FORCE VECTORS Hi CHAPTER OBJECTIVES 1m To show how to add forces and resolve them into components using the Parallelogram Law. 1m To express force and position as Cartesian vectors. 1m To introduce the dot product in order to use it to find the angle between two vectors or the projection of one vector onto another. 2.1 SCALARS AND VECTORS Many physical quantities in engincering mechanics are measured using cither scalars or vectors. Scalar. A scalar is any positive or negative physical quantity that can bbe completely specified by its magnitude. Examples of scalar quantities include length, mass, and time. Vector. A vectoris any physical quantity that requires both a magnitude and a direction for its complete description. Examples of vectors encountered in statics are force, position, and moment. A vector A is shown graphically by an arrow, Fig 2-1. The length of the arrow represents the magnitude of the vector, and the angle 0 between the vector and a fixed axis defines the direction of ts line of action. The head or tip of the arrow indicates the sense of direction of the Vector. In print, vector quantities are represented by boldface letters such as A. and the magnitude of a vector is italicized, A, For handwritten work, it is often convenient to denote a vector quantity by simply drawing an arrow above it, A.36 Chapter 2. Force Vectors 039 Scalar multiplication and division Fig. 2-2 2.2 VECTOR OPERATIONS Multiplication and Division of a Vector by a Scalar. Ifa vector is multiplied or divided by a positive scalar, its magnitude is increased by that amount. Multiplying or dividing by a negative scalar will also change the directional sense of the vector. Graphic examples of these operations are shown in Fig. 2-2 Vector Addition. When adding two vectors together it is important to account for both their magnitudes and their directions. To do this we must use the parallelogram law. To illustrate, the two component vectors A and B in Fig. 2-3a are added to form a resultant vector R = A + B using the following procedure: + First join the tails of the components at a point to make them concurrent, Fig. 2-3b, + From the head of B, draw a line parallel to A. Draw another line from the head of A that is parallel to B. These two lines intersect at point P to form the adjacent sides of a parallelogram, © The diagonal of this parallelogram that extends to P forms R, which then represents the resultant vector R = A + B, Fig. 2-3c. Parallelogram law @ e © ‘We can also add B to A, Fig. 2~4a, using the triangle rule, which is a special case of the parallelogram law, whereby vector B is added to vector A in a “head-to-tail” fashion, i.c., by connecting the tail of B to the head of A, Fig. 2~4b. The resultant R extends from the tail of A to the head of B. Ina similar manner, R can also be obtained by adding A to B, Fig. 2-4c. By comparison, it is seen that vector addition is commutative; in other words, the vectors can be added in either order, ie, R=A+B=B+A.R-AsB RoBHA Triangle rule ‘Triangle rule @ © © Fig.2-4 Asa special case, if the two vectors A and B are collinear, ic, both hhave the same line of action, the parallelogram law reduces to an algebraic or scalar addition R = A + B,as shown in Fig. 2-5 R=A+E Addition of collinear vectors Fig. 2-5 Vector Subtraction. The resultant of the difference between two vectors A and B of the same type may be expressed as, R= A-B=A+(-B) This vector sum is shown graphically in Fig, 2-6, Subtraction is therefore defined as a special case of addition, so the rules of vector addition also apply to vector subtraction, Vector subtraction Fig. 2-6 2.2. Vector OPERATIONS R=A-B Teiangle rule 3738 Chapter 2. Force Vectors ‘The parallelogram law must be used to determine the resultant of the two {orees acting on the hook. Using the parallelogram law the supporting force F can be resolved into ‘components acting along the w and v axes. 2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF FORCES Experimental evidence has shown that a force is a vector quantity since it has a specified magnitude, direction, and sense and it adds according to the parallelogram law. Two common problems in statics involve either finding the resultant force, knowing its components, or resolving a known force into two components. We will now describe how cach of these problems is solved using the parallelogram law. Finding a Resultant Force. The two component forces F; and F, acting on the pin in Fig. 27a are added together to form the resultant force Fy = F; + F,, using the parallelogram law as shown in Fig. 2-76. From this construction, or using the triangle rule, Fig. 2~Te, we can then apply the law of cosines or the law of sines to the triangle in order to obtain the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction, x B F Fe Fe ® ® Fr-Fit ky wo © Fig. 2-7 Finding the Components of a Force. Sometimes it is necessary to resolve a force into two components in order to study its pulling or pushing effect in two specific directions. For example, in Fig. 2-84, F is to be resolved into two components along the two members, defined by the wand » axes. In order to determine the magnitude of each component, a parallelogram is constructed first, by drawing lines starting from the tip of F, one line parallel to u, and the other line parallel to ». These lines intersect with the » and w axes, forming a parallelogram. The force components F, and F, are established by simply joining the tail of F to the intersection points on the « and w axes, Fig. 2-8. This parallelogram can be reduced to a triangle, which represents the triangle rule, Fig. 8c. From this, the law of sines can be applied to determine the unknown magnitudes of the components.2.3. Vector ADDITION oF Forces 39 F F FR E R “ E, “ % © © Fig 28 Addition of Several Forces. If more than two forces are to be added, successive applications of the parallelogram law can be carried ‘out in order to obtain the resultant force. For example, if three forces F;, F,, F; act at a point O, Fig. 2-9, the resultant of any two of the forces is found, say, F; + F), and then this resultant is added to the third force, yielding the resultant of all three forces; ic., Fr = (Fi + Fa) + Fs. Using the parallelogram law to add more than two forces, as shown here, generally requires extensive geometric and trigonometric calculation to determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant. Instead, problems of this type are easily solved by using the “rectangular component method,” which is explained in the next section. ‘The resultant force Fy on the hook requires the addition of F, + F,, then this resultant is added to Fy.40 Chapter 2. Force ‘Corine law c=Val+ FAB core Sine law: ABC ing Ha Hae ecToRs DD IMPORTANT POINTS | PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS Problems that involve the addition of two forces can be solved as follows: Parallelogram Law. A scalar is a positive or negative number. A vector is a quantity that has a magnitude, direction, and sense, Multiplication or division of a vector by a scalar will change the ‘magnitude of the vector. The sense of the vector will change if the scalar is negative. Vectors are added or subtracted using the parallelogram law or the triangle rule. As a special case, if the vectors are collinear, the resultant is formed by an algebraic or scalar addition, Sketch the addition of the two “component” forces F; and Fy according to the parallelogram law, yielding the resultant force Fg that forms the diagonal of the parallelogram, Fig, 2-10, Ifa force F is to be resolved into components along two axes u and r, then start at the head of force F and construct lines parallel to the axes, thereby forming the parallelogram, Fig. 2-10b. The sides of the parallelogram represent the components, F, and F,. Label all the known and unknown force magnitudes and the angles on the sketch and identify the two unknowns as the magnitude and direction of Fx, or the magnitudes of its components. jonometry. Redraw a half portion of the parallelogram to illustrate the triangular head-to-tail addition of the components. From this triangle, the magnitude of the resultant force can be determined using the law of cosines, and its direction is determined from the law of sines, The magnitudes of two force components are determined from the law of sines. The formulas, are given in Fig. 2-106.2.3 VecToR ADDITION OF Forces at EXAMPLE 2.1 The screw eye in Fig, 2-L1a is subjected to two forces, F, and F,. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force, us" 90" 25" = 65° @ © SOLUTION Parallelogram Law. The parallelogram is formed by drawing a line from the head of F; that is parallel to F, and another line from the head of F, that is parallel to F,. The resultant force Fx extends to where these lines intersect at point A, Fig. 2-116. The two unknowns are the magnitude of Fy and the angle 6 (theta). Trigonometry. From the parallelogram, the vector triangle is shown in fr 150 Fig. 2-L1c, Using the law of cosines Fx = VQOON) + (150 N? = 2(100 NY(1SO N) cos 115° = Vi10 000 + 22.500 — 30 000(—0.4226) = 212.6N 213N Ans, hist Applying the law of sines to determine 0, © 1S0N _ 212.6 _ 1S0N . Fig. 211 sind sin 115° sin6 = gn ants) 6 = 398" Toon Thus, the direction ¢ (phi) of Fx, measured from the horizontal, is = 39.8" + 15.0" = 548° Ans. NOTE: The results seem reasonable, since Fig. 2-11 shows Fg to have a magnitude larger than its components and a direction that is between them,42 Chapter 2. Force Vectors EXAMPLE 2.2 Resolve the horizontal 600-N force in Fig 2-12a into components acting along the u and v axes and determine the magnitudes of these components. @ wo ) Fig. 212 SOLUTION ‘The parallelogram is constructed by extending a line from the head of the 600-N force parallel to the v axis until it intersects the w axis at point B, Fig, 2-126, The arrow from A to B represents F,. Similarly, the line extended from the head of the 600-N force drawn parallel to the waxis intersects the v axis at point C, which gives F,, ‘The vector addition using the triangle rule is shown in Fig. 2-12c. ‘The two unknowns are the magnitudes of F, and F,. Applying the law of sines, k, 600N sin 120°” sin 30° F, = 1039N Ans. Fy _ 600N sin30° sin 30" F, = 600N Ans. NOTE: The result for F, shows that sometimes a component can have a greater magnitude than the resultant.2.3 VECTOR ADDITION OF Forces EXAMPLE 2.3 Determine the magnitude of the component force F in Fig. 2-13a and the magnitude of the resultant force Fx if Fg is directed along the positive y axis. 3008 @ o © Fig. 2-13, SOLUTION The parallelogram law of addition is shown in Fig. 2-13b, and the triangle rule is shown in Fig 2-13c. The magnitudes of Fy and F are the two unknowns. They can be determined by applying the law of sines. Ans. Ans. Itis strongly suggested that you test yourself on the solutions to these examples by covering them over and then trying to draw the parallelogram law, and thinking about how the sine and cosine laws are used fo determine the unknowns. Then before solving any of the problems, try to solve the Preliminary Problems and some of the Fundamental Problems given on the next pages. The solutions and answers to these are given in the back of the book. Doing this throughout the book will help immensely in developing your problem- solving skills.44 Chapter 2. Force Vectors PRELIMINARY PROBLEMS Partial solutions and answers to all Preliminary Problems are given in the back of the book. P2-1. In each case, construct the parallelogram law to show Fy =F, + Fj. Then establish the triangle rule, where q=F, + F;, Label all known and unknown sides and. internal angles, @ 230° = S00 © F450 F300 © Prob. P2-1 P2-2. In each case, show how to resolve the force F into components acting along the u and v axes using the parallelogram law. Then establish the triangle rule to show F, ‘+ F,, Label all known and unknown sides and interior angles. F=200N whey © F~400N We a0" o “ F=600N © Prob. P2-22.3 VecToR ADDITION OF Forces 45 FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS Partial solutions and answers to all Fundamental Problems are given in the back of the book. F2-1, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the screw eye and ifs direction measured clockwise from the x axis, TAL bye $ 2kN EEN Prob, F2-1 2-2, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force. 30° 200 a 500 Prob, F2-2 2-3, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and. its direction measured counterclockwise from the positive 600 Prob. F2-3 F2-4. Resolve the 30-N force into components along the wand v axes, and determine the magnitude of each of these components. Prob. F2-4 25, Resolve the force into components acting along members AB and AC, and determine the magnitude of each ‘component. Prob. F2-5 246, If force Fis to have a component along the u axis of Fy=6KN, determine the magnitude of F and the magnitude of its component F, along the v axis, Prob. F2-646 Chapter 2. Force Vectors By rrosiems ZA. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force Fy = F, + F, and its direction, measured clockwise from the positive 1 axis, 22. Resolve the force F, into components acting along the u and v axes and determine the magnitudes of the ‘components. 2-3. Resolve the force F; into components acting along the w and v axes and determine the magnitudes of the components. Probs. 2-2/3 "2-4, The device is used for surgical replacement of the kknee joint, If the force acting along the leg is 360 N, determine its components along the x and y' axes. LS. The device is used for surgical replacement of the knee joint. If the force acting along the leg is 360 N, determine its components along the x’ and y axes. yy Probs, 2-4/5 26, If the tension in the cable is 400 N, determine the ‘magnitude and direction of the resultant force acting on the pulley. This angle is the same angle @ of line AB on the tailboard block. Prob. 2-6 2-7, If 6 = 60° and F = 4S0N, determine the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction, measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. "2-8, Ifthe magnitude of the resultant force is to be 500N, directed along the positive y axis, determine the magnitude of force F and its direction 0. Probs, 2-7/829, If0 = 30° and F, = 6KN, determine the magnitude ‘of the resultant force acting on the plate and its direction. ‘measured clockwise from the positive x axis. 20, If the resultant force Fe is directed along a line measured 75° clockwise from the positive x axis and the ‘magnitude of Fis tobe a minimum, determine the magnitudes of Fx and F, and the angle # = 90°. Prob, 29/10 LAL. Determine the design angle 9 (0° = 0 = 90") for strut AB so that the 800-N horizontal force has a compo- nent of 1000 N directed from A towards C. What is the component of force acting along member AB? Take = 40" "2-12, Determine the design angle 4 (0° = 4 = 90°) between struts AB and AC so that the 800-N horizontal {force has a component of 1200 N which acts up to the left in the same direction as from B towards A. Take @ = 30° Probs. 211/12 2.3 VecToR ADDITION OF Forces a7 243. If9 = 60°, determine the magnitude of the resultant and its direction measured clockwise from the horizontal, 2-14. Determine the angle # for connecting member A to the plate so that the resultant force of F, and Fy is directed horizontally to the right. Also, what is the magnitude of the resultant force? F4=8kN Imo ed 40 BN Fy 6k Probs. 2-13/14 2-15, The plate is subjected to the two forces at A and B fas shown. If @ = 60°, determine the magnitude of the resultant of these two forces and its direction measured clockwise from the horizontal, 2-16, Determine the angle of @ for connecting member A to the plate so that the resultant force of F, and Fy is directed horizontally to the right. Also, what is the magnitude of the resultant force? Fy=2kN Probs. 2-15/1648 Chapter 2. Force Vectors AT. If the resultant force of the two tugboats is 3 KN, 2-21. Determine the magnitude and ditection 0 of Fy so directed along the positive x axis, determine the required that the resultant force is directed along the positive x axis magnitude of force Fy and its direction 8. and has a magnitude of 1250 N. DAB. If Fy=3kNand 0 = 45°, determine the magnitude 2-22. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting ‘of the resultant force and its direction measured clockwise on the ring at O if F, — 750 N and 0 = 45°. What is its from the positive x axis. direction, measured counterclockwise from the positive v axis? 249. Ifthe resultant force of the two tugboats is required to be ditected towards the positive x axis, and Fy is to be a minimum, determine the magnitude of Fy and Fy and the angle 6. Probs. 2-17/18/19 £2.20, ‘Two forces F, and Fy act on the screw eye. their 2-23. Determine the magnitude of force F so that the Iince of action are at an angle ¢ apart and the magaitude of | fsultant Fy of the three forces is as small as possible, What ‘each force is F, = Fy ~ F, determine the magnitude of the the minimum magnitude of Fy? resultant force Fy and the angle between Fy and Fy, Prob. 2-20 Prob. 2-232.4 ADDITION OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR Forces 2.4 ADDITION OF A SYSTEM OF COPLANAR FORCES ‘When a force is resolved into two components along the x and y axes, the components are then called rectangular components. For analytical work ‘we can represent these components in one of two ways, using either scalar notation or Cartesian vector notation. Scalar Notation. The rectangular components of force F shown in Fig. 2-14a are found using the parallelogram law; so that F ~ F, + F, Because these components form a tight triangle, they can be determined from F=Foos@ and & Instead of using the angle #, however, the direction of F can also be defined using a small “slope” triangle, as in the example shown in Fig. 2-15b. Since this triangle and the larger shaded triangle are similar, the proportional length of the sides gives Fin and s--a) Here the y component is a negative scalar since F, is directed along the negative y axis. It is important to keep in mind that this positive and negative scalar notation is to be used only for calculations, not for graphical representations in figures. Throughout the book, the head of a vector ‘arrow in any figure indicates the sense of the vector graphically; algebraic signs are not used for this purpose. Thus, the vectors in Figs. 2~14a and 2-14b are designated by using boldface (vector) notation.* Whenever italic symbols are written near vector arrows in figures, they indicate the ‘magnitude of the vector, which is always a positive quantity «Negative signe are used only in figures with boldface notation when showing equal but ‘opposite pais of vectors, as in Fig. 2-2 ow Fig. 2-14 4950 Chapter 2. Force Vectors Fig. 2-15 F, ‘The resultant force of the four cable forces acting on the post can be determined by adding algebraically the separate x and y components of each cable force. This resultant Fy produces the same pulling effect ‘on the post as all four cables, Cartesian Vector Notation. Rather than representing the magnitude and direction of the components R, and F, as positive or negative scalars, we can instead consider them to be only positive scalars and thereby only report the magnitudes of the components, Their directions are then represented by the Cartesian unit vectors i and j, Fig. 2-15.These are called unit vectors because they have a dimensionless magnitude of 1. By separating the magnitude and direction of cach component, we can express F as a Cartesian vector. F=RI+Ki Coplanar Force Resultants. We can use either of the two methods just described to determine the resultant of several coplanar forces, i, forces that all lie in the same plane, To do this, each force is first resolved into its x and y components, and then the respective components are added using scalar algebra since they ate collinear. The resultant force is then formed by adding the resultant components using the parallelogram law. For example, consider the three concurrent forces in Fig. 2-16a, which have xand y components shown in Fig. 2-16. Using Cartesian vector notation, each force is first represented as a Cartesian vector, ic, R= Fit fyi B= -Byit Fyi B= Ki Bi The vector resultant, Fig. 2-17, is therefore Fp=K+h+K = Fyi + Byj — Frei + Fyj + Bei By = (Fy — Fay + Fai + (Ry + By — Byi = (Fidei + Fry i If scalar notation is used, then indicating the positive directions of components along the x and y axes with symbolic arrows, we have (Fa) = Fix — Fae * Fay (aly = Bly + By ~ By Nolice that these are the same results as the i and j components of Fx determined above.2.4 ADDITION OF A SySTEM OF COPLANAR Forces In general, then, the components of the resultant force of any number of coplanar forces can be represented by the algebraic sum of the x and y ‘components of all the forces, ie., (Fas = 2F, Gay = 25 ey Once these components are determined, they may be sketched along the x and y axes with their proper sense of direction, and the resultant force can be determined from vector addition, Fig. 2-16c, From this sketch, the magnitude of Fy is then found from the Pythagorean theorem; that is, Fe = V (Fa) + (Fads ‘Also, the angle 0, which specifies the direction of the resultant force, is determined from trigonometry. Fay ny @ = tan ‘The above concepts are illustrated numerically in the examples which follow. IMPORTANT POINTS © The resultant of several coplanar forces can easily be determined if an x, y coordinate system is established and the forces are resolved into components along the axes. * The direction of each force is specified by the angle its line of action makes with one of the axes, or by a slope triangle. © The orientation of the x and y axes is arbitrary, and their positive direction can be specified by the Cartesian unit vectors, ind j © The x and y components of the resultant force are simply the algebraic addition of the components of all the coplanar forces. © The magnitude of the resultant force is determined from the Pythagorean theorem, and when the resultant components are sketched on the x and y axes, Fig. 2-16c, the direction 0 of the resultant can be determined from trigonometry. Fs), Fy Fs © Fig. 2-16 (cont.) 5152 Chapter 2. Force Vectors EXAMPLE 2.4 Fig. 2417 Determine the x and y components of F, and F, acting on the boom shown in Fig. 2-17a, Express cach force as a Cartesian vector. SOLUTION Scalar Notation. By the parallelogram law, F; is resolved into x and y components, Fig. 2-17b. Since F,, acts in the —x direction, and Fy, acts in the +y direction, we have Fiy = -200 sin 30° N = -100N = 100N— Ans. Fi, = 200 cos 30° N = 173N = 173 Nt Ans. The force F, is resolved into its x and y components, as shown in Fig, 2-17c, From the “slope triangle” we could obtain the angle 0, eg. 6 = tan "(), and then proceed to determine the magnitudes of the components in the same manner as for F,. The easier method, however, consists of using proportional parts of similar triangles, i., R, 1 = 60 n(22) 260N 13 2 (2) — MON Similarly, Notice how the magnitude of the horizontal component, Fy, Was obtained by multiplying the force magnitude by the ratio of the horizontal leg of the slope triangle divided by the hypotenuse: whereas the magnitude of the vertical component, Fy, was obtained by multiplying the force magnitude by the ratio of the vertical leg divided by the hypotenuse, Using scalar notation to represent the components, we have By = 240N = 240N> Ans. Fy = -100N = 100N1 Ans. Cartesian Vector Notation. Having determined the magnitudes and directions of the components of each force, we can express each force as a Cartesian vector. F, = {1001 + 173))N Ans. F, = {240i — 100j}N Ans,2.4 ADDITION OF A SySTEM OF COPLANAR FORCES 53 EXAMPLE 2.5 ‘The link in Fig. 2-18a is subjected to two forces F, and F;.Determine the ‘magnitude and direction of the resultant force. SOLUTION | Scalar Notation. First we resolve each force into its x and y components, Fig. 2-186, then we sum these components algebraically. SF) = 2B; (Fe)x = 600 c0s 30° N — 400 sin 45° N 236.8N—> +1(Fa)y = 2K; (Fay = 600 sin 30° N + 400 cos 45°N. 582.8Nt The resultant force, shown in Fig. 2-18e, has a magnitude of, Fa = V@36BN)? + GB23NP = @29N Ans. From the vector addition, 582.8N 6 = tar = 619 Ans. 2368N, ro SOLUTION I Cartesian Vector Notation. From Fig. 2-18b, cach force is first expressed as a Cartesian vector. y {600 cos 30° + 600 sin 30°j}N i {400 sin 45% + 400 cos 45°) }N ee F, + F; = (600 cos 30° N ~ 400 sin 45° N)i + (600 sin 30° N + 400 cos 45° N)j "368N = {236.81 + 582.8)}N ‘The magnitude and direction of Fy are determined in the same manner as before. © Fig. 2418, NOTE: Comparing the two methods of solution, notice that the use of scalar notation is more efficient since the components can be found directly, without first having to express each force as a Cartesian vector before adding the components. Later, however, we will show that Cartesian vector analysis is very beneficial for solving three-dimensional problems.54 Chapter 2 EXAMPLE 2.6 o Force Vectors ‘The end of the boom O in Fig. 2-192 is subjected to the three concurrent and coplanar forces. Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. SOLUTION Each force is resolved into its x and y components, Fig. 2-19, Summing the x components, we have SUF. = Ri (Fae = —400N + 250 sin 45° N — 200(3) N 83.2. = 383.2N— Summing the y components yields 41RD) = 3B; (Fay = 250008 45° N + 200(3) NI = 296.8NT The resultant force, shown in Fig. 2-19e, has a magnitude of Fa = V(-3832 NF + Q968NY = 485N Ans. From the vector addition in Fig. 2-19c, the direction angle @ is a (2 5) 383.2. NOTE: Application of this method is more convenient, compared to using two applications of the parallelogram law, first to add F and F}, then adding F; to this resultant. 378" Ans.2.4 ADDITION OF A SySTEM OF COPLANAR Forces 55 || FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS 27, Resolve each force into its x and y components. y |= sow Prob. F7 2-8 Determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant force. 250N | Prob. F2-8 2-9, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the corbel and its direction # measured counterclockwise from the x axis. Y Fes 600N | Fr= 400 3 (30° Prob. F2-9 F210. Ifthe resultant force acting on the bracket is to be 750 N directed along the positive x axis, determine the ‘magnitude of F and its direction & Prob. F2-10 F241. If the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the bracket isto be SON ditected along the w axis, determine the magnitude of F and its direction 6. Prob, F2-11 2-12, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction @, measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. Prob. F21256 Chapter 2. Force Vectors By rrosiems 2-24, Resolve each force acting on the gusset plate into 2-27. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and its x and y components, and express each force as a its direction, measured clockwise from the positive x axis. Cartesian vector. 225, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the gusset plate and its direction, measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis, y Prob. 2-27 Probs. 2-24/25 2-28, Resolve F, and F, into their x and y components, 2-29, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction measured counterclockwise from the positive x 2-26, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction, measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis, 2508 Probs, 2-28/292.4 ADDITION OF A SySTEM OF COPLANAR FORCES 57 2-30, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force 2-84, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and. acting on the pin and its direction measured clockwise from _ its direction, measured counterclockwise from the positive x the positive x axis. axis. Prob. 2-30 Prob. 2-34 ¢ 2-35. Express cach of the three forces acting on the 23h Determine the magnitude and direction @ of the Support in Cartesian vector form and determine the resultant force Ky Express the tesult in terms of the tnagntudes ofthe components and E, and the angle ¢ ‘magnitude of the resultant force and its direction, measured clockwise from positive x axis, y -R=S0N Prob. 2-31 “2-32, Express F;, F,, and Fas Cartesian vectors. F,.-90N 2-38, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force andits Prob 2-38 direction, measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. “2.86. Determine the x and y components of F, and F 247, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force and its direction, measured counterclockwise from the R positive x axis, = 20, A= 85N F=1590N \, Probs. 2-32/33 Probs. 2-36/3758 Charrer 2 Fig. 2-20 Fig. 2-22 Force Vectors 2.5 CARTESIAN VECTORS The operations of vector algebra, when applied to solving problems in three dimensions, are greatly simplified if the vectors are first represented in Cartesian vector form. In this section we will present a general method for doing this; then in the next section we will use this method for finding the resultant force of a system of concurrent forces. Right-Handed Coordinate System. We will use a right-handed coordinate system to describe the vector algebra that follows Specifically, a rectangular coordinate system is said to be right handed if the thumb of the right hand points in the direction of the positive z axis when the right-hand fingers are curled about this axis and directed from the positive x towards the positive y axis, Fig, 2-20 Rectangular Components of a Vector. In general a vector A will have three rectangular components along the x, y, z coordinate axes, Fig. 2-21. These components are determined using two successive applications of the parallelogram law, that is, A= A’ + A, and then A’ =A, +A,. Combining these equations to eliminate A’, A is represented by the vector sum of its three rectangular components, ASA +A +A, @-2) Cartesian Vector Representation. In three dimensions, the set of Cartesian unit vectors, ij. k, is used to designate the directions of the x, y, 2 axes, respectively, Fig, 2-22, Using these vectors, the three components of A in Fig. 2-23 can be written in Cartesian vector form as A= Ait Aj + Ak 3) There is a distinct advantage to writing vectors in this manner. Separating the magnitude and direction of each component vector will simplify the operations of vector algebra, particularly in three dimensions.Magnitucle of a Cartesian Vector. IfA is expressed as a Cartesian vector, then its magnitude can be determined. As shown in Fig. 2-24, from the blue right triangle, A = VA" + AZ, and from the gray sight triangle, A‘ = V/A + Ai. Combining these equations to eliminate A' yields A= VAT AYA (24) Hence, the magnitude of A is equal to the positive square root of the sum of the squares of the magnitudes of its components, Coordinate Direction Angles. We will define the direction of A by the coordinate direction angles « (alpha), B (beta), and y (gamma), measured between the fail of A and the positive x, y, z axes, Fig. 2-25. Note that regardless of where A is directed, each of these angles will be between 0° and 180°, ‘To determine a, 8, and y, consider the projection of A onto the x, y,z axes, Fig. 2-26. Referring to the three shaded right triangles shown in the figure, we have = (2-5) cosy = es) a> cosa = cosp ‘These numbers are known as the direction cosines of A. Once they have been obtained, the coordinate direction angles a, 8, y can then be determined from the inverse cosines 2.5. CaRTesian VECTORS 5960 Chapter 2. Force Vectors Fig. 2-25 (Repeated) ‘An casy way of obtaining these direction cosines is to form a unit vector uy in the direction of A, Fig. 2-25. To do this, divide A by its magnitude A, so that =A uA 45 We ay = B= Si Sp Su 6) By comparison with Eqs. 2-5, it is seen that the ij, k components of u, represent the direction cosines of A, ie., 4 = cos ai + cos Bj + cos yk 1) Since the magnitude of u, is one, then from this equation an important relation among the direction cosines can be formulated, namely, cos? a + cos’ B + cost y = 1 (2-8) Therefore, if only two of the coordinate angles are known, the third angle can be found using this equation. Finally, if the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of A are known, then A may be expressed in Cartesian vector form as (2-9) Horizontal and Vertical Angles. Sometimes the direction of A can be specified using a horizontal angle @ and a vertical angle ¢ (phi), such as shown in Fig. 2-27 The components of A can then be determined by applying trigonometry first to the light blue right triangle, which yields A= Acos $ and A= Asing Now applying trigonometry to the dark blue right triangle, A, = A'cos 6 Asin $ cos 0 |, = A’sin @ = A sin ¢ sind2.6 ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS 61 ‘Therefore A written in Cartesian vector form becomes A= Asing cos @i + Asind sine j + Acos 6k ‘This equation should not be memorized; rather, it is important to understand how the components were determined using trigonometry. 2.6 ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS ‘The addition (or subtraction) of two or more vectors is greatly simplified if the vectors are expressed in terms of their Cartesian components. For example, if A= Aj+A,j+A.k and B= Bi + B,j + Bok, Fig. 2-28, then the resultant vector, R, has components which are the scalar sums of the i,j, k components of A and B, i, R=A+B (A, + B,)i + (A, + By)j + (A, + Bk If this is generalized and applied to a system of several concurrent forces, then the force resultant is the vector sum of all the forces in the system and can be written as RF = Ai + 2Bj + TAk (2-10) Here 3F,, SF, and SF, represent the algebraic sums of the respective x,y,z or i,j, k components of each force in the system, IMPORTANT POINTS * A Cartesian vector A has i, j, k components along the x y, 2 axes. If A is known, its magnitude is A = VAS + A? + AZ The direction of a Cartesian vector can be defined by the three coordinate direction angles a, 8, y, measured from the positive x,y, Z axes to the tail of the vector. To find these angles, formulate a unit vector in the direction of A, ic., uy— A/A, and determine the inverse cosines of its components. Only two of these angles arc independent of one another; the third angle 4s found from cos* «+ cos? B+cosy = 1. ‘The direction of a Cartesian vector can also be specified using ahorizontal angle 6 and vertical angle ¢. +8) Cartesian vector analysis provides a convenient method for finding both the resultant force and its componenis in three dimensions,62 Charter 2 EXAMPLE 2.7 Fr (50 Force Vectors Determine the magnitude and the coordinate direction angles of the resultant force acting on the ring in Fig. 2-29. © 229 SOLUTION Since each force is represented in Cartesian vector form, the resultant force, shown in Fig. 2-29, is Fy = SF =F, + F, = {60j + 80k}N + {501 — 100j + 100k} {501 — 40j + 180k} N ‘The magnitude of Fx is Fx = VGON)' + (-40N} + (180? = 191.0N 191N Ans. The coordinate direction angles «,B,y ate determined from the components of the unit vector acting in the direction of Fx E, Fr _ 50 40; , 180, Fe 1910' 1910! ~ i910 = 0.26171 ~ 0.2094) + 0.9422 Us, so that cosa =02617 a = 74.8° Ans. cos B= -0.2094 B= 102" Ans. cos y= 0.9422 -y = 196" Ans. ‘These angles are shown in Fig. 2-29b. NOTE: Here B > 90° since the j component of up, is negative. This seems reasonable considering how F, and F, add’ according to the parallelogram law.2.6 ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS 63 EXAMPLE 2.8 Express the force F shown in Fig, 2-30a as a Cartesian vector. SOLUTION The angles of 60° and 45° defining the direction of F are not coordinate F = 100N direction angles. Two successive applications of the parallelogram law are needed to resolve F into its x, y, z components. First F = F’ + F., then F’ = F, + F,, Fig. 2-30b. By trigonometry, the magnitudes of the components are = 100 sin 60° N = 86.60.N F’ = 100 cos 60° N = SON F, = F’ cos 45° = 50 cos 45° N = 35.36 B, = F’ sin 45° = 50 sin 45° N = 35.36N Realizing that F, isin the ~j direction, we have F = {35.364 — 35.36] + 86.60k} N Ans. To show that the magnitude of this vector is indeed 100 N, apply Eq.24, F-VETRIR = V35.36" + 35.36? + 86.60 = 100N. If needed, the coordinate direction angles of F can be determined from the components of the unit vector acting in the direction of F. o F=100N = 0.35361 — 0.3536] + 0.8660k so that a = cos(0,3536) = 69.3° B = cos™*(—0,3536) = 111° y= cos"*(0.8660) = 30.0° These results are shown in Fig. 2-30c. Fig. 2-3064 Chapter 2. Force Vectors EXAMPLE 2.9 ‘Two forces act on the hook shown in Fig.2-31a. Specify the magnitude of F, and its coordinate direction angles so that the resultant force Fe acts along the positive y axis and has a magnitude of 800 N, % SOLUTION a ‘To solve this problem, the resultant force Fz and its two components, . F, and F), will each be expressed in Cartesian vector form, Then, as 7» shown in Fig. 2-31, it is necessary that Fy = F, + By (se | $0" Applying Eq. 2-9, F,=300N F, = cos ai + F, cos B,j + F, cos 1k = 300 cos 45° i + 300 cos 60° j + 300 cos 120° k = {212.11 + 150) — 150k} R= Fai + Byj + Bek Since Fy has a magnitude of 800 N and acts in the +j direction, Fe = (800 N)(+j) = {800j} N wo We Feauire R=R+h 800} = 212.14 + 150} — 150k + Ri + yj + Rik 800j = (212.1 + Fi + (150 + Fj + (-150 + Bk To satisfy this equation the i, j, k components of Fx must be equal to the corresponding i, j, k components of (F, + F,). Hence, O=221+K, By = -2121N 800= 150+, By = 650N O=-150+H, B= 50N ‘The magnitude of F, is thus B= V@22INY + @SONY + GSONP = 700N Ans. We can use Eq, 2-9 to determine a, B72. cos a, = 224 = 108° A = 9 a ns. 650 . £08 a = T55' Br = 218 Ans. 150 cos 7) = = =18 Ans. noe n These results are shown in Fig, 2-315.2.6 ADDITION oF CARTESIAN VECTORS 65 || PRELIMINARY PROBLEMS 'P2-3, Sketch the following forces on the x, y, z coordinate _—_—P2-5,_ Show how to resolve cach force into its x, y, Z axes. Show a, 8, components. Set up the calculation used to find the a) F=(50i-+ 60) —10k) kN ‘magnitude of each component. ) B= (40; — 80] ~ 60k} kN P24, In each case, establish F as a Cartesian vector, and. find the magnitude of F and the direction cosine of 8. F 2kN 7 Ain aw * ” F=800N 20N y 2 Aon < iF y ©) ¥ © Prob. P2-4 Prob. P2566 Chapter 2. Force Vectors BB runpamental PROBLEMS F243. Determine the coordinate direction angles of the F216. Express the force as a Cartesian vector. force. 30 Prob. F2-16 F217. Express the force as a Cartesian vector. Prob. F2-13 2-1, Express the force as a Cartesian vector. = F=s00N Prob. F2-17 2-18, Determine the resultant force acting on the hook, Prob, F214 F2AS. Express the force as a Cartesian vector. z soon’ y ‘oN Prob. F215 Prob, F2-18Bl rrosiems 2.6 ADDITION OF CARTESIAN VECTORS 67 238. The bolt is subjected to the force K, which has components acting along the 2, y, z axes as shown. If the magnitude of Fis 80N,and a = 60° and y = 45°, determine the magnitudes of its components Prob. 2-38 2-39, The force F acts on the bracket within the octant shown. If F = 400 N, 6 = 60°, and y = 45°, determine the 4 y, zeomponents of F, “2-40. The force F acts on the bracket within the octant showa. Ifthe magnitudes of the x and z components of F are F,=300N and F, = 600N, respectively, and 6 = 60", determine the magnitude of F and its y component. Also, find the coordinate direction angles « and y. Probs. 2-39/40 241, Determine the magnitude and coordinate ditection angles of the resultant force acting on the bracket. F.= 600 Prob. 2-41 2-42, Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of the force F acting on the support. The component of F in the x-y plane is 7 KN. TAN) Prob. 2-4268 Chapter 2. Force Vectors LAB. If a = 120°, 6 < 90", y = 60", and F = 400, determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles ‘of the resultant force acting on the hook. "2-44, If the resultant force acting on the hook is By — (2004 + $00} + 150k} N. determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of F. Probs. 2-43/44 248. Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction, angles of the resultant force, and sketch this vector on the coordinate system, ¥ R= 4008 Prob. 2-45 2-46. Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of the resultant foree, and sketch this vector on the ‘coordinate system, J 12g, 247, Ifthe resultant force acting on the bracket is ditected along the positive y axis, determine the magnitude of the resultant force and the coordinate direction angles of F so that 6 < 90" E> S008 Fin soon Prob. 2-47 2-48, Express each force in Cartesian vector form and ‘then determine the resultant force, Find the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of the resultant force. 249. Determine the coordinate direction angles of Fy, Fy=S00N Probs, 2-48/49,2.6 ADDITION oF CARTESIAN VECTORS 69 2-50, Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction ‘2-53. Express each force as a Cartesian vector. ‘angles of the resultant force, and sketch this vector on the coordinate system. 2-54, Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction. angles of the resultant force, and sketch this vector on the coordinate system. y= 500N Prob. 2-50 Probs. 2-S3/S4 2.81. The spur gear is subjected to the two forces caused. by contact with other gears. Express each force as a Cartesian vector, *2-S2. ‘The spur gear is subjected to the two forces caused by contact with other gears. Determine the resultant of he 66, The shaft Sexerts three force components onthe die ‘wo forees and express the result as a Cartesian vector D. Find the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of ‘the resultant force, Force F; acts within the octant shown, Probs. 2-SUS2 Prob. 2-8570 Chaerer 2 Force Vectors 2.7 POSITION VECTORS In this section we will introduce the concept of a position vector. Later it will be shown that this vector is of importance in formulating a Cartesian force vector directed between two points in space. 2% y, 2 Coordinates. Throughout the book we will use the convention followed in many technical books, which requires the positive z axis to be directed upward (the zenith direction) so that it measures the height of an object or the altitude of a point. The x, y axes then lie in the horizontal plane, Fig. 2-32, Points in space are located relative to the origin of coordinates, O, by successive measurements along the x, y. z axes, For example, the coordinates of point A are obtained by starting at and measuring xq =-H4 m along the x axis, yq = +2 m along the y axis, and finally 24 =—6 m along the z axis,so that A(4.m,2m,—6 m). Ina similar ‘manner, measurements along the x, y, z axes from O to B give the coordinates of B, that is, B(6 m,—1 m, 4 m). Position Vector. A position vector r is defined as a fixed vector which locates a point in space relative to another point. For example, ift extends from the origin of coordinates, O, to point P(x, y, z), Fig. 2-33a, then r can be expressed in Cartesian vector form as r=xit yj + ck Note how the head-to-tail vector addition of the three components yields vector r, Fig. 2-33b. Starting at the origin O, one “travels” x in the +H direction, then y in the +j direction, and finally z in the +k direction to arrive at point P(x, y, 2)In the more general casc, the position vector may be directed from point A to point B in space. From Fig. 2-34a, by the head- to-tail vector addition, using the triangle rule, we require mtr Solving for r and expressing r, and rg in Cartesian vector form yields r= Ip (al + ysj + ek) — Gai + vad + zak) or Gx — si + On — Yai + Gn zak on) Thus, the i,j, k components ofr may be formed by taking the coordinates of the tail of the vector A(ts,Va.za) and subtracting them from the corresponding coordinates of the head B(tp, Ys, 23). We can also form these components directly, Fig. 2-34b, by starting at A and moving through a distance of (xs — x4) along the positive x axis (14), then (yg ~ ya) along the positive y axis (+j), and finally (zy ~ z4) along the positive z axis (+k) to get to B. (px Ikan x,y, z coordinate system is established, then the coordinates of two points A and B ‘on the cable can be determined. From this the position vector r acting along the cable can be formulated, Its magnitude represents the distance from A (o B, and its usit vector, + /r, gives the direction defined by a, B, Alta vata) 2.7 Postion Vectors m1 Blew Ye 20) @ z B —"» 4 n= yah w) Fig. 2-3472 Chapter 2. Force Vectors EXAMPLE 2.10 am Atm ® 7 B |(6xim 9 p 2pm {ism a © An elastic rubber band is attached to points A and B as shown in Fig. 2-35a, Determine its length and its direction measured from A towards B. SOLUTION We first establish a position vector from A to B, Fig. 2-35b. In accordance with Eq, 2-11, the coordinates of the tail A( m0, -3 m) are subtracted from the coordinates of the head B(—2 m, 2 m, 3 m), which yields = [-2m -1m}i + [2m - 0]j + Bm — (3 m)]k {31+ 2j + 6k} m ‘These components of r can also be determined directly by realizing that they represent the direction and distance one must travel along each axis in order to move from A to B, ie., along the x axis {Si} m, along the y axis {2)} m, and finally along the z axis {6k} m. ‘The length of the rubber band is therefore VeEFme + Om) + 6m) = 7m Ans, Formulating a unit vector in the direction of r, we have 342,56 +2545 u Hanae ‘The components of this unit vector give the coordinate direction angles cos(- ) =us Ans B= cos(2) = Ba Ans. yncor(S) = 10 Pe NOTE: These angles are measured from the positive axes of a localized coordinate system placed at the tail of r, as shown in Fig. -35c2.8 Foace VECTOR DIRECTED ALONG & LINE 2.8 FORCE VECTOR DIRECTED ALONG ALINE Quite often in three-dimensional statics problems, the direction of a force is specified by two points through which its line of action passes. Such a situation is shown in Fig. 2-36, where the force F is directed along the cord AB. We can formulate F as a Cartesian vector by realizing that it has the same direction and sense as the position vector r directed from point, A to point B on the cord. This common direction is specified by the unit vector w = r/r,and so once wis determined, then Although we have represented F symbolically in Fig. 2-36,note that it has units of force, unlike r, which has units of length, a” ‘The force F acting along the rope can be represented as a Cartesian vector by establishing x, y, z axes and first forming a position vector ¥ along the length of the rope. Then the corresponding unit vector u=r/r that defines the direction of both the rope and the force can be determined, Finally, the magnitude of the force is combined with its direction, so that F ~ Fu, aman en IMPORTANT POINTS A position vector locates one point in space relative to another point, © The easiest way to formulate the components of a position vector is to determine the distance and direction that one must travel in the x, y, z directions—going from the tail to the head of the vector. © A force F acting in the direction of a position vector r can be represented in Cartesian form if the unit vector u of the position vector is determined and it is multiplied by the magnitude of the force, ie,,F= Fu=F(r/?). Fig. 2-3674 Chapter 2. Force Vectors EXAMPLE 2.11 Fig. 2-37 ‘The man shown in Fig, 2-37¢ pulls on the cord with a force of 350 N, Represent this force acting on the support A as a Cartesian vector and. determine its direction. SOLUTION Force F is shown in Fig. 2-37b. The direction of this vector, u, is determined from the position vector r, which extends from A to B. Rather than using the coordinates of the end points of the cord, r can be determined directly by noting in Fig. 2-37a that one must travel from A {12k} m, then {~4j} m, and finally {6i} m to get to B. Thus, r= {61 - 4) - 12k}m ‘The magnitude of r, which represents the length of cord AB, is VGmy + 4m + C12) = 4m Forming the unit vector that defines the direction and sense of both rand F, we have r_6; 4, 2 ris’ a) a Since F has a magnitude of 350 N and a direction specified by u, then (350n)( ~ $x) {150i = 100j - 300k} N Ans, FoFu The coordinate direction angles are measured between r (or F) and. the positive axes of a localized coordinate system with origin placed at A, Fig. 2-37b. From the components of the unit vector: af) — cage (3) - #6 Ans. ) = 107° Ans. oe NOTE: These results make sense when compared with the angles identified in Fig, 2-376.2.8 Force VECTOR DIRECTED ALONG & LINE 75 EXAMPLE 2.12 ‘The roof is supported by two cables as shown in the photo. If the cables exert forces Fyn = 100N and F4c = 120N on the wall hook at A as shown in Fig. 2~38a, determine the resultant force acting at A, Express the result as a Cartesian vector. SOLUTION The resultant force Fg is shown graphically in Fig, 2-385, We can express this force as a Cartesian vector by first formulating Fag and Fyc as Cartesian vectors and then adding their components, The directions of Fay and Fac are specified by forming unit vectors was and uyc along the cables. These unit vectors are obtained from the associated position vectors rag and r4c. With reference to Fig. 2-38a, to go from A to B, we must travel {—4k} m,and then {41} m.Thus, tas = (4i- 4k} m ras = VEmy + (-4my = 5 4, 4 Ya ~ F(t) ~ 0009 (giet- at) 66m. Fag = (70.71 ~ 70.7k} N To go from A to C, we must travel (—4k}m, then {2j) m, and finally (4i} m. Thus, tac = (41 + 2j — 4k} m rac = Vm + Gm)? + (-4my = 6m Ly 4 2 4 = {801 + 40] — 80k}N The resultant force is therefore Fe = Fas + Fac = {70.7i - 70.7k} N + {801 + 40j - 80k} N = {151i + 40j — 151k} N Ans. © Fig. 2-3876 Chapter 2. Force Vectors BB rreviminary prosiems P2-6. In each case, establish a position vector from point P27, In each case, express F as a Cartesian vector. Ato point B. © © Prob. P2-6 Prob. P2-72.8 Foace VecToR DIRECTED ALONG & LINE 7 BB runpamental PRoBLeMs F219, Express rgas a Cartesian vector, then determine its _-F2-22, Express the force as a Cartesian vector. ‘magnitude and coordinate direction angles. Prob. F2-22 Prob. F219 F228, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force 2-20, Determine the length of the rod and the position ata vector directed from A to B, What is the angle #7 Prob, F2-23, Prob. F220 F224. Determine the resultant force at A. F221, Express the force as a Cartesian vector. Prob. F221 Prob. F2-2478 Chapter 2. Force Vectors HB rrosiems *2.56. Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of the resultant force acting at A. Prob. 2-56 257 IL F = {350i — 250} ~ 450k} N and cable AB is ‘9m long, determine the x, y, coordinates of point A, 2-58. Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction angles of the resultant force. Prob. 2-58. 2-59. Determine the length of the connecting rod AB by first formulating a position vector from A to B and then determining its magnitude. Prob. 2-592.8 Force VECTOR DIRECTED ALONG & LINE 79 "2-60. The door is held opened by means of two chains. If 2-63. Express each of the forces in Cartesian vector form the tension in AB and CD is F, ~ 300N and F-~ 250N, _and then determine the magnitude and coordinate direction respectively, express each of these forces in Cartesian angles of the resultant force. vector form, Prob. 2-63 Prob. 2-60 2-61. The 8-m-long cable is anchored to the ground at A, «2.64, If Fy = S6ON and Fe Ifx=4m and y= 2m, determine the coordinate z to the highest point of attachment along the columa, J00'N, determine the ‘magnitude and coordinate direction angles of the resultant {force acting on the flag pole. 2-62, “The Sarlong cable is anchored to the ground at A. 2-68. If Fy TOON, and Fe S6ON, determine the 1{2=5m, determine the location +s,+9 ofthe support at A, magnitude and coordinate direction angles ofthe resultant Choose value such that x force acting onthe flag pote80 Chapter 2. Force Vectors 2-66, The chandelier is supported by three chains which 2-69, Determine the magnitude and coordinate direction fare concurrent at point O, If the resultant force at O has angles ofthe resultant force acting at point A on the post. a magnitude of 650 N and is directed along the negative axis, determine the force in each chain. 2-67. Represent each cable force as a Cartesian veetor. 270, ‘The guy wires are used to support the telephone « lermine the magnitude and coordinate direction _POle- Represent the force in each wire in Cartesian vector 2-68. Det the magnitude and coordinate direct form, Neglect the diameter of the pole, angles ofthe resultant force ofthe two forces acting at point A. Probs. 2-67/68 Prob. 2-702.9 DOT PRODUCT ‘Occasionally in statics one has to find the angle between two lines or the components of a force parallel and perpendicular to a line. In two dimensions, these problems can readily be solved by trigonometry since the geometry is easy to visualize. In three dimensions, however, this is often difficult, and consequently vector methods should be employed for the solution. The dot product, which defines a particular method for “multiplying” two vectors, will be used to solve the above-mentioned problems. The dot product of vectors A and B, written A -B, and read “A dot B, is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle 0 between their tails, Fig. 2-39. Expressed in equation form, ACB = AB cos (2-12) where 0° = 0 = 180°, The dot product is often referred to as the scalar product of vectors since the result is a scalar and not a vector. The following three laws of operation apply. 1. Commutative law: A-B = B-A 2. Multiplication by a scalar: a(AB) = (aA)-B = 3. Distributive law: A (B + D) = (A-B) + (A-D) -(@B) Cartesian Vector Formulation. we apply Eq.2-12, we can find the dot product for any two Cartesian unit vectors, For example, isi = (1)(2) cos 0° = 1 andi-j = (1)(1) cos 90° = 0. If we want to find the dot product of two general vectors A and B that are expressed in Cartesian vector form, then we have B, (ii) + AB, Gi) + AB, GR) AB. Gi) + (AB, Gi) + ABe GW) + AB (Kei) + AB, (Kj) + AB. (K-) A-B = (Aj + Ajj + Ak): (Bi + B,j + Bek) = Al Carrying out the dot-product operations, the final result becomes A-B= AB, + A,B, + AB, (2-13) Thus, to determine the dot product of two Cartesian vectors, multiply their corresponding x, y, z components and sum these products algebraically The result will be either a positive or negative scalar, or it could be zero. 2.9 Dor Proouct 81 Fig. 2-3982 Chapter 2. Force Vectors Fig. 2-39 (Repeated) ‘The angle & between the rope and the beam ‘can he determined by formulating unit vectors slong the beam and rope and then ‘using the dot product, yu, — (1)(1) cos 6. “The projection ofthe cable force F along the ‘beam can be determined by fist finding the unit vector u, that defines this direction, Then apply the dot product, Fy = Fu Applications. The dot product has two important applications. * The angle formed between two vectors or intersecting lines. The angle 6 between the tails of vectors A and B in Fig, 2-39 can be determined from Eq, 2-12 and written as, Here A-B is found from Eq, 2-13. As a special case, if A-B then @ = cos 0 = 90° so that A will be perpendicular to B. * The components of a vector parallel and perpendicular to a line. ‘The component of vector A parallel to or collinear with the line ain Fig. 2-40 is defined by A, = A cos 0. This component is sometimes referred to as the projection of A onto the line, since a right angle is formed in the construction. If the direction of the line is specified by the unit vector u,, and since w= 1, We can determine the magnitude of A, directly from the dot product (Eq.2-12);i¢., Ay = Avu, = Acoso Hence, the scalar projection of A along a line is determined from the dot product of A and the unit vector u, which defines the direction of the line. Notice that if this result is positive, then A, has a directional, sense which is the same as u,; whereas if A, is a negative scalar, then A, has the opposite sense of direction to u,. The component A, represented as a vector is therefore Ay = Ai ty ‘The perpendicular component of A can also be obtained, Fig, 2-40. Since A— A, + A,, then A, — A - A,. There are two possible ways of obtaining A. One way would be to determine @ from the dot product, @ = cos"(A-u4/A); then A, = A sin @, Alternatively, if A, is known, then by the Pythagorean theorem we can also write AL VE-A AL Rader Fig. 2-40,IMPORTANT POINTS © The dot product is used to determine the angle between two vectors or the projection of a vector in a specified direction. © Ifvectors A and B are expressed in Cartesian vector form, the dot product is determined by multiplying the respective x, y, z scalar components and algebraically adding the results, ic., A-B= AB, + A,B, + AB. © From the definition of the dot product, the angle formed between the tails of vectors A and B is @ = cos” (A-B/AB). © The magnitude of the projection of vector A along a line aa whose direction is specified by u, is determined from the dot product, A, = Act, EXAMPLE 2.13 Determine the magnitudes of the projections of the force F in Fig. 2-41 onto the w and v axes Fp) Projections of F ® SOLUTION Projections of Force. The graphical representation of the projections is shown in Fig 21a. From this figure, the magnitudes of the projections of F onto the w and v axes can be obtained by trigonometry: (Ex)pxaj = (100 N)cos 45° = 70.7N Ans. (F)proy = (100 N)cos 15° = 96.6N Ans. NOTE: These projections are not equal to the magnitudes of the components of force F along the u and » axes found from the parallelogram law, Fig. 2-41. They would only be equal if the w and axes were perpendicular to one another. 2.9 Dor Proouct Components of F ) Fig. 241 8384 Chapter 2. Force EXAMPLE 2.14 ecToRs ‘The frame shown in Fig 2~42a is subjected to a horizontal force F = (490j} N. Determine the magnitudes of the components of this force parallel and perpendicular to member AB. B F=(490j)N © Fig. 2-42 SOLUTION ‘The magnitude of the projected component of F along AB is equal to the dot product of F and the unit vector ug, which defines the direction of AB, Fig. 2-42h. Since _ i+ 6 + 3k 63 Us Vevers 7 tt7 then fig = Foe = Fay = (p-(24+ +3) 2 6). af = «(2) + a9 (2) + (3) 20 Ans Se eee ieee seerene ee a oe ameremeer ee as ug, Fig. 2-42b. Expressing F.4g in Cartesian vector form, we have E jn = Fagtig = (420 (3 Fs $i +a ) 7 = {1201 + 360] + 180k}N Ans, ‘The perpendicular component, Fig. 2~43b, is therefore F, = F ~ Eyg = 490} — (1201 + 360] + 180k) = {1205 + 130) — 180k }N Its magnitude can be determined cither from this vector or by using the Pythagorean theorem, Fig. 2-425: VF = Fig = V@90N) = @20NP 252N FL Ans.EXAMPLE 2.15 ‘The pipe in Fig, 2-434 is subjected to the force of F=80 N. Determine the angle 0 between F and the pipe segment BA, and the projection of F along this segment, SOLUTION Angle 0. First we will establish position vectors from B to A and B to C; Fig. 2-43. Then we will determine the angle @ between the tails of these two vectors. tea = {-24 - 3j + 1k} m, rey Thus, Tea“tac _ Teatac o= 45° Ans. Components of F. The component of F along BA is shown in Fig. 2~43c, We must first formulate the unit vector along BA and force Fas Cartesian vectors. cos @ = Usa F= (0 n() (sony ‘Thus, Fag = Feuga = (75895 + 25.208)-( =of2) + crsan(-2 = 59.0N Ans. NOTE: Since @ has been calculated, then also, Fg ~ Fos @ = (80N) cos 42.5° = 59.0N, 2.9 Dor Proouct % 8586 Chapter 2. Force Vectors BB Previminary prosems P28. In each case, set up the dot product to find the P29, In each case, set up the dot product to find the angle 0. Do not calculate the result. ‘magnitude of the projection of the force F along a-a axes, Do not calculate the result, , y if ATE aL ® @ A Jim o| am Dam * am |gas (b) ) Prob. P2-8 Prob. P2-92.9 Dor Proouct 87 || FUNDAMENTAL PROBLEMS F225, Determine the angle # between the force and the «2-29, Find the magnitude of the projected component of line AO. the force along the pipe AO. = (6195 + 54) KN Prob. F2-25 ¥2-26, Determine the angle 6 between the force and the F230, Determine the components of the force acting line AB. parallel and perpendicular to the axis ofthe pole. Prob, F2-26 Prob. £2-30 F2-S1, Determine the magnitudes of the components of the F227, Determine the angle @ between the force and the _force F = 56Nacting along and perpendicular to line AO. line OA. 2-28, Determine the projected component of the force along the line OA. Probs, F2-27/2888 Chapter 2. Force Vectors BB rrosiems 271. Given the three vectors A, B, and D, show that A-(B + D) = (A-B) + (A-D). "2-72, Determine the projection of force F = 400N acting along line AC of the pipe assembly. Express the result as a Cartesian vector. 273. Determine the magnitudes of the components of force F = 400N acting parallel and perpendicular to segment BC of the pipe assembly. F=400N Prob. 272/73 2-74, Determine the angle 0 between the two cables. 2-75, Determine the magnitude of the projection of the force F; along cable AC. Probs. 2-74/75 2-76. Determine the angle 0 between BA and BC. 277, Determine the magnitude of the projected component of the 3 KN force acting along axis BC of the pipe. Probs. 2-76/77 278, Determine the magnitudes of the components of F = 600 N acting along and perpendicular to segment DE of the pipe assembly. Probs, 2-78.2.9 Dor Proouct 89 279, Determine the projected component of the force 2-82. Cable OA is used to support column OB. Determine Fig ~ S60N acting along cable AC, Express the result asa _the angle 0 it makes with beam OC, ‘artesian vector Cones * 2-83. Cable OA is used to support column OB. Determine the angle ¢ it makes with beam OD. Prob. 2-79 2-80, The cables each exert a force of 400 N on the post. Determine the magnitude of the projected component of Fy along the line of action of F. "2-84, If the force F = 100 N lies in the plane DBEC, which is parallel to the x-z plane, and makes an angle of 10° attached to the pst. With the extended lie Di as shown, determine the angle that F makes with the diagonal AB of the crate ZBL. Determine the angle 0 between the two cables Probs. 2-80/8190 Chapter 2. Force Vectors 2S, Determine the magnitudes of the projected ‘components of the force acting along the x and y axes, 2-86. Determine the magnitude of the projected ‘component of the force acting along line OA. 287. Determine the angles @ and ¢ between the flag pole ‘and the cables AB and AC. “2-88, Determine the magnitude of the projected component of force Fg acting along the z axis. 2-89, Determine the magnitude of the projected component of force Fc acting along the 2 axis. Probs. 2-88/89 2-90, ‘Two forces act on the hook. Determine the angle @ between them. Also, what are the projections of F, and Fy along the y axis? 291. ‘Two forces act on the hook. Determine the ‘magnitude of the projection of F; along F, ’ Fee 9) Probs. 2-90/91 2.92. Determine the magnitude of the projection of the {force along the w axis.CHAPTER REVIEW ‘CuapreR Rewew 1 A scalar is a positive or negative number; eg.,mass and temperature ‘A vector has a magnitude and direction, where the arrowhead represents the sense of the vector. Multiplication or division of a vector by a scalar will change only the magnitude of the vector. If the scalar is negative, the sense of the vector will change so that it ‘acts in the opposite direction. If vectors are collinear, the resultant is simply the algebraic or scalar addition, Parallelogram Law ‘Two forces add according tothe parallelogram law. The components form the sides of the parallelogram and the resultant the diagonal. ‘To find the components of a force along any two axes, extend lines from the head of the force, parallel to the axes, to form the components ‘Two force components can be added tip-to-tail using the triangle rule, and then the law of cosines and the law of sines can be used to calculate unknown values. R=A+B Fy = VEESFE— 2A 008 Op AL Pe Sind; Sin \ 7 Resultant Components qj oy92 Chapter 2. Force Vectors Rectangular Components: Two Dimensions ‘Vectors F, and F, are rectangular components oF. ‘The resultant force is determined from the algebraic sum ofits components. (Fd. = 2 (Fay = 3, Fa = Vi + Eds Fr, Cartesian Vectors ‘The unit vector w has a length of 1,no units, and it points in the direction of the vector F. A force can be resolved into its Cartesian components along the x, y, z axes so that F=Fi+&jt Fk ‘The magnitude of F is determined from the positive square root of the sum of the squares of its components. ‘The coordinate direction angles a, By are determined by formulating @ unit vector in the direction of F, The x, y, 2 components of represent cos a, £08 B00 y.‘Chaprer Rewew 93 ‘The coordinate direction angles are related, so that only two of the three angles are independent of one another. ‘To find the resultant of a concursent force system, express each force as a Cartesian vector and add the i,j,k components ofall the forces in the system, costa + cos! B + cost y XF = SFA} Sj + XR Position and Force Vectors A position vector locates one point in space relative to another. The easiest way to formulate the components of a position vector is to determine the distance and direction that one must travel along the xy, and z directions—going from the tal to the head of the vector. IE the line of action of a force passes Ghrough points A and B, then the force acts in the same ditection u as the position vector r extending from A to B. Knowing F and u, the force can then be expressed as a Cartesian vector. r= Ge - xpi + Os vai * Ga ~ ek (a-ak Dot Product ‘The dot product between two vectors A and B yields a scalar. If A and B are expressed in Cartesian vector form, then the dot product isthe sum of the products, of their x,y, and z components ‘The dot product can be used to determine the angle between A and B. The dot product is also used to determine the projected component of vector A onto an axis aa defined by its unit vector A-B= ABeos# = AB. + AB, + AB. A, = Acosou, = (A-u,ju, AY Aj Acor? ty94 Chapter 2. Force Vectors BB Preview prosiems R21, Determine the magnitude of the resultant force Fy and its direction, measured clockwise from the positive 10 Bo “ A A= 50N\ Prob. R21 R22, Resolve the force into components along the w and ‘axes and determine the magnitudes of these components, ON Prob. R2-2 R23. Determine the magnitude of the resultant force acting on the gusset plate, Prob. R2-8 %R2-4, The cable exerts a force of 250 N on the crane boom as shown, Express this force as a Cartesian vector.ZS, The cable attached to the tractor at B exerts a force ‘of 2 KN on the framework. Express this force as a Cartesian, vector. RY Prob. R2-5 2-6, Express F, and F, as Cartesian vectors. Prob. R2-6 Review Proatews. 95 R27, Determine the angle @ between the edges of the sheet-metal bracket, “R2-8. Determine the projection of the force F along the pole. F= (21+ 4) + 10K)RN