ez chapter Wideband Modulation Techniques 1 Spread Spectrum Techniques (Single Carrier Modulation) + Chirped spread spectrum Chapter Outline This sa diferent type of modulation scheme in which the spread spectrum efect is achieved with the help of @ Uunigue code. The code repeatedly becomes pseudo- noise (PN) sequences, which must be known at the twecalver side to despread the signal again. The ‘advantage of the system is the high level of secure communication, italy started for military applications. Because of vey large spectrum, it ejects the lnerfaring signals effcienty afer despreacing and also exhibits fant¥jamming characteristics, Because of good features, this modulation scheme is utlized in mul-user environment in terms of cove aision multiple access (CDMA). Carefuly designed reke receivers are required forthe detection ofthe sgnal back, Rake receivers exploit ‘mutipath diversity. There ere two main schemes for spread specttum technology, direct sequence, and frequency hoppita. There are others but are nat so popular The feaures ofthe spread spectrum modulation ‘are desc In dt in his chapter. Wideband Moduction Techniques I: Spreed Spectrum Techriques (Single Cater Moduiction) 323 8.1 SPREAD SPECTRUM MODULATION (SSM) CONCEPT Spread speetrum (SS) techniques were originated to meet the needs of military communications. They are based on signaling schemes (code or sequence) tat greatly expand the transmitted spectrum relative tothe data rate, Now, the techniques are used for commercial applications also. There is a growing interest in these techniques for use in mobile radio networks and for both communication and positioning applications in satellites. ‘A spread spectrum transmission offers three main advantages over a fixed frequency transmission: 1, Spread-spectrum signals are hight resistant to noise and interference. The pro- cess of re-ollectng a spread signal spreads out noise and interference, causing them to recede into the background 2. Spread-spectrum signals are difficult to intercept. A feequency-hop spresd-spec- {rum signal simply sounds like an increase in the background noise to narrowband receiver 3. Spread-spectrum transmissions can share a frequency band with many types of| conventional transmissions with minimal interference. The spread-spectrum sig nals add minimal noise tothe narowefrequency communications, and vice versa ‘Asa result, bandwidth can be uiized more efficiently. ‘Spread spectrum techniques also meet the following objectives: + Operation with a low-energy spectral density + Multiple-access capability without external control + Security (dificult for unauthorized receivers to observe the message) + Antijamming capebility + Multipath protection + Ranging ‘One way of elasifying the spread spectrum system is given below. Averaging system In this system, the interference reduction takes place because the interference can be averaged over a large time interval Avoidance system In this system, the reduction of interference occurs because the signal is made to avoid the interference over a large faction of time Spread spectrum technique is @ wideband modulation technique. Here bandvidt expansion factors very large. In fact, bandwidth expansion does not combat white noise &s it does in FM, PCM, and other wideband modulation methods, because bandwit expansion is achieved by something that is independent of the message, rather than being uniquely related to the message. Though the spread spectrum system is not useful in combating white noise, thas advantages as mentioned above, which make the technique ‘worth considering, {As far as classification by modulation technique is concerned, two major techniques used in spread spectrum systems are direct sequence (DS) and frequency hopping (FH),© egy . en (Free 5 w +1) 14-9 $8 (C0) bg onamar 9 99 NS GNV INRIO3HL SNONNVHS WOU HIGIMGNVa Wss 40 1d3NOO 2'8 suraisSs eourptone are sulaasts Sunday pw Burdon aun ‘Butddoy Aouonbars apy “worsKs BurBwsane ue st waysKs Souanbas ooilC] (80) wnngods pean pod = spowpau puns © (sity) unnodds peas Suiou ou,» :swooy sean senbyagpn uopapow emazods poids sno Pours uooq Sef 20u0 wsteopuKs ayy ue} Arssa00u | yao Bue) ‘us ose sy wpe Butddoy 4p aou0q poe ans my se apo ai tod sures oun 1 900 Na 5288001934 8 af Yo0[9 fe oN Raa Wah st J4looon ou Yeddoy Souanbayy ap yu sy iousuen ayy ue 0} 2ouonbos wopuecopnacd Peatuonyouksyeonuapy ue Bsn 4a ous puegapi sip Speadsop saxon: gc oy, oun 0 vsmq es eae pon ous om ynsas 9s pu uogs io (ou jsp ous eyed « vo sie y ou ayy “es do atn) puosos sod (4f4u/Burddoy Souanbas, $84) sojauonbay jo spassnop oy su zno doy Sagds soststen Sd Souonbosy 8 Sv Souonbayy pau ssascerom oy wo sdoy sents qn sun pony 3g 2upou ‘posn 9 Joa2004 fBuontentoo v 20 sayfisua, sn oy pozluonysuse 24 Joni 2%8 pos *oxawoH ‘soneuoerey Tunes seprcid yor pd sotaenbay oun SuSuoyo oue Joneses pue zmrusuen ay yea azEwvun am sash mp ‘ponuonsoute ue sonjooos pus sogyusuen a voy songusmes ayn uy au0 aip oy Soztuongoue 22voat ap uo} apoo wopuer-oprasd ay) saiNuD asloa) a ao Smquonpus V songs om Joo} sous exunbas wopuns-opnd eons a pu (8s doy ag) asn oy souueyo Joy Jeantopr ue sey sosoo0) ayy “souennn twopueropnasd ing pauruuolapeud e ut youney 0} fouuoy9 wor sdoy sonrusten UL pre sofurys asa wuumyo 40 Sousabay ox uns Bday tana eu 2yato ous a syeadat yas 2p09 Na wow uo] Aa pores Spo jetsaouanbos sap amp Kouonbay aunts on acsayuse ® spueiswoo 2ouanhos wopurs opnosd ay asaya sonrusuen Buddy fouacboy atu "Saal $8 whoUy 5 S14 Sap oR] pu Q HooALaG OFEUA URE e yo 24200 Na =H Ag uonup sexs paoueg aGnop vworsKsaouanbas on ead ¢ “pts Sse gp oJ Boy ys asayd sop Aap apoo Ne abinror Sa we As un agony sage 14 ep 2p Mey NOU 10 Sat oy story yor

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A= I: HHI SALAH 1-141 “T1411 1 (sunnming up all the values) ‘With the eyeti shift, this sequence will hve the same autocorrelation properties i. it ‘willbe a two-valued function. With no shit iis No and for other cases -I (think why). Popular periodic code sequences used in spread-spectrum transmission are: *+ Maximum length sequences + Walsh-Hadamard sequences + Gold codes/sequences + Kasami codes, etc The names ‘pseudo-noise? (PN) and ‘maximal length’ are used in some papers ssmmonymousl, while other authors use the name PN sequences to indicate a very broad class of sequences, including for instance ML and Gold sequences. 8.4.3 Maximum Length (ML) Sequences ‘The ML sequences and method ofits generation is described first. PN code is generated in a maximal length shift register, which is nothing but a linear feedback shift register (LFSR). PN code generators are periodic in thatthe sequence that is proshiced repeats ‘Widebond Modan Techniques I: Spread Specrum Techniques (Single Comer Modulation) 331 ite after period of time. Such a typical periodic sequence generator i shown in Fig 83(0). The smallest time inerement inthe sequences of dation is and is known asa ime chip. The total period consists of N, ine chips, where the cde s generated by a maximal inear PN code generator. The value of Nis 2? 1, where pis the number of stages in the code generator. The short length sequences are N.=7, 15,31, 63, 127,285, The reason for using shift register codes is that the period ofthe PN sequence an easily be made very large by increasing the numberof register stages, so that apparently it fooks random to the users “The LFSRecan be implemented in two ways: 1, Fibonacei implementation (Fig. 8.3(0)] 2. Galois implementation Fig. 836)] ‘The Fibonacci implementation consists ofa simple shift register in which a binary ‘weighted modulo sum of the taps is fed back to the input. The Galois implementation consists ofa shift ezistr, the contents of which are modified at every step by a binary- weighted value ofthe output stag. Eos BRT BT eT eee pico —D—Tanenited ‘T 4 4 ” estos s » @ (2) Typical PN code gorerator wih tre shit register slages and its application for data spreading, (b] Fabonaca implementation of LFSR, and (e] Galois implementation of LFSR In general, shift register implements a primitive polynomial A) HQ) HAO ty y XD toothy xt 69) which i the generetor polynomial for a code. In the polynomial h(x), the coefficient h takes on the binary value 0 (no connection) or 1 (feedback or connection), Two exceptions ae hy and hy, which are always I and thus always connected, Note thats not really a feedback connection, bu rather isthe input of the shift register. In short, the coefficients fy determine the feedback connections in the code generator. ‘Thorough inspection reveals thet the order ofthe Galois weigh is opposite to that of the Fibonacci weights. 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(1,1. Clearly, (1, 1s orthogonal to (1,1). This max canbe extended using a recursive technique. For K=2" users, tie matrix is found from the code matrix for 2°) users, according to can-| (8.12) ee] cay ep) -c2-) 8.4.5 Gold Codes/Gold Sequences Gold sequences have been proposed by Goldin 1967 and 1968. These are constructed by EXOR-ingtwo or more m-sequences ofthe same length with each other. Thus, for a Gold sequence of length N= 2° ~ 1, one uses two LFSRs, each of length 2° 1. Ifthe LFSRs are chosen appropriately, Gold sequences have better cross corelaton properties than ‘iaximum length LSFR sequences as shown in Table 8.2 Gold (and Kasami) showed that for certain well-chosen m-sequences, the cross correlation only takes on three possible values, namely ~1, —R., or R-2. Two such sequences are called preferred sequences. Here R. depends solely on the length ofthe LFSR used. Infact, for an LFSR with p memory elements, ifpis odd, RaWerryy (6.13) Ifpis even, Ra2eM 4) 4) Table 82 Calculation of coss colton of Gold sequoncas ¢ ons 8 1 oz ca 8 7 ors 2s 8 2 os 13 © 5 006 005 on 0 ons Thus, @ Gold sequence formally is an arbitrary phase ofa sequence in the set Gtx) defined by Ge= (5,2 Oy, xO, x OP, xO HMM (815) Widebon Modulation Techniques I: Speed Spectrum Techiqus (Single Care Modulation) 338 ‘ner 7! denotes the operator that sis Vectors cyl tothe lf by places, @ x the exclusive OR operator and x, are msequences of period generated by afore primitive binary polynomials tis wel known tat the ‘partial cross comelation’ values cn be altered by changing the phases ofthe code sequences. In theory then, its posibleto find optimal phases, minimize the interference in the desired data signal. However, for K users, each employing a sequence of period there ae a total of NK different sets of sujuence phases possible. A few other sequences are described below. 8.4.6 Quadratic Residue Sequences (q-r) Sequences ‘These sequences have lengths that are prime numbers ofthe form N, = 49-1 = a prime ‘number, where isan integer. Since prime numbers are fairly distributed and since half of ‘the prime numbers can form quadratic residue sequences, there are many more ‘sequences ofthis type than m-sequences.Is implementation is somewhat complex as itis ‘ot generated directly by using shift registers, Tere are some values of m for which both ar and m sequences may exist, M.3, 7,31, 127, 8191, 131071... However except N, =3 and 7, g-rand m sequences are distinc. The q-r sequences have the seme correlation properties as m-sequences, 8.4.7 Hall Sequences all sequenoes also havea length that ia prise number described by N,=4g-t= 4? + 27 = aprime number, where both and are integers, Since bth the conitions are tobe sated there are vey few Hall sequences. thas same properties es gr sequences but ther iso particular advantage of using sich soquenes 8.4.8 Twin-Prime Sequences The twin-prime sequences are those sequences in which the length of the sequence is defined by N= pp(pj+2), where both p, and p,+2 ate prime numbers. The only ‘advantage of twin-prime sequences is that itis possible to achieve some lengths that are ‘ot readily achieved by any of other forms; otherwise the implementation isnot simple. 8.4.9 Criteria to Select Code/Sequence Jn synchronous DS-CDMA, the link performance is affected by + Multiuser interference * Asynchronous multipath interference arising ftom the delayed signals from the other users as wel asthe user imseihersel As the user capacity of the channel is limited by the interference, we would like to 1ake the partial cross coreations of codes smal, ideally 2ero for alltime shifts. The ‘values thatthe partial cross correlation functions take depend upon the colee of codes For example, Walsh codes have the desirable propery of perfect orthogonality at zero phase offset but have poor autocorrelation properties for other phase offsets. 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Spectral densy ofa binary PN sequence Itis customary to define the bandwidth B, ofa PN signal asthe frequeney increment between the two zeros ofthe spectral density thet are closest othe centre frequency. It isclear from Fig, 8.9 thatthe bandwidth of the biphas signal i 2p Since the message is binary/square wave it will have si centred on zero, Thus the message signal specral density is \Wiéeband Modulation Techs : eos Specrum Techniques (Sle Cae Maddaton) 339 wl) 1B] cus) Thebantwithofte mesage Bq vith snr consideration willbe, eee itiscsiomay touse onl he psi prion afte spestum nde bandwith Lt 2, ~ Bandito te SSM oP sia 2B, ~Dandvidthf the mesage signal ‘The processing gain is defined as 8, oe PG: (8.19) It gives the amount of spreading ofthe signal, Ifthe biphase modulation i used, then the processing gain is given by PG=2 tally 620) Forquadtiphase modulation, the processing gain PG tal in 20 Example 8.6 Ifthe chip rate ofa DSSS transmitier is 20 Meps, the message bitrates 10 kbps. Find out the processing pain achieved finally ifthe biphese modulation is used. Solution L ny ith By = gy = 40 4" Fpy igh = 99M bandvidth 8, 2iyy =40 106 Message BW = 1/14 =10* Hence, processing gain = B/By = 2g = 4000 |ndB, the processing gain can be represented as 10 log (4000) = 36 dB Example 8.7 A recorded conversation isto be transmited by a pseudo-nose spread spectrum system. Assume that the spectrum ofthe speech waveform is bandlimited to 3 ‘diz and use, 128 quantization levels (=) Find out the chip rate required to obtain a rocessing gain of20 dB. (b) Given hat the sequence length tobe greater than S hours, find out the numberof shift register stages required Solution (@) Provessing gain = 20 dB = Ologig PG > PG=10?= 100 ‘Now, 128 quantization levels means that 7 bits per sample willbe utilized, ‘Also kz speech signal means that the sampling rte willbe 6 kHz (Nyquist ericri). ‘Message bit rate = sampling rate x bits/sample = 42 kbpsToquess pasiooes ayy are suoneiada asau1 30 sdavs osaq,,“sypednjou t suadwo> 0} wonsati09 Ferunp # stunyed Pus sapoo Suyqusss puv Bupeais ayn yo sptyyo sey quayIp thn is asset om sesjauoo soos ayes ay. eus pantaos ano ssyo Sen oms ape Prtuaous yea se7au69 =} j0sssHE oat eso Fo a Je Bt 8 uno YD (11g Bi UF Uno Se sum Ried) suo! ys wou © oN soo} pu wos a, souls yiedns igeyene ain Syunooars pe Suroens qe aus 24 soups sop ass03 yes jo onesies 28 355 984 HOS a SunpoOUs J po omy esau Jo nou v yn yo Pajpuvy-Buo, oni chet faseoo.d us ep uo pose cua tampa sy po ‘wedpynut ‘wows Hot Senna oy poudisop coeds va ways gest oy wee HL Peonpolnu st santo0a1 ays agp sree les num mop 04 wo spun nop -muls usu ajo sedon Paceyop ‘rion yo ssnoo fess poraas ay Youueys edna eso worsens ayy, (eve ua sean 1} nous) sg aye wsyes oy Bg "go ou 40} [— pte 2540-24 0x37 2g /onqea uone|si4030\N8 FEU 9p09 YaST Eta] uimpxedt ain “soursuy © sa peda au sjoquis wep sosn ayy tunnmeds pears (uaAigo3a ave) SNOUWAEAISNOD 4aAI3OIY WhaLoads avadds 3oNaNOLS ora eg WY Ot+ Ou = Oya seuos0q inchno sada xg eu (asza) G9 [0 + G20) = (sz) 9 Loy + ys} O20 Ou WP Cenenpen 089 as) beac unused pads: atmo, veaorpoyy puogapyy lopez osyeu%s ed puwuorypuos (9 = (> us (9 sous eg porno eo} ap sm pods ess posioas uy Ep feBHO 9 xcearo cd) O1 + CoO = Os wc) O14 Os=Os ouava}nn yo aouosaid uy "ep ponnusie 2xp aonpordos youu sonst 2X9 Jo douanbos Nd 21 Bujwoury ro saneo8sY woRoe Bupeaudsap oust aio LaNN U9 YOM « "0p euro apse ours‘) on embo 9 8 usm B40 1 = GY’ pur paonsap 2q Suomen 049g) pore 0g pu “| — nem pnd oq iy 1~ (wonezyuonyouss roped ypu) sos pis poy days] aouarbos Na uaypn co) Os (OV2E)u) = (a era) OP Os = Om anny on eaxdsop osye st wupuapueg aq ‘paonpoud st), wrep Areug patonooas 2 amy ep pontoas om souenbas a4 0 paztuoiyouKs pure 1} = (aq, (09 (pus sasaoas ap 2) sovenbas do us potdiyu seus puegosog panooa op aatcal iu bupoesdseg “2.30 pump puegeseg 0) jog pupueq Dwegoseg oun peas os st aouonbos Ne yim (Ou JO UoRe|dniMU Jo Day 4 ca) Ou = bs Teufis pugs panscen ax sonpord oy “ep Ateug jo puedapur St Yong ‘ovonbas Na ap uum patidinjus Soanp st sep Krug axp uata Gee Pamgosogponusuen pe (tp sngtsven ap) es Na‘) 1 op ning Burpoeids Nouvinaowaa/Nouvinaow WNULO3ds CVaUdS JH. HUM G3LVIDOSSY SOUVWAHIVW ‘pasrnbat aq [1m sais 9¢ < onjea soyiiy oy popunar ergead (01 X68} = 2H any oy, ‘sods Jo Joquiu ayy 51 aay = gM X6E=, 01x 9F 0/0008 =A) HON Spw>22S QON'ET = 09X09 x S = Sino ¢ St BUD] souanbag (q) si 9¥'0= 001.01 x 94010) = “FF = (01 £200) x7 = O01 = 2 = 08 Burssoooug "5 uoremp ug ous essou oy Su §z079=sdqy zpr1 ogconnusuny ss44, “8 ope342 Wireless Communication nger rake receiver are shown in Fig. 8.11 To configurations with five (4 Sana water: conan fom ‘wate (— aeetoath oe emt 5 raficton| Contin tem "het t (deo) Fig. 841 (2) Rake receiver with five fingers, ore combiner, and one integrator and (b) scanalo of another way ofrecapton with util integrators ake receiver and processing If in a mobile radio channel, reflected waves arrive with small relative time delays, selfinterference occurs. The DSSS is often claimed to have particular properties that makes it less vulnerable to multipath reception, In particular, the rake receiver architecture allows an optimal combining of energy received over different paths with. It avoids wave cancellation (fades) if delayed paths arrive with phase differences and appropriately weighs the signals coming in with different signal-to-noise ratios. In short, the rake receiver is designed to optimally detect a DS-CDMA signal transmitted over 8 dispersive multipath channel. tis an extension ofthe concept ofthe matched filter as we ‘mentioned in passive method. Inthe matched filter receiver, the signal is correlated with a locally generated copy of. the signal waveform. If, however, the signal is distorted by the channel, the receiver Webond Medlaon Tehiquts :SreadSpecram Tecngues (Single Comer Modan) 343 should colt the incoming signal by copy ofthe expected reed signal ater than by acy oftananited waveform, Ths he receiver shuld enna eee ee ofthe chanel and adap to its locally generated copy secording tothiseninene The spreading codeischosen to havea very stall atoconelaton vale foeny sone aero time offet. This avoids crosstalk betwen fingers In practice, the station ee ie 1s ot te fol periodic autoconelition that determines the cosa, hegre sigan different gers, but rather tw partial coreltons, with contributions Rec, consecutive bits or symbols. I has been attempied to find sequence that here satsictory pail corelaton vas, bt the crosstalk due to paral (aonperotc) correlations remains substantially more fut t reduce than the effts open correltons. In contrast tothe second-generation mobile tlecommunications standards, the UUMTS/W-CDMA intrastate i capable of handling aso handover, whereby. !mcil terminalis in contact with mute as sations the same ine, This cancun for example, when a mobile terminalis ata cell border and the sigals fom all surrounding base stations have neat equal strength. The signals from rutile hase stations diferente themselves in ther scrambling code. Thus, to handle the “sof bandover scenario, ake recive inthemebie terminal must be eapable of comeing te received signal with te individual serambling codes of al the base station involved Furthermore, the rake receiver is also eapube of ealetng and using the enegy fom sltipath components ofa signal Jn addition to he actual signal ection tsk, the rake receiver must lo perform 2 setoftning and synchronization asks path searcher prions acomelation of ved set of plo signals over a sliding window to dtc he paths with the tongs sia ‘alues ina mulpah environment. Te offsets of these path re store within a conte contest and ae used to generate the requied offsets forthe individual ake ges that deseramble and desprad the chip rte signals. The path searcher divides itself into a coarse and fine searcher, with fering repetition intervals and accuracies A pth tracker is responsible for th tracking andthe resymchroiztion ofthe paths at are curently being recived In shor, ke a garden rake, the rake recive gathers the energy received oer the ‘tious delayed propagation paths. cording the maximum ato combining pine the SNR at ie outputs the sum ofthe SNRS inthe individual ranches, provided hat we assume that only AWGN is present (ao interference) and codes with tine oft are trl orthogonal The onder of diversity achieved by the rake receiver depends on the number of resolvable paths Zwith = round fgg) +1 zn where faa the meximum delay spread ofthe mlipath chanel as deserted in Chapter Now contng tothe example signal shown in Fig 812 apn in hinge ofthe ke, the incnning signal is multiplied withthe code sequence sycheotized tothe signal anvving over path i. 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Jo asmeoag “sousnbos ovn 30 wu tp og wy Tes pone omy won soyeam Sou w KeardG “yoo 5 saBuy 41p0 omy yess019 ‘poo $1 wogejauoocme ayy J syed 2009 JeO) umes °4 spieno, fuanqaues wopu uoqpe ex gum BuNorEU ue 2 pues “0 sied favo senam podeop aan Jo UONESDe ZI-g “Bly [aCe eo ‘mapas vowseieg "| zoee STEED Ee eaoounauey SSK Bye.346 Wireless Conmunicovon 8.9 SIGNAL PROCESSING AT THE RAKE RECEIVER ‘The basi partitioning of tasks between DSP, dedicated hardware, and reconfigurable hardware is shown in Fig, 8.14. Dataflow-oriented tasks that operate on a word-level ‘granular data stream are executed using the reconfigurable hardware, A DSP is used to ‘execute the control-low and synchronization tasks. Bitevel data processing tasks that execute continuously are mapped onto dedicated hardware resources, The individual ‘components ofthe rake receiver finger are illustrated in Fig. 8.14 ‘én syhelonon ‘The descrambling operation involves the complex multiplication of the aligned ‘incoming data with then scrambling codes. The scrambling cade generator provides the scrambling code in the form of a two-bit representation. The reconfigurable hardware ‘translates the two-bit representation into the form of +1: by the use of multiplexers. ‘The despreading operation isthe multiplication ofthe corresponding spreading code with the real and imaginary parts of the descrambled data sequence followed by a summation over a length equal to the spreading factor. The spreading factor in the downlink can range from to 512 chips. The symbols arrive from the despreader ina time ‘multiplexed manner. The channel weighting consists ofa complex multiplication and the Addition of two subsequent symbols for each finger. ‘The channel estimator calculates the channel coefficients that are used forthe channel ‘correction, which are then transferred to the reconfigurable hardware. The channel coefficients are calculated on the basis of a specific sequence of pilot signals. The FIFOs store the channel coefficients for finger. Channel correction unit, in addition tothe actual channel correction, takes two symbols from the despreader at half the symbol rate and also performs the space time transmit diversity (STTD) decoding of the symbols. In ‘STTD encoding, the symbol steam is divided into two streams each with half the transmit frequency. Each stream is transmitted over a locally separate antenna. The fist symbol stream remains unchanged, The second symbol steam is reordered and the conjugate complex of the symbol is transmitted. The antennas are loceted faraway from each other such that each stream has its own channel coefficient, but close enough so that both symbols arive a the receiver at the same time, Wideband Madsaion Tengu I Speed Speci Techniques (Single Carer Modsoton) 347 8.10 CHARACTERISTICS OF DSSS SYSTEM ‘The main advantageous characteristics of DSSS systems are described in the following sections 8.10.1 Interference Rejection Interference rejection i introduced in Section 8.7 along with mathematics, which can be confirmed with Fig. 8.15. The SNR is an important rameter for a spread spectrum system because it decides the detectability ofthe signal as well as the ouput signal ‘quality. Maximum SNR will occur when there is no delay spread. If.) isthe eveived signal atthe rake receiver the maximum SNR is simply the ratio of the square of the ‘mean value of s(t the variance of s(). Finally, it can be shown that output SNR. P, SNR Fie (828) where P, is the received power, N, isthe noise power spectral density, and fis the message bit duration. Itmay be noted that SNR depends upon the ratio of received power ‘to noise spectral density and bit duration. By increasing the message bit rate and PN, wwe can increase the SNR. "Now, the mean square value of the output interference signal is given by (829) ‘where Js the total interference power and PG is the processing gain. This is the case ‘when interfering signal bandwidth is less than transmission bandwidth. We ca note that the interference power can be reduced by a factor equal to processing gain. This is an average result, however the averaging takes place over all phases of interference. 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(840) 3)+ GIN) Rewtitng the above equation in terms of EVN, B fay s 5 [lectelow, any ‘Two important comments can be made from this result |. When the interference is narrowband, increasing the spreading improves the en- gy eficieney 2 When he intereence is wideband, such s white os, increasing the spreading does not improve the energy effcieney because the interference power J in- creases directly withthe signal bandwidth 8, ‘Toobtan he bandwidth ulztion efficiency B/, BB, ROR, here, isthe message bitrate ‘The term B,2 is used since ths isthe equivalent energy bandwidth ofthe signal. tis important to note hat BR increases inary with spreading, thus the bandwidth uilzation efficiency becomes poorer with the increase in bandwidth ofthe spread spectrum. If the interference is narrowband compared to the bandwidth ofthe spread spectrum signal, ‘hen combining the results of Equations (8.1) and (842), . even 1, Lakes [ty =H eRe fe Panam) 3] Ifthe interference is wideband compared tothe bandwidth ofthe spread spetrum signa, then Eq, (8.43) canbe written as Solid 40 Noe 3[!* W, SSNRoue (84d) The quant isthe petal density ofthe inet sigal 8.10.4 Near-Far Problem and Power Control Near-far problem in spread spectrum system relates to the problem of very strong Signals atthe receiver swamping out the effects of weaker signals. This problem is (842) FR, 8.43) Won Modaon Tectnes I: ead Sperm Tectiques (Sle Crier Modlton) 351 paticulrly serious inthe case of DSSS systoms. The problem canbe considered withthe help ofa receiver and two transmitters (Fig. 8.16). One transmitter is clove to the receiver the other is far away from the receiver. If both transmits nasena Simultaneously with equal powers, then te receiver will receive more poner fom the nearer transmitter. This ereates the problem forthe farther transmit: Since ore transmission is the other’ nis, the signal-to-noise ratio forthe farther tue ee be much higher: Ith nearer transmitter transmits a signal in magnitudes of te onhoe cover the farther transmit, then the SNR forthe farther transmitter may be helo te ‘equird value making the signal undetectbl andthe farther tanmiver ay toc well nottansmit. This effectively jans the communication chanel To achieve the saree nt Ganmunication the fr transmiter would have to dastalyncease transmission power that simply my not be possible In short, the near-far problem is one of detecting and receiving a weaker signal amongst the stronger signals. Moreover, the received tact ‘actuate quickly duet fading. In order to maintain the strength of eceived signet lnc 1 BS, power contol technique must be employed in CDMA systems 7 A yet rN Fig, 8.16 Nort problem scenario J CDMA systems or other celular phone-tke networks, this is commonly solved by {lynamic output power adjustment of the transmitters. Tat isthe closer transmiters ty less power so tha the SNR forall transmitters at the receivers roughly the samme Since all mobiles tarsmit atthe same carer frequene, internal inttference generated within the system plays critical role in determining the system capacity and voice qulity. The ‘wo conditions mustbe satisfied simultaneously: |. The transmit power from each mobilesnist be controled to limit nterference 2. The power level should be adeguaté fora satisfactory voice quality ‘The objective ofthe power conto sto limit transmitted power onthe forward and ‘everse inks while maintaining lnk quality under all condition (Fig 8.17), Power contol is eépable of compensating the fading Nuctuation, Received power fom all MS are controled to be equal. Near-far problem is mitigated by the poner contr. 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The c-I bts from PN code generator then hop ths FSK signal over the range of possible frequencies. The datas channel coded to combat the bit errors. It may also be noted that there isa frequency multiplier K atthe output ofthe system. Ibis to increase the bandwidth and thereby increase the processing gain, I also changes the shape ofthe spectrum, Considering again fast hopping case, i M frequencies are separated by f= Uap Hl 4p then the signal bandwidth is given by = gg 645 Kg _ Sete ping into = 8/3, — EMM «Me sey” gay ‘The FHSS receiver is shown in Fig, 8.20. tee Fig. 8.20. Non-coherent frequency hoping recelver Coherent reception is possible for FHSS but it is more difficult to achieve and places some constraints onthe nature of transmitted signal and the transmission medium. So, ‘noncoherent method is used normally. As shown in Fig. 8.20, locally generated frequency bop signals multiplied by incoming signal ina mixer. Ifthe two are in step the result will bbenormal BFSK signal, which s demodulated in usual way. The errr correction is made {o improve the BER response. The output of the mixer is also pplied to early and late sates that produce an error signal to control the clock frequency. This keeps locally fseneraed frequency hop pater in synchronism with the incoming signal Interference results whenever there is simultaneous occupancy ofa given frequency Slot, and inthis cas it does not matter much ifthe interfering signal is much stronger than the desired signal beceuse within a fraction of time & new frequency will come up. Another advantage of frequency hopping signals is that acquisition is normally much faster han incase of DSSS system. This is 0 because the chip rate is considerably ess inthe fequency hopping system \Widebond Medion Techniques Spread Specaum Tecngus (Sle Carer Modlton) 355 A disadvantage of FHSS system is that one can not easily use coherent demodulation ‘techniques. This results in poor performance against thermal noise. Example 8.10 In a frequency hopping spread spectrum system for the goncration of hopping frequencies, a3 bit PN code generator is used. The carrer frequency is 8 Kitz and the frequency spacing is 0.5 KHz. Corresponding to the code pattern 000, the frequency is 9.75 Elz Find outall the hopping frequencies. Show all these frequencies on the frequency time plane Solution Gulp Ouipae Rregacney ‘Frequeucy (kHz) ©" (tia). BELTS 9.75 84125 9.25 840.75 875, 840.25 825 8-025 115 8-075 138 81.25 675 8-175 625, Frequency He) Fig. 621 Time frequency plane showing the fequency hopping for Example 8.10, Example 8.11 A frequency hopping spread spectrum system isto have the following parameters: “Message bit rate = 2400 bpsque syssoo0ud op 51 ey ‘pasn sf uowejapow aseydeg Jf =U Bayo AO) /NO 24 Jon1u09 s0pe0U08 apoo 94) wo4yKressaaat yg Joaquin oip pu ‘Sdq QOzE 1 Supoo jouueyo Joye oes ng aBwssow ath Mp Sumunssy “ZV g Jo MHpLMpURG [eUBiS ‘wnuxew e pareoo}e s} woysks woods pends Suyddoy aun meooy ZH'g yduExg, ‘wys4s yy worn sojdums st worewawayduy ppempueg Usa e203 sus 2ouenbas coup so yey 09 se. 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The two frequency components after the mixing have an integer number of cycles over the period and so the sub-itegral over each ‘component willbe ero, athe integra of sinusoid over an entire period is zero Both the sul-intgrls are zero an so the resulting addition of the two will also be zero. Thus, We have established thatthe frequency components are orthogonal to each other. “Another way to view the orthogonality property of OFDM signals isto look at its specrum.liskaown that ine limited signal isnot bandlmited an vice versa Whe ine Sowain pls sap Sigal appa a Fequeney domain, Wirt snc chaps wel compress when mlk-it symbols ae modulating vith eich aren. we lec a larger siz OF OFDM symbol, then a better spectrum ulllzation can be made ati can e placed nearer asthe peak ofa marrow subcarrier channel and that channel desides the subcarrier spacing, Tas a peak af the eeitre frequency and mulls evenly spaced with a Frequency gap equal to the car s shown ia Fig. 93. as — ‘GF erticnal bears Fig. 5 Orthogonal signals inthe frequency domain: peak of one signal occurs at he nul of nearer subeaer ‘The sine shape has a narrow main lobe that deceys fast and many side lobes. Because ‘the Subchannels are Very narrow, they act as samples ofthe spectrum. This willbe shown, in the mathematical part. When the spectrum setting is done for IDET stage, the spectrum i not treated as continuous as show in Figures 94 and 9.5 but is considered in Widebond Modulation Techniques 2: OFDM (Multcarer Modulton) 371 terms of ciserete samples. The sampled spectrum is shown with ‘o's in Fig. 9.4(a). Ifthe DFT is time synchronized, the frequency samples ofthe DFT correspond to just the peaks of the subcarriers, Thus, the overlapping frequency region between subcarriers ‘does not affect the receiver. Inshort in OFDM modulation, the available channel is divided into several independent subearters and all the subcarriers are transmited at a achieved by making «all The Subcarriers orthogonal to each other preventing ICI. The received signals are retrieved in the reverse way. The orthogonal frequency difference is not selected arbitrarily but is selected on the basis ofthe data rate or symbol time. = ‘To understand the concept of orthogonality itis very helpful to interpret subcarrier signals as vectors inthe signal space. Vector signals ean be added, multiplied by a scalar, expanded into a base, and many more properties canbe considered. ixample 9.1 A 64 Kbps voiee frame is to be modulated by OFDM scheme. The uration of OFDM symbol is 1000 us. Total of 32 subcarriers are to be assigned to this frame. Find out (@) the nul/-o-ull subchannel bandwidth assuming square signal, (@) the total bandwidth occupied, and (6) the number of bits in OFDM frame. Solution () T,= symbol duration = 1000 ps So, Af subcartier spacing 1/1000 ps = 0.001 MHz ~ 100 kz = Nall-o-ll subchannel bandwidth ~200 kHz sine shape) (0) N_ number of subcarriers = 32 = Transmission bandwidth = (W,+ I) Af= Nx AF = 32% 100 200 KHz (©) Bit duration = 1/(64% 10°) =15.625 us, > No. of bits per frame = 1000115.625 bits 9.1.2 FDM vs Orthogonal FDM Some differences between FDM and orthogonal FDM areas follows: + The OFDM signals must be time and frequency synchronized, which isnot neces- sary in case of FDM, + FDM isa single-casier oriented system while OFDM isa multicarier system. + FDM transmission signals need to have a large frequency guard-band between channels in comparison to OFDM to prevent ICI interference:By wows “og “Cyl = EZ) 2¥e2 BIN puegase axp Jo asioaut 4p st potsed joquuks i woReWuoguEoues orp 309 29HOYS KfaazEfeu 99 jj poled joquuts ‘sare CEP YY J uoneMuoyur yTUsuEN ey, TNpHAPLEG PoIsAN oF spuey pwnd os, TUBS S040 jusoefpe ue ajenuen uxD Ja v aloyys aoeds v opracud oy wapumpueg soUseD Yoea ‘vannsjoq paced oq asnuy peg pron v ‘sonoexd uy “una}zods Jo woneZiIn FUSION 205 ‘imoqiffou sf 01 Waoefpe aq pInoys JeLI Yoo YH pareroosse yapeapKIEG op ‘|FEPL upxaydnyaus worst Souonoy un 9] Busneo ynomn apqssod se aso 58 STAID pagnpou Suroeyd sapnjour swans Joio-o(Bus ut waned oypes jo 980 woIay stasis J0mIDg-oIBUIS 1°26 ‘yy uoweonunuz00 womeu e w seen oyreo-afBuis [eUOTEAIOD at) SMOUS a vneorefovnbay e-ai6Us 16 SU fog ama “usiontp axp sojdea Katy $e say Joumeyp ayy puasyon ueo 2x70} rau aydnqnpy "wortovidde owt WLIO 4 ‘arp apm diya wo wonewawaydan won 3] s91e] pow woRE|NAyeD Ja 409 uHOTE 2M paquasasd Aaya, pub £2]009 ‘S961 ‘uy “Uomp eajos or ajqissod ou axa yor, 4 “LaaL/ Lad 30 wormuataaydut jeuip 24y, a SplnouypeeBoqouysarcy np pap sea voreiows}duur moysés axp yng “anbruypor WOW wafauye we se s,99 PUR S,05 ot UF punoxe pwastE seiX WYO Jo aqdioursd di, fog s1¥2K 9p ISNE FYCLEO Us paoapomuy sea. ‘Plo Area st yd2ou09 saLzeoNMUE ‘amp yBnoipyy “adét soys0o-ofZus Jo aue swaysKs uoreonmunioD feuoNaAvOD {Ty ‘SWAISAS B3NAVOUINN SA FTONIS 2°6 =ynT 007 ST pUNpHEG JO BUS YL “2404 00€ = 0S + 052=0S +05 x29 8 HpUApUER perdnaoo jo au 0g ZH og AtreuNcxe og i a4URD TeUOBOTpIO ayy UaaAIO Suioeds ain “pptapuvg JeuNoqns se ZH QO JO MIPINPUN aus aM HuRepIsUOD ‘sioyse9 pouodoyyo. 40g Teasour pred nox zp 00s = $x 001 29TH sHPLpIEGPe¥dRoNO THO SH, sway soqsano-apSas 405) (Cuosyreduoo ayeunrxoudde yp ojdarexe Saenique ue 3snf st 2YIP uy ssa xp asta posapsuoo jou ate sauayos wryenpow asads 29H =10N) soumpos ‘agp ue 0} np pepe ut FuARs ap no puy pur sas. 2 BO ua ppopumg pada ay ado “ayo yoea oy KjeucBono posed axe suit oniy uns oi “Joes wusapip any a auayps atures £4 poyyMpou Jay YoED cv sorau paced ae sours 274 oot 2a ‘259 ed ap Hupapisuer 6 ayduNEA| ELE (venanpoyy sewoany) waso 7 senbayo>y vonDmpeyy PuDRepIM ‘Senbuuype} seuN0 0} paseduoo jwojowa AyeIjNEds AYO (4) EOIN O} SUIAeS wn | s-H0 8 ned ‘usc 9s Oa won) Sums ste Sus MeSO eye du vos Kovontans Joi 7 eusenauey — || L on ieee ! ~ 7 aeeomeenees AT ‘nok bosons DoouuguT Tyas ewe | ‘nbyuyooy worougo Ajjenseds w si WLIO Moy s usu ss pump smpepr ening pasos as Seo os faucopuia AIO tt vroyye jexyods Jo wowasonjoe 21:9 au) 205 Spm sendas 2 soneu 249s Aqpuodoquo om FuruuoW a Bue Suds a 1 Sop aide 9 wnaoeds a Redes SosonoH ppnply (tes 2 poms ‘out soup yu oyu stm POX Jo ws np 20} posn suv sour afd ‘}yq.jO uy “paidope ewayos uoneynpow ayy pup {Hpuspang o}seq ayy dn spuadspsjausey> oxy uooHog uoNredos 4 won Sem onbuun due fxg se sures ay) w2opg dysuoneou ou sam cae 2791804 Kean $= ssp 829 oh pomp 99 us sno ay mow Seth a Hig a {oqus witi0 oJ Seu Jo wompud awl} patiop aq Heo UNE oes Juda wo satay peop foquus ayy ued spuodapsioioqns atioesuo> ony examen, ‘umoeds ou ey yons ouanbay eu prosnuys ws Wass jyqjO we UeD yong vonmunuun sea Tog374 Wireless Conmuntavon increases, 7, must decrease and vice versa. Ina multipath environment, a shorter symbol Berio lead to a greater chance of intersymbol interference. Ths occurs when a delayed Version of symbol» arrives during the processing period of symbol n¥1. Mary schemes With higher value of M provides better spectral efficiency and data rate atthe cost of SNR. 9.2.2 Multicarrier Systems ‘The OFDM, a multicarrier system, addresses both the problems of single-carier system, mentioned above. The basic idea of OFDM is to divide the available spectrum into several subchannels (or subcarriers). By making all subchannels narrowband, they experience almost flat fading, which makes equalization very simple, The OFDM Provides a DSP-based technique allowing the bandwidths of modulated carriers to overlap without interference. Bandwidth and spectral efficiency is achieved compared to single-carrier system. To obtain a high spectral efficiency the frequency responses ofthe subchannels are overlapping and orthogonal. This orthogonality can be corapletely maintained, even though the signal passes through the time-dispersive channel, by introducing cyclic prefix as described later on. It also supports a high data rate de to Serial-to-parallel conversion of symbols acquiring long symbol duration, this helping ¢liminate ISL, Time and frequency synchronization is the main limitation of multicarrier systems 9.2.3 Data Transmission in a Multipath Environment by Single-carier and Multicarrier Systems Multipath environment means a time-dispersive channel. In typical radio channels, ‘multipath propagation occurs because of multiple reflections of te transmitted signal. ‘The various propagation paths are characterized by different delays and this leads toa time dispersive behaviour of the channel. Intersymbol interference is caused and has to be taken care of in radio transmission systems (refer to Chapter 5). ‘As fat as single-carier digital transmission is concemed, ifthe data rae is low and the ‘symbol duration is large as compared to the maximum delay ofthe channel, it can be Possible to cope up with the resulting ISI without any equalization. As the distance range oF the data rate of the system increases, ISI becomes more severe and channel ‘equalization has tobe provided. To have equalization inthis situation, complicated tasks {ike channet estimation, filter coeficient calculation, ec, are required with computational complenity. Adaptive equalizers were the better solution till now. 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In order to perform frequeney domain data into time domain data, IDFT correlates the frequency | domain inpat data with its orthogonal basis functions, which are sinusoids at certain frequencies (subcarriers here). In other Ways, this correlation is equivalent to mapping | the input data ont the sinusoidal basis functions. It provides complete spectrum setting. | “The spectrum setting is then converted into its equivalent time domain signal using an ' inverse discrete Fourier transform In practice, an inverse fast Fourier transform (IFFT) ty opposite of requenoy-slactive fading onthe is used wo perform IDFT. The IFFT performs the transfomation very fat After IFET Stage the time domain signal must be received in serial for through PS. The signal this generated i called OFDM baseband and to generate an upconverted RF signal, the signal i ‘ust be filtered and mixed tothe desired transmission frequency | Before RF upconversion, the eels prefix i added o remove the ISL effet. Also the output ofthe IFFT stage isin the form of ciserete samples, So, D4o-A conversion is i require before RF conversion sage “The IFFT perfoms the function of tesforming a spectrum (amplitude and phase of cack component nt time domain signal, An IFFT conversa numberof complex data poins of length tha is a power of2, into the time domain signal of the same numberof points. Each data pont in fequency spectrum used for an FFT of IFT combined fogether makes bin Its not necessary that the numberof subcarriers and the IFFT bin Size shouldbe equal. Zero padding canbe applied to IFFT bin inerese the IFFT points and improve the time domain resolution or gard cavers can be wed. ‘At the eosverafterA-to-D conversion, the FFT transforms time domain signal nto its equivalent frequency spectrum, The amplitude an phase ofthe sinusoidal eomponen's ' represent the frequency spectrum of the time domain signal, Since each bin of an IFFT Comesponds tothe amplitude and phase ofa set of orthogonal sinusoids, the reverse process guarantees that the subcarriers generated are orthogonal. OF course, Doppler ‘fect may exhibit some shits in the received carrier fequency that must be coeced by perfect synchronization. Figure 9.13 gives some addtional blocks representing some tthe mportant OFDM operation the receiving end. These bocks ar ination tothe | inverse blocks required for OFDM demodulation and channel decoding. Yor subearier offset removal, pilot signals are considered which may have slighty higher power than the data subcates. Some other methods may also be wsed. Channel estimation isthe process by which the channel impulse response is estimated by adaptive feedback system and hence phase correction is applied. This is dne by extracting the pilot subcates Pilot information can be sent in ime domain ot in requeney domain and accordingly me or frequency domain methods ar utilized to estimate the channel Each ofthe important stages are explained in detail in the next few sections. Figure 9.14 represents all those stages. 9.3.1 Serial-to-Parallel Conversion and Symbol Mapping ion books are highighted better. 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Jo zaquamu o1p 03 yonba st yoru ‘souy jqered ay owut pozqun8ioas ae sjoquics jy ‘Sjoquics 18evenopon ewoaaMH) WaYO 7 sanbuapay uowmnpoyy puogepUA S00 weyoduy Guwoys weve woisKs WOO +16 Big ee sen | ‘ei ees . sne0ai iy suopoanoo pue uoneupse Jouve pu sob Busco oun Sumas Hep WEP YEO HAO eH EH8 Bg 8p po aemiaaame| oman mnoaney sive Bape etm el "ene United “—euopyotuag — aawess venoenuwe> sae ORE382 Waless Communication (tr) my ema) XK ‘steymbat cm 5) | x— Fig. 8:16 Frequency to time demain conversion and IFFT acting as summer ‘The condition forthe selection of the number of subcarriers is as follows: ‘Number of subcarriers < (IFFTsize/2}-2 (for real-valued time signal) Number of subcarriers <(IFFTsize)-1 (for complex-valued time signal) One set of subcarriers makes transmission bancholdth of OFDM. Note that the modulated OFDM signal is nothing more than a group of delta (imputse) fumetions, each with a phase determined by the modulating symbol. In Addition, also note that the frequency separation between each pair of delta is Proportional to inverse ofthe symbol duration 9.3.3 Guard Period ‘The IStis «common problem found in high data rate communication. Itoccurs when the transmission interferes with itself and the receiver cannot decode the transmission correctly. This is because as the data rate increases, the time duration between the consecutive pulses deereases. For avoiding IS, the pulse time duration should be greater than the maximum delay of the channel. The ISI is one of the major drawbacks of ‘multipath single-carrer transmission as discussed carer, To avoid this, guard interval is Drovided along with the data period so that the ISI effect observed in the guard interval fan be removed afterwerds and the data can be retrieved, (One of the most important properties of OFDM transmissions is its high level of ‘obustness against multipath delay spread. Ths isa result ofthe very long symbol period used compared to path delay, which minimizes the intersymbol interference. The level of ‘multipath robustness can be further increased by addition of a guard period between the transmitted symbols. The guard period allows time for multipath signals from the pervious symbol to dic away before the information from the current symbol i gathered, The most Wideband Medoen Techniques 2: OFDM (Mutcorier Mdaton) 383 effective guard period tous is cele extension ofthe symbol. amitor in ime athe fend ofthe symbol waveform is put atthe start ofthe symbol asthe guard petiod this eflectively exiensthe length ofthe synbol, while maintaining the orthogonality a he waveform, Using eyelic extended symbol, multipath immunity as well as symbol time syncronization tolerance can be achieved. ‘Transmiting acyclic prefix ofthe data during gusrd interval transforms the linearly convolutivechann! nt crelarlconvolutive chanel, Hence the channel equalization problems simplified. Specifically, channel equation inthe frequency domain canbe done using one tap flrs. This is because cyl pefixing makes the channel matrix circulant, whichis digonalized by the IDPT and DFT operations “The added guard interval and it effect in reducing IST are sown in Figures 9.17 and a8 ‘As longa the multipath dla echoes slay within the guard peti duration, there is stitiy no linitation regarding the signal level of the echocs they may even exced the Signa level of the shorter path The signal energy from all paths add up at the input othe recziver an since the FET is energy conservative, the whole availble power feeds the decoder If the delay spread is longer then the guard interval, then they begin to cause intersymbol interference. However, provided the echoes are sufficiently small they do not ease sigufieant problems. This sue mostof te time, as multipath echoes delayed longer than the guard period they wil have been reflected fom very distant objects, Exec gyro ‘ivaion ‘ranaraagtrd towel Data pe ‘lon. fSrecinet] Gus ine Sefinieeerce Fig. 847 Concept of removal of matt elect due fo quad interval action in each symbel block by padding copy of prt ofthe symbol (Phase eros are many fn guard neva) Wee rtuo, Oyu bis oy EUNG o6ets uosioncodn sicjoq obs Lt 6) Bid routs was © > georges a pianos gO » = eg | oper SO tes 7 souonbang oun, Wao em “jeanewoyyy ‘spoypout uorsionuos Aouanbsyy ojeue Suisn Aouonbay uisien feuly amp 0} poseoLou) pur Zojeue oj payeauod 2q woip ueO IT XFopoUyoA uaumo Aq porpasy st ores ojduses asoyss Louanbay ayeypouuoquy we 99 Wed 3011780 SnL Kovanbay saue> ajaiosip © ot poppe pue paydumes-dn aq ues pueqasta WHO ‘203 jasosp ayy u! 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Bther way, the selected technique would have to involve some form of linear AM or QAM (possibly implemented with a mixer). RF Modulation ‘The output ofthe OFDM modulator generates a baseband signal, which must be mixed Reo the equired tansmisson frequency. Ths canbe implemented using an analog Hau os dig up-onverteras shown in Figures 920 and 9.2. Bosh techniques evfrm the sue operation. However, the perfomanec ofthe digital moulton wl end 1 mote acute duet improved matching between the processing of the and Q sBannels and the phase accuracy of the digital 10 modulator. In both the figures, the levels are shown mentioning whether the signa i in analog form or digital form. ‘otal seg arecltee 3 Hn Comoe roi tase Dig Fig. 9.20. RF modulation of complex bas EF edaton of complex bastard OFOW snl ung eng tchius he Mey ita og Fig. 821 RF modulation of complex OFDM signal using digital techraves Wideband Meduoton Techniques 2: OFDM (Mulicarier Mediation) 387 ‘The role of interpolation filter is to increase the sampling rate for better analog conversion. In digital techniques direct digital synthesizer (DDS) is used that can generate the required discrete RF carrer by controlling the phase of samples and then converts into an analog form. Mos ofthe latest ASIC designs use DDS for RF carrier generation that can generate very high carrer frequencies. ‘After RF conversion and transmission, the transmitted signal will get corrupted by the various channel effects and then it will be received by the receiver 9.3.5 OFDM Signal Reception and Demodulation “The reesived RF signal is down-converted and also converted into digital form. The guard period is removed incase of eyclic prefix. Demodulation is done to get back the required setting inthe frequeney domain (just as transmitter). For that the offset removal is required, The subcarrier offset condition is shown in Fig. 9.22. The receiver basically does the reverse operation to the transmitter, The FFT of each OFDM symbol is performed to find the original transmitted spectrum, The phase angle of each transmission carrier is then evaluated and converted back to the data word by demodulating the received phase (demapping). The data words ae then spit back to the ‘same patter as the original bits to have the serial data again by parallel-to-serial conversion. ‘OFDIE omogonal ubcarors ‘submerging verse of OFDM sy duraion Fig, £22 Carrer ofsetcondlon atthe reosver end (os of orthogonality) ‘The following steps may be taken to demodulate the OFDM: + Partition the input stream into veetors representing each symbol period + Take the FFT of each symbol period vector. + Extract the carrier FFT bins and calculate the phase of each. + Caleulate the phase difference, from one symbol petiod to the next, for each car- + Decode each phase into binary data. + Sort the data into the appropriate order.yeu pas ap ose. 550“ _ fy wm sep ono pu Reds ‘ayy pu satzmoqns pero ye sjtod come] sod se pomusue axe sjoquics ep a4, ‘20y407 04 Buypioooy sBujjes joujoeds Wershs IWIO (50 peg) seu quo = 2% (uw) ss p(qg0 20} wonenpou syed = a 2189 Ltdl= A sain ago = aidues aun wag a (ro+tez) X= anu 24 uoypjueseidey upuiog ewilt WAI prensa paussop spe ums {ayo Jo ans wrod wes Sudo soNod od ‘ouotqg omod 200 Ao Buys un eg By HESIOD eps Joe MT sy ysar oq "syod gp Buospplose oy ae asus om vy 0 Sey sod out oi estou a,‘ one some aes30-cy-yoad ap os “nau sprosmus 2x9 mot do Stpuadapsndoe dew seed apm 98:0 iba ‘onppe uy ~woReayy tue omy soumbas 3 10. 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