Demographic Patterns in Attitudes Towards Wolf Reintroduction in the United States

MacKenzie Nelson

ECB Proposal

Fall 2022
Abstract

Species reintroductions, translocations of an organisms into a range it has since

disappeared from with the goal of establishing a new viable population, are an increasingly used

conservation strategy in the face of our current mass extinction event. Historically, however,

reintroductions have had a troubled rate of success and a lack of focus on the multi-disciplinary

aspect of the practice. Sociopolitical factors are often neglected in these projects despite the

importance of garnering economic, social, and political support or the possibility of negatively

influencing the success of the project through social and political resistance. Public support for

species reintroduction is influenced by the sense of perceived risk for the project, the social trust

the public has in the management of the project, and the various perspectives held by the public

towards the focal species or management agency, which are influenced by the public’s different

backgrounds. Wolves have been repeatedly the target of reintroduction project in the United

States, but these have often been controversial. I am proposing a scope review of the peer-

reviewed literature addressing public attitudes towards wolf reintroduction in the United States in

order to document the demographic trends in public opinion. This could be used in the future to

help conservation managers organizing reintroduction projects in their public outreach efforts.

Introduction and Background

As anthropogenic influences and climate change contribute to a growing number of

extinctions, conservation managers are increasingly turning to conservation translocations in

order to protect or reestablish endangered species (Reading et al. 2002). Conservation

translocations are the purposeful movement of organisms for a measurable conservation purpose

at the population, species, or ecosystem level (IUCN/SSC 2013). A reintroduction is a

translocation within the indigenous range of an organism from which it has since disappeared
with the goal of establishing a new viable population (IUCN/SSC 2013). While less risky than

translocations outside of a species’ indigenous range, reintroductions historically have a high rate

of failure due to their high risks, high costs, complexity, and occasional politization. (Reading et

al. 2002) (Berger et al. 2020). They are multi-disciplinary efforts requiring expertise in biology,

pathology, genetics, economics, sociology, etc. as well as long-term adequate funding,

monitoring, regulatory compliance, and public support to be successful (IUCN/SSC 2013)

(Berger et al. 2020).

In early translocation and reintroduction projects, most planning was focused on the

biological and ecological factors while neglecting the importance of the social and organizational

feasibility that was necessary to ensure success (Reading et al. 2002). Public opinion for or

against any conservation initiative can take the form of passive support, the want for a project to

succeed or fail, or active support, through the use of time, money, or other resources, and can

swing in a supportive or oppositional direction (Sampson et al. 2020). The attitudes of the public

can manifest as behaviors, such as direct donations, volunteering, or activism in support of a

conservation project or in support of a group against a project, which can affect the ability of a

project to continue. Additionally, the opinions of the public can influence policymakers who

determine the regulations and permission that effect a project through voting and political

pressure (Hiroyasu et al. 2019) (Sampson et al. 2020). The public can even effect species

persistence directly through behaviors that promote species conservation, such as preserving

privately owned habitat, or stifle reintroduction efforts, such as hunting. For example, in the

1970s, four reintroduced timber wolves in northern Michigan were killed by local hunters within

the first year of the project (Reading et al. 2002). Conservation projects can also become

symbols for larger political schisms in the public consciousness, swaying the public and
policymakers to take actions for or against these conservation efforts with motivation from

unrelated issues (Niemiec et al. 2022). For example, Proposition 114 on Colorado’s 2020

election ballot, which was an initiative seeking to restore gray wolves (Canis lupus) to the state,

passed but received significantly less support than previous surveys suggested it would. It is

believed that the timing of the proposition with a highly polarized election may have turned the

reintroduction of wolves in Colorado into a partisan issue for some, partially contributing to the

difference in support between the surveys and the election (Niemiec et al. 2022).

The attitudes of the public on reintroduction projects, and conservation issues as a whole,

can influence the behaviors the public takes in support of or against a reintroduction project. The

attitudes held by the public towards reintroduction projects can be determined by their

perceptions towards the species of the animals being reintroduced or their feeling towards the

organizations invovled in the reintroduction. The characteristics of a species, such as size,

intelligence, danger to humans and property, economic value, cultural significance, evolutionary

relatedness to humans, domestication, aesthetics, feeding behavior, endangered status, etc. can

influence the attitudes someone has towards an animal (Kellert 1980) (Reading et al. 2002). Also

important, however, is the social trust a person places in those responsible for managing a

reintroduction. There will always be a degree of perceived risk by locals regarding the

consequences of translocating a species, such as personal safety, property damage, ecological

consequences, loss of crops and livestock, and the spread of disease, that can negatively

influence the attitudes they may have towards the animals or the reintroduction project (Watkins

et al. 2021). Social trust established in the relationship between those managing a reintroduction

and the public can help to mitigate this sense of perceived risk, but it can also negatively impact

the public opinion of a project is the public feels the social trust is low due to a feeling of
conflicting goals and values between the public and managers (Sponarski 2014) (Watkins et al.

2021). Often, the values and attitudes a person holds can be correlated and influenced to a degree

by the background of individuals, which can be correlated with certain demographic factors

associated with them, such as education, age, race, and whether they live in a rural or urban

region (Kellert 1980). These demographic differences can represent different perspectives

between people, which are largely what can influence the variations in attitudes and social trust

that we see (Sponarski et al. 2014).

The reintroduction of gray wolves into the American Rockies has been a socially and

politically controversial venture. Wolves were driven to near extinction in the continental 48

states in the mid-20th century through a combination of overhunting of their prey, habitat loss,

and concentrated predator control programs. After the passing of the Endangered Species Act in

1973, wolves were made federally protected and reintroduction efforts were eventually

undertaken in Yellowstone National Park and Idaho in the 1990s. Since then, the endangered

status of gray wolves in the United States has been changed numerous times, with them currently

protected as endangered in states they are absent from, threatened in Minnesota, and not

protected in the Northern Rocky Mountain population (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2022).

The lesser-known U.S. wolf species, the Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) and red wolf (Canis

rufus) followed similar population patterns. Mexican wolves, a subspecies of the gray wolf, were

also brought to near extinction due to human-wildlife conflict in the 1970s, and subsequently

enlisted under the Endangered Species Act. A population has since been established in New

Mexico and Arizona following a breeding program in the 1990s (Conserving the Mexican Wolf).

The range of red wolves was narrowed to a small strip along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico by

the early 1970s, and the species was declared extinct in the 1980s. After a capturing and breeding
program in the late 1970s through the 1980s, there is currently a population of red wolves being

managed in North Carolina (Red Wolf Recovery Program 2022). All these populations are

closely monitored, and some still closely managed. Wolf reintroduction programs are still fresh

in the public consciousness due to Colorado’s Proposition 114 in 2020, which resulted in a new

initiative to restore wolves to the state (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2022). Throughout

history, wolves have been a controversial and disliked species, and so reintroduction efforts have

led to local or national controversy (Tilt 1989). If wolves are going to be continued to be

reintroduced in the contiguous 48 states successfully, managers will need to account for the

public attitudes towards these projects in their planning (Kellert 1980).

Research Objectives

The objective of this study is to produce a scope review describing the patterns in public

attitudes towards wolf reintroduction in the United States between different demographics. A

scope review will used to group together the literature that has been conducted on the topic in

order to identify trends in public attitudes that can help advise wolf reintroduction project

managers in their public outreach in the future. As far as I’m aware, while numerous surveys and

studies have been done on the public opinions towards specific reintroduction projects, such as

Proposition 114, or hypothetical wolf reintroduction projects on local and national scales, no

reviews condensing this data have been undertaken within the last two decades. Individual

studies likely lack the broad scope and wider range of factors that would be necessary to guide

managers on thorough and nuanced public outreach, and so a scope review of this nature could

be important for future management decisions.

Research Methods

Literature will be pulled from peer-reviewed journals using two databases: Academic

Search Premier through EBSCOhost and Web of Science Core Collection through Web of

Science. A search string is being developed in order to search these databases and gather

literatures. Once an adequate search string is made, the articles collected from both databases

will be manually screened by their title, abstracts, and keywords to discard any repeated papers

or papers that don’t fit the scope of the research question. Once a group of articles that meet the

established criteria are selected, attributes of the articles will be recorded and coded for, such as

wolf species, date or the study, location, etc. Additionally, the demographic information of the

sample surveyed in the studies will be coded so that trends in the variation of demographic

information can be later assessed. Currently, the search term is being developed. Once that

process is completed, the rest of the methodology will be planned in greater detail.

Relevance to Career Goals and Society

As addressed earlier, this review could be of benefit to wolf reintroduction project

managers in helping them adequately plan and integrate successful public outreach campaigns.

Wolf reintroduction measures continue to be used as conservation initiatives, as seen with

Colorado’s new plan to reintroduce gray wolves to the state, but also one that receives significant

politicized media attention (Niemiec et al. 2022). Public support is integral to reintroduction

efforts, especially with controversial species like wolves, and so this research can be used to

better target different demographics most effectively in public communication and outreach

regarding the reintroduction projects.

 In my own career, I hope to focus on public outreach through interpretive education as a

guide in parks, zoos, or museums. I intend my career to have a conservation focus while

engaging with the public, and so a project focusing on public attitudes towards a major

conservation issue can help me better in my future public outreach.

Timetable

Summer 2022: Reach out to mentor and begin early stages of formulating a researching

question.

Fall 2022: Begin early stages of project development, create and present proposal.

Spring 2023: Conduct project, begin creating final paper and presentation.

April – May 2023: Finish and present project.

Description of Support by Supervising Faculty Member

My mentor for this project is Dr. Kenneth Wallen. I approached him this summer

proposing my idea, and he has helped me narrow down the scope and extent of the project to a

more manageable size. We have periodically met to discuss the process and steps of the project

up to this point and will continue to do so as I progress. He has been reviewing my progress with

me so far as I develop my search terms and will continue to provide feedback on my work as I

progress.

References

Berger-Tal O, Blumstein DT, Swaisgood RR. 2020. Conservation translocations: a review of

common difficulties and promising directions. Anim Conserv 23: 121-

131. https://doi.org/10.1111/acv.12534
Conserving the Mexican Wolf. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Available from

https://www.fws.gov/program/conserving-mexican-wolf (accessed November 2022).

Hiroyasu EHT, Miljanich CP, Anderson SE. 2019. Drivers of support: The case of species

reintroductions with an ill-informed public. Human Dimensions of Wildlife 24(5): 401-

417, DOI: 10.1080/10871209.2019.1622055

IUCN/SSC. 2013. Guidelines for Reintroductions and Other Conservation Translocations.

Version 1.0. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN Species Survival Commission.

Kellert SR. 1980. American attitudes toward and knowledge of animals: An update. International

Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 1(2): 87-119.

Niemiec R, Berl REW, Gonzalez M, Teel T, Salerno J, Breck S, Camara C, Collins M, Schultz

C, Hoag D, Crooks K. 2022. Rapid changes in public perception toward a conservation

initiative. Conservation Science and Practice 4(4):

e12632. https://doi.org/10.1111/csp2.12632

Reading RP, Clark TW, Kellert SR. 2002. Towards an Endangered Species Reintroduction

Paradigm. Endangered Species UPDATE 19(4): 142-146.

Red Wolf Recovery Program. 2022. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Available

from https://www.fws.gov/project/red-wolf-recovery-program (accessed November

2022).

Sampson L, Riley JV, Carpenter AI. 2020. Applying IUCN reintroduction guidelines: An

effective medium for raising public support prior to conducting a reintroduction project.

Journal for Nature Conservation DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2020.125914

Sponarski C, Vaske J, Bath A, Musiani M. 2014. Salient values, social trust, and attitudes toward

wolf management in south-western Alberta, Canada. Environmental Conservation 41(4):

303-310. DOI:10.1017/S0376892913000593

Tilt W. 1989. The Biopolitics of Endangered Species. Endangered Species UPDATE 6(10): 35-

39.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2022. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants;

Establishment of a Nonessential Experimental Population of the Gray Wolf in the State

of Colorado; Environmental Impact Statement. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service,

Washington, D.C.

https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2022/07/21/2022-15610/endangered-and-

threatened-wildlife-and-plants-establishment-of-a-nonessential-experimental

Watkins C, Poudyal N, Jones R, Muller L, Hodges D. 2021. Risk perception, trust and support

for wildlife reintroduction and conservation. Environmental Conservation 48(2): 127-

135. DOI:10.1017/S0376892921000011

Student Resume

MacKenzie Nelson
Cincinnati, Ohio / Moscow, ID | nels3763@vandals.uidaho.edu | (513) 646-7875
Education
Bachelor of Science in Ecology and Conservation Biology | University of Idaho, Moscow, ID |
May 2023
Awards and Honors: UI Merit Scholarship Award, Undergraduate Research Fellow
Award
 Relevant Coursework: Study Abroad at University of Stirling (Spring 2022), Terrestrial
Vertebrate Techniques Laboratory, Population Ecology, Conservation Biology,
Dendrology, Mammalogy, GIS Primer, Spatial Analysis for Natural Resources, Animal
Behavior, General Genetics
High School Diploma | Indian Hill High School, Cincinnati, OH | June 2019
Awards and Honors: National Merit Scholarship Finalist, National Honors Society
Skills

Beginner Intermediate Proficient

 ArcGIS
 Handling raptors
 Radio telemetry
 R (Program)
 Trapping and handling
passerine birds
 Adobe Photoshop
 Programming and
setting camera traps
 Microsoft Word,
PowerPoint, and Excel
 Technical Writing

Experience
Counselor | YMCA Camp Ernst, Cincinnati, OH | Summer 2018
E-Team: General Activities Team | YMCA Camp Ernst, Cincinnati, OH | Summer 2017
Counselor in Training (volunteer) | Cincinnati Nature Center, Cincinnati, OH | Summers 2014-
2018