future to allow for production at lower pressures and a new compressor. A simplified
schematic of the simulated system is depicted in the image below.

Diagram of the simulated compressor system in Figure 8. Figures A1 and A2 in appendix A

provide a more thorough flowchart of the system.

Future changes will be made in order to adapt the procedure to the decreased reservoir
pressure that would inevitably come from prolonged oil and gas production. The heat
exchanger before to the first compressor stage had to be replaced since the replacement of the
compressor altered the design inlet temperature and flow between the two systems. The
revised version also includes the option of sending the Test Separator B (TSB) to the first
stage (dotted line in Figure 8). TSB is virtually identical to the other two separators used in
the model of the gas compression system, but it has a wider range of applications than the
second and third stage separators.

A design scenario for the reconstruction depicting typical low pressure gas production
provided the updated version operational data. To achieve this, compressed natural gas must
be produced at a rate of 20075 sm3/h (400 tonnes/h), of which 17025 sm3/h (326 tonnes/h) is
supplied by TSB and directed to the first compressor stage. The third stage separator (1260
sm3/h), second stage separator (1070 sm3/h), and flare recovery (1070 sm 3/h), in that order,
provide the remaining gas intake. Water is evacuated from the two scrubbers in addition to
the gas output, which completes the system's material balance. The flare recovery valve limits
the pressure from the third stage separator to 1.4 barg. Similar to the TSB, the 2nd stage
separator is controlled at 6,9 barg. Between the two compressor stages is a valve that
regulates flare recovery to 1,2 barg. The pressure can change if there are disturbances
downstream since all of the inlets' boundary conditions are established as flow specifications.
However, a set pressure of 13,7 barg, which represents the pressure of the real system outside
of the model boundary, defines the gas outlet. The gas is substantially heavier in the third
separator (26,31 g/mole) than in the second stage separator (20,63 g/mole), TSB (19,91
g/mole), and flare recovery stream (18,73 g/mole), which all have different molecular
weights.

Since Peng-Robinson is the thermodynamic model, most frequently used for these kinds of
hydrocarbon systems, it was employed for all equilibrium calculations. The Peng-Robinson
model utilised for the water/TEG combination in the cooling media side of the heat
exchangers was set to NRTL since Peng-Robinson is best suited for non-polar systems.

The anti-surge control mechanism had changes between the various versions, which will be
covered in greater depth later. Following that, key design considerations will be discussed
and how the various system components were represented.
3.2.1 COMPRESSOR
The simulations are similar even though the compressor in the redesigned system and the
previous system was completely different. Both of them feature an electronic motor acting as
the driver and a set speed. The compressor performance curves, inertias, and driver data are
the primary pieces of information required by HYSYS to simulate a compressor.

In both instances, the compressor manufacturer provided the curves that were used. Since
they are both fixed-speed compressors, only one speed of the curves was provided, thus to
replicate the start-up process, the affinity laws and HYSYS standard linear extrapolation have
to be utilised to estimate curves at other speeds. The updated compressor featured several
curves for various molecular weights, whereas the original compressor only had one curve for
one molecule weight (for each stage) that was utilised for all simulations.

When the compressor's speed varies, the inertia plays a crucial role since it symbolises the
mass that needs to be accelerated. However, it doesn't matter while these compressors are
running normally because the speed isn't changed. In HYSYS, the inertia may be specified
for the driving motor as well as the compressor. Prior to the simulations, the improved
compressor's inertia was not known, thus it was assumed to be the same as the previous
system. However, the new motor inertia was provided and utilised in every simulation. The
outcomes will also be used to study the impact of modifying the inertia.

Datasheets for each compressor version were used to determine the full load speed, gear ratio,
power, and torque as well as the motor's inertia. To replicate the start-up of the compressor, a
speed vs torque curve for the driver must also be constructed. For the compressor driver in
use at the time of writing, this data was present and used. However, only two places on the
curve were covered by the data for the changed compressor driver. As a result, both the old
curve and a comparable made-up curve with the specified two points were employed in the
simulation of the updated compressor.
3.2.2 HEAT EXCHANGER
In HYSYS, the heat exchanger may be emulated in a variety of ways and to varying degrees
of precision. The ratio between the reference flow and real flow is raised to 0,8 to recalculate
UA in the model that is being utilised. Phase transitions, which are present in the simulations,
cannot be considered by this fundamental model. A more sophisticated heat exchanger model
was used for some simulations, however the simulations ran slowly and produced irrational
results, thus it was discarded.

The value of k for a reference flow in equation 14 was supplied for the pressure drop across
the heat exchanger. When the flow is less than the reference flow, the k value is scaled down
by calculating the ratio between the flow and the reference flow and multiplying it by the
specified k value. Above the reference flow, the k value remains intact.

3.2.3 BOUNDARIES

The three separator inlets, flare gas recovery, and the gas output all fall within the system
boundaries. The two liquid outputs from the flare outlets and scrubbers were also present.
Although it is also feasible to employ flow specification, HYSYS normally advises using
pressure boundaries when it comes to mass transfer. For each input, certain temperatures and
compositions are also required.

Pressure specification of the outlets' pressures defines the mass transfer boundary condition
for each outlet in the model. Since the outlet gas is mixed with a considerably greater flow of
gas from the first stage separator, it may be assumed that the pressure leaving the main gas
outlet is independent of the simulated system. In order to let a flow through if a valve to it
opened, the pressure in all other outputs was adjusted to be lower than the pressure inside the
system.

On the other side, the flow rather than the pressure was defined for the inlets. As a set
pressure might result in irrational flows, this is done to be able to mimic the volumes before
the compressor and to offer more realistic results. When gas data were available, they were
utilised to determine the inflow composition, and when they weren't, a prior steady state
simulation of the system in HYSYS was used. Data from the foundation of the prospective
reconstruction are used in the updated version.

Despite being present in both models, TSB was not routed into the compressor in any of the
simulations performed using the current version. This is because all of the operational data
that was accessible and needed for the validation was directed either to the flare or to the
second stage exit. In all circumstances, with the exception of start up, TSB was channelled
into the first stage of the compressor in the simulations conducted using the modified version.

The simulation did not include any heat transmission between the system and the
surroundings since the walls of the pipe and unit operation were not included. Additionally,
there was no build-up of heat in the system's walls.

3.2.4 CONTROL
There are 13 separate controllers that work together to control the compressor system. The
two anti-surge controllers received some extra attention throughout the simulation of all of
these, which was conducted largely in the same manner. The velocity form PID controllers
were utilised as HYSYS standard controllers. The velocity form has the advantage of not
having any integral windup over a typical PID, which is why it should be used instead. The
velocity form PID equation is displayed below; take note that the controller is on a 15
discretized form.

h T D ( E(t)−2 E(t−1)+e (t−2))

u(t )=u(t −1)+ K P ⌊( E (t )−E (t−1))+ E(t)+ ⌋
TI h

Where is h is the time step's size.

None of the controllers employed the derivative action since it is readily unstable
(particularly when velocity form is used) and was not thought required. Since the parameters
that would have been utilised for the previous system were unavailable, the control
parameters were established using the usual recommended values suggested by HYSYS.

See appendix B for further details on the control system, the various controllers, and the
control parameters.

A polynomial that links the flow to the head controls the surge flow in HYSYS (equation 13).
Given that the compressor only has one compressor curve, this is suitable for the current
compressor type. However, because the surge flow of the modified model varies with
molecule weight, the polynomial is inadequate. Instead, the surge flow was computed in a
HYSYS spreadsheet and loaded into the surge controller.

It was accomplished by employing a reduced flow and reduced head coordinate system with
the surge points and performing a regression between the reduced surge flows as a function
of the reduced head. The decreased flow could then be adjusted to equal the true flow once
the reduced head was estimated in the spreadsheet.

3.2.5 OTHER
Since there was no assumption of liquid entrainment in the scrubber, complete separation was
realised. The scrubbers' dimensions were derived from datasheets, however because HYSYS
is unable to simulate an ellipsoidal head, the height was revised to produce a cylindrical
vessel with the same volume. Additionally, the internals of the scrubbers were not
considered.

The flow coefficient (Cv), the opening parameters, as well as the opening duration, must be
provided in order to replicate a valve. The valve does not need to open or close during
operation; in such case, the Cv suffices. For all valves, it was anticipated that. This indicates
that the anti-surge valve Cv, as predicted by its design, was equal to 200 and 139 for the first
and second stages during validation and to 245 and 110, respectively, for the modified
version. Since check valves typically have a modest pressure drop, a high C v was used for
simulating check valves. the actuator opening rate would be linear. When data was available,
datasheets were used; in other situations, standard values were employed.

Since the volume and pressure drop of the pipe were modelled independently, the pressure
drop could be calculated using an equal length. When utilising equivalent length, the length
also accounts for the pressure loss caused by fittings and pipe bends. Since the gas flow was
assumed to be completely turbulent, the only factors affecting the k value in equation 14 are
the diameter, length, and roughness of the pipe. The roughness that was employed was a
common value for mild steel. In order to prevent too complicated simulations and lengthy
simulation periods, not all of the system's pipes were simulated. However, all of the pipes
around the compressor stages in the main system were simulated. The system flow sheet in
appendix A shows precisely which pipes were simulated.

3.3 SCENARIOS
To evaluate the performance of the low-pressure production reconstruction before the
reconstruction ever started, three alternative scenarios were simulated in the modified model.
The scenarios were designed with two major goals in mind: to test the system under the most
demanding conditions and to exhibit the dynamic behaviour in as many areas of the model as
feasible.
In light of this, the following possibilities were assessed:

A. Shutdown
B. Start-up
C. Step-change
The basic descriptions of these events in the next part should help put the findings in chapter 5 into
perspective.

3.3.1 SCENARIO A - SHUTDOWN

The most important event for the anti-surge system is compressor shutdown since it
necessitates the biggest and quickest response to prevent the compressor from entering surge.
This instance essentially serves as the foundation for sizing the anti-surge valves and should
produce interesting outcomes in terms of how well the recommended equipment design
performs.

A safety control system alarm trip must be manually activated to start the shutdown. This
starts a safety protocol that carries out the following tasks automatically:

• Stops the compressor's electric motor from running.

• Completely opens both anti-surge valves.
• Shuts off the liquid outputs on the scrubber.
• Seals the system by closing all gas intake and output valves, directing the separator
flows to the flare system (XV-valves).

The goal of the first simulation is to demonstrate how the dynamic response varies when the
system is shut down while running at the more forgiving base case operating point of 30%
surge margin as opposed to 10% with the anti-surge valves fully closed. By lowering the TSB
inlet flow to 9103 sm3/h in the base scenario, the lowest surge margin is reached. The anti-
surge system will be put under the highest strain during shutdown from an operating position
that is very close to or at the surge margin and without any or a very modest opening on the
surge valves. Additionally, the relationship between the likelihood to surge and the
compressor's inertia, compressor size, and surge valve opening time will be examined. All of
these assessments are made for the more serious scenario at the minimal surge margin, in
which the system is turned off while the anti-surge valves are closed.

3.3.2 SCENARIO B – START-UP

The purpose of this scenario is to evaluate how well the compressor and its motor function.
The start-up of an idle compressor is the most important stage of the motor's activity. In
reality, the torque required to accelerate the compressor at startup is frequently taken into
account when determining the motor size. The simulation of the upgraded compressor
version employed both an estimated and the existing compressor motor torque-vs-speed
curve because the new torque-vs-speed curve was not yet available. However, the new
compressor's motor and gearbox inertia was already in place and in service. The upgraded
version is intended to run at 10378 rpm, although the original version's maximum speed is
9426 rpm.

The validation chapter (4) demonstrates that appropriate results may be obtained when
extrapolating compressor performance at various speeds using the affinity rules. However,
since various compressors will behave differently, it is impossible to assert with certainty that
the affinity rules will apply to the new compressor in the same way they do to the current
one. In order to compare the outcomes, an estimated version start-up was simulated using
both the affinity rules and the linear extrapolation that is the default in HYSYS.

The system was set up beforehand using the start-up process for the actual, working platform
as a guide. This implies that flare recovery is not employed and that all TSB is sent to the
flare. The actual system is depressurized before to start-up and then pressurised with natural
gas from the third stage separator to a minimum of 1,4 barg. The second separator inlet valve
is opened as soon as the compressor is running, pressurising the second stage and increasing
the incoming flow. Throughout the whole procedure, both anti-surge valves are configured to
be fully open, deactivating the anti-surge flow control. The molecular weight at the second
compressor stage input will gradually drop during start-up because the gas from the second
stage separator is lighter than the gas from the third stage separator.

3.3.3 SCENARIO C – STEP-CHANGE

The step-change scenario is designed to evaluate the reaction and flexibility of the control
system to process changes. Additionally, it aims to explain the stability of the overall system.
The anti-surge valve control is disengaged in both situations A and B since they are both set
to completely open during shutdown and start-up. As a result, only in this situation can the
anti-surge control be assessed.

TSB is sent to the first stage while the system is initially in steady condition during typical
low pressure gas production operation (detailed in section 3.2). The main stream entering the
system comes from the TSB intake, and to demonstrate the behaviour and stability of the
entire system, this stream was abruptly and entirely decreased. Following the decrease, the
system is given time to settle before a second step-change brings the TSB flow back to
maximum output. During the simulation, the flare gas recovery, third and second stage
separators, and both were in operation.

To test the control settings employed by the anti-surge valve control, another sort of
simulation was conducted. The goal of this simulation was to compare the Ziegler-Nichols
tuning approach to tuning by "trial-and-error" and to "rules-of-thumb" guidelines. The initial
control parameter settings for all controllers were chosen using the guidelines included in the
HYSYS handbook (see table B1 in appendix B).

To compel the anti-surge valves to open and manage the flow before the step-change, the
flow from TSB was lowered by more than half (to 4721 sm3/h) for this step-change. For the
flow regulation of the anti-surge controller, a step-change was made from an operating point
of 10% to 30%. This was thought to be a realistic significant alteration that would have
unique consequences. The anti-surge valves' Cv and actuator speed parameters for the
simulation were the first recommendations made by the valve manufacturer for the low
pressure manufacturing modification.