Behavior 0749-( 39/86 $00.00 + 20 Aggressive Behavior Problems Bonnie V. Beaver, B.S., D.V.M., M.S.* Most people who work with aggression in animals define aggres: sion as described by Moyer: a “behavior which leads to, or appears to an observer to lead to, the damage or destruction of a goal entity.""® The r described have been expanded somewhat by various researchers based on new knowledge of aggres- sion in the various species and individual needs for hetter diagnostic accuracy. With perhaps a few exceptions, the various types of aggression originate from one of two sites in the brain.4 Separate neuroanatomic positions and neuroregulators are involved with the discrete areas for affective and nonaffective aggression. In any aggressive behavior problem, it is of primary importance that the specific type of aggression be determined, because only then can appropriate therapy be initiated. AFFECTIVE AGGRE: ON Affective aggressions are associated with an intense autonomie response that includes sympathoadrenal interactions. The animal shows specific body signs of threat that can intensify to the point of attack ifappropriate responses do not oceur. With affective aggression, there is a warning, For horses, the body signs used in the threat or attack usually begin as flattening of the ears against the neck and are often followed by a turning of the head toward the intruder. A threat-bite or foot- stomp warning will usually precede a lunging bite attack, striking with a front foot, rearing, or kicking with one or both hindfeet. Specific sequences of aggressive behaviors do not occur but depend more on the type of encounter, the intensity of the act, and the style of the individual. * Professor, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Texas A&M University College of Veterinary Medicine, College Station, Texas Veterinary Clinics of North America: Equine Practice—Vol, 2, No, 3, December 1986 635,636 Bownik V. Braver Fear-Induced Aggression A horse's usual reaction to a fear-produeing or threatening situ- ation is to escape by fleeing. When a horse has had no experience with a particular obstacle it meets on a trail, it will show an initial alerting posture, perhaps advance haltingly, and suddenly bolt to run away, This isa typical instipetive reaction to potential danger for prey species that evolved on an open plain and explains the animal’s failure to watch for fences that could do more harm than the initial threatening object. Occasionally, the animal cannot escape the threat, as when a rider won't let the horse run from a piece of flapping plastic or when itis confined to a stall or trailer. The resulting aggressive reactions of Kicking, striking, rearing, and/or pawing can vary from one in which the horse appears curious to one in which the horse appears so fright- ened that it is oblivious to all other stimuli. Foals will flee if the dam does, but when a fearful or bothersome stimulus is around, the foal may deliver a powerful strike or kick in the appropriate direction Humans are often hit accidentally by a foal in these instances. For the fearfully aggressive horse, several methods are available to help them overcome a fear. A calm, firm, and,persistent handler can gradually introduce the animal to the object §f fear by insisting ona gradual approach. Objects that quickly move away, such as birds that suddenly flush, are difficult to teach a horse to accept, because it is almost impossible for the horse to focus its eyes fast enough. The object is seen as a rapidly moying blur, which triggers the escape instinct. Another approach is to offer a small reward, asking the horse toaccepta little more stimulus each time before the reward is given.**'* For example, if the horse will not allow a forelimb to be picked up, a reward is given at first for allowing the leg to be touched, then for allowing stroking, then for being picked up and immediately being pub down by the handler, and finally for allowing its forelimb to be held. The fear reaction of burros and donkeys is not fo run, but rather to stand their ground and be ready to fight if necessary. Because these horse relatives evolved in mountainous country, flight could be more dangerous to their survival than the fight.** Pain-Induced Aggression When the horse cannot escape a paindul stimulus, it will respond with aggressive signs. A young horse being trained to canter may not be responding to leg pressure to the trainer's satisfaction, so spurs are used. Tf not allowed to “escape” the pain, as when the reins are too tight, the horse will respond by rearing and lunging. Of more concern to veterinarians is the aggression associated with injections and wounds. As most practitioners learn, a horse that has had several injections soon tries to avoid the veterinarian’s presence. Even subtle cues like a certain type of coveralls, color of lab coat, or medicinal smell will make it difficult to work with an otherwise tract- able animal, Most successful are injection techniques that minimizeAGGhessive Benavion PronLens 637 pain and clues. For example, steady thumb pressure on the site of an intramuscular injection before the needle is inserted is often more successful than the repeated tapping. Another concern veterinarians should have is for the owner that has to treat the sutured wounds of a horse that tried to run through barbed wire, Suturing is done under tranquilization and local anesthesia, but the day-to-day medical ap- plications are painful, and many horses become aggressive to their handlers during treatment. Of interest is the occasional case of a horse that has “gone crazy” ina certain stall. This horse either will not go back in or will be totally unruly when in that stall, even though it is fine in other stalls. In these cases, the causative factor may take a fancy piece of detective work to find, The cause is often a bad experience with a resident snake, spider, or dead anima] or a weak electric current that has electrified the stall. This electrification could be the result of faulty wiring or a condition similar to the stray voltage problem described on dairy farms."! A nose twitch has generally been used as a method of restraint because it was considered to divert the animal’s attention from other sources of pain. Also, in severe applications, the animal would strike out towards its nose, Recent studies indicate that the twitch attenuates the increase in heart rate associated with painful stimuli, probably through endorphin release.'* Intermale Aggression Fighting between males of a species is a common problem, and horse owners generally do not keep two stallions together in the same pasture or paddock, Intermale ssion is known to be a sexually dimorphic behavior in several f animals, and all indications are that this is true in horses as well. Sexually dimorphic behaviors are those that are thought of as typical for one sex but that can appear in the other sex under certain circumstances. Most fights do occur between males.'* However, femaleness and maleness are relative terms, and “intermale aggression” can be shown with a decreasing frequency from stallions to geldings to spayed (ovariectomized) mares to intact mares. In feral horses, this type of fighting was restricted to fights between harem stallions, lone bachelor stallions, and bachelor stallions.© Most of these fights were the result of groups coming too close to each other and probably served to maintain spacings between the various groups. Fights between stallions are highly ritualized, can he violent, and vary somewhat from those associated with most ag- gressive encounters. ' '° Stallion encounters have been described as consisting of five stages: a stare, body posturing, olfactory inves- ligation, squeals and forequarter threats, and fecal displays.'* Initially, the animals approach each other with an ears-and-head-up posture, smell noses, and then move to smell the flank region of the other horse, Then the more common expressions of aggressive behaviors are used. There is also a great deal of interest in smelling and defecating on each other's feces. Usually this sequence is enough, but biting, strik-638 Bose V. Beaven ing, rearing, and kicking occasionally occur if the nonritualized fight phase follows the ritualized interactions. This is when the most serious injuries happen to the horses or to people trying to separate them. Tntermale aggression is dependent on testosterone, so castration. of one or both stallions will greatly decrease the tendency to fight. Castration before fighting begins limits the expression of the behavior in 70 to 80 per cent of the horses, whereas castration after aggression toward other horses has become a problem is 40 per cent success ful.'* When surgery is not an alternative, progestins might be used for their ability to reduce serum testosterone and for their antianxiety tran- quilizing activity. They are, however, antispermatogenic and should not be used near the breeding season.!” Some of the more commonly used products include megestrol acetate* (65 to 85 mg per 500-kg horse, given orally, daily); repositol progesteronet (1000 mg per 500- kg horse, given intramuscularly at 4-day intervals, or 2000 mg per 500- kg horse, given intramuscularly at 7-day intervals); and altrenogest (allyl-trenbolone)t (1 ml of 0.22% solution per 50 kg, given orally, daily). The progestins would be expected to be less useful in nonstallions and are not recommended for long-term therapy in mares. ion Dominance Aggre' Dominance aggression is the most common cause of behavior problems related to aggression, In most cases of horse versus horse, threats are sufficient to settle a dispute. When humans try to assert dominance over an uncooperative horse, a dangerous situation exists. The horse is a social animal, normally living in a herd. As such most will readily accept domination. Dominance relationships are dis- cussed in detail in the article “Social Structure.” Dominant horses will protect herd members from intruders. and stallions will come to the aid of foals in trouble. A variation of this behavior is probably seen when one horse shows protection for a stablemate, be it a horse or another animal such as a goat. A pastured horse might position itself between a young horse and other horses that chased the youngster in the pasture. Problems associated with dominance can occur in a number of situations in which horses interact with horses or humans. New horses introduced into a herd must find their location within the social order, and during that short time, threats and fighting will occur between individuals, Once the social order is established, threats are usually sufficient to resolve an encounter. Horses within a herd can share a single dominance position and the social order tends to remain stable.” This means every time they meet each other where one must go first, the encounter will be shared mutually or there will be an agonistic display. If the individuals have equally matched, high-ranking posi- * Ovaban. Schering Corp, Kenilworth, New Jersey. Progesterone Inicction Repository, Med-Tech Laboratories, Elwood, Kansas. + Regumate. Anicrican Hoechst Corp., Somerville, New Jersey.AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS 639 tions, it is possible that the two horses will fight almost constantly. One example involved a 6-year-old Quarter Horse gelding, the dom- inant member of a pasture herd. An 8-year-old grade mare was intro- duced to the environment by putting her in a stall with a run. When- ever the two horses had contact, either directly in the pasture or across a fence, they would fight continuously. Only by eliminating physical contact between them could fighting be controlled, although the vis- ual threats continued. Dominance is not always as specific as one might like. In several animal species, including horses, there is more than one type of dom- inance. Specifically, food-related dominance, especially in regard to special foods like grain, can be different than that associated with general social interactions. The mild-mannered middle-ranking horse can become the dominant individual at a feeder. Human encounters of dominance aggression in horses mainly occur in two ways. People can be injured when aggressive encounters occur between horses or when a horse considers itself dominant to the person. The latter is a common occurrence. Dominance is ex- pressed by the horse that strikes, kicks, or bites when being handled. The animal may try to take its leg and foot away when attempts are made to handle that area. Bucking, rearing, and running away are other behaviors of attempted dominance or avoidance of submission, and success in any of these behaviors affirms the dominant status Preventing the dominance of a horse over human beings depends on a number of factors, with timing of a reward or punishment being very important. Immediate punishment and persistence in a lesson of handling are the most successful approaches to dominance, but be- cause of danger to the person, a mechanical advantage or castration might be an alternative solution, Stallions tend to be major problems, especially when they are yearlings and 2-year-olds. In the herd s uation, the stallion would control the young male by counteraggres- sion, and then would only tolerate the presence of the young males a short while, before driving them away from the band. Some older stallions may try to dominate human beings by biting the person on the shoulder and hanging on. Struggling has caused real physical injury Castration reduces the dominant aggressive behavior of the stal- lion.!? When castration is not possible or when the offender is not a stallion, other techniques can be used. A mechanical advantage to gain control of the head, which may or may not inflict pain, is the principle behind basic horse control and is used in many common horse-han- dling procedures. Halters, bridles, chains on a lead rope that go over the nose or under the chin, and war bridles allow the person to control the head. Although it is common to hit the biter, this may produce a horse that becomes skillful at making a bite and backing away fast. It is therefore essential that a biter be kept adequately restrained so that punishment can be immediate and effective. Excessive punishment must be avoided, as it can cause pain-induced or defensive aggression. A small grain reward can be used to obtain desired behaviors640 Bonsit V. Beaven when punishment cannot. [fa horse turns its rear to a person entering the stall, all grain is withheld.* The person should wait until the horse turns half way around and immediately reward the behavior with a handful of grain. This is repeated several more times. The next day, the horse must turn all the way around for a reward, and the following day, the horse may be expected to approach. This type of lesson may in fact take longer than 3 days, but a gradual improvement should be required before a reward is given. For the serious biter, brute strength has been used to try to assert control. Protective Aggression Territorial protection is a form of protective aggression that is minimal for horses. A stallion tends to defend an area around his band but not a specific geographical location. This probably relates to the fact that any specific territory would not have all the essentials, such as water, to support the group so it would not be advantageous to species survival to be particularly territorial.'" Material protection in horses is limited mainly to aggression over food. Many horses will threaten human intruders when they are eating by flattening their ears and lunging to bite. Maternal Aggression Mares are protective of their foals. Although this protection is generally under hormonal influence, the expression of it is highly ariable between individuals. Some mares are so protective of the foal that no one, including herd members, can get near the neonate. Other mares pay little attention to their foals and may even be aggressive to its attempts to nurse. The safest way to handle a foal is to keep it between the person and the mare, because the mare seldom would ran over her foal to get at the intruder. Learned Aggression Horses are not specifically trained to show aggression, as is done with attack dogs. However, they often learn to control certain situa- tions through aggression. For example, if a rider gets mad at a horse for something and starts spurring the animal (asking it to go forward) and jerking back sharply on the reins (asking it to stop or back), the animal has no appropriate response. It cannot go forward or back and is not willing to stand still and take the bad treatment. Out of des- peration, the animal rears and the rider stops the abuse. Thus, by trial- and-error learning, the horse learns a response that will stop the pun- ishment. The frequency of a behavior (rearing) is increased because it results in the removal of an aversive stimulus (spurring and jerking the bit). Nipping as a problem behavior is common in horses that have been given food treats, especially sugar. The problem is most easily avoided by not allowing treats to be taken from the hand.AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR PRORLEMS 641 Redirected Aggression When a horse is agitated by something but cannot get at the source of the tation, it might redirect its hostilities toward any animal or human being close enough to reach. A hungry horse is being brushed when the horse in the next stall is fed: the animal turns to snap at the groomer. A horse stalled at a livestock show may become irritable because the barn is too noisy and bright for sleep, the temperature is hot, and several hundred fingers reach through the bars to pet its nose. Threats lave not provided relief, and eventually the horse tries to bite when the owner walks in the stall. NONAFFECTIVE AGGRESSION Nonaffective aggressions are usually not associated with warning signs. The situations in which they occur are usually predictable, but the harm done to another horse ora human being can be severe. These aggressive behaviors are generally controlled by a different part of the brain than are affective aggressions and not until recently have they been determined to be neurologically different. Play Aggression For young horses, particularly yearlings, the behaviors of biting, rearing, and striking have a play connotation. Like other forms of play that developed in the prehistoric horse, these behaviors are useful to the individual for perfecting motor skills necessary for adult survival. Older horses will put up with antics of the young fora while, but will eventually resort to reasserting their control, People will sometimes encourage this behavior in the young without thinking how that same behavior may someday be used by the animal to become dominant. It is important to remember that in horse-horse interactions, the older animal will only put up with the play for a brief period of time. It is the human that artificially extends this period. Sex-Related Aggression ‘The classic example of sex-related aggression in domestic animals is the nape bite used by males during the premounting and mounted phases of sexual behavior. This “pinching,” as it is often called in the horse, is rarely a problem, except for the occasional stallion that bites too hard for a particular mare. In horses, mares express more sex-related aggression than do stal- lions. A big concern is the response of a mare to a stallion when she is not in full estrus. The striking or kicking of the mare can severely hurt the stallion, resulting in broken limbs, penile hematomas, and testicular bruising. To minimize the possibility of injury, many breed- ers use mare hobbles or artificial insemination, collecting with a642 Boxmie V, Beayeu dummy mount or restrained mare. Dominant mares may also prevent a subordinant mare from breeding by biting at her until she leaves.'" OTHER CAUSES OF AGGRESSIO! Medical problems are not well recognized as a cause of aggression in the horse, However, two conditions are related to the health of the animal. Genetic factors must also be considered. Irritable Aggression Horses that experience a chronic pain, such as with arthritis, na- vicular disease, or bursitis, tend to be more easily upset than when they are healthy. There is a similarity with the human experience of a chronic headache or toothache. Their reaction to little things is an overreaction, as when they lash out with their teeth if the saddle is cinched slightly tighter than usual or are overly protective of their food. Similarly, isolation from social peers can result in an overreactive aggression." The long-term lack of certain vitamins and minerals, most notably salt, can also cause a normally placid horse to overreact with aggressive behaviors (personal observation). Hypertestosteronism in Mares Some dominant personalities in mares have been attributed to higher than normal levels of serum testosterone.* Mares that have almost stallion-like features, such as excessive muscle tone, or exhibit excessive aggression toward people or other horses or dominance in aherd are the most likely to have this condition. Of mares that exhibit the symptoms, some are normal with respect to androgen levels, and others have ovarian tumors, The rest might have adrenal cortical tu- mors or impairment in the normal enzymatic transformation of tes- tosterone to estradiol. Ovarian tumors are usually operable, so this source of the problem can be eliminated. Unfortunately, the other types of hypertestoster- onism are not currently treatable, and the animal's potentially dan- gerous behavior means euthanasia should be considered in such cases. Genetic Factors We do not yet have a clear understanding of the genetic factors that influence aggression.’ Through careful studies with specific strains of laboratory mice, there is strong evidence that genetic factors are important, There is anecdotal evidence that this is also tue to some extent in horses, but a great deal of research will be needed to prove it, Brain Dysfunction As with genetic factors, various types of brain dysfunctions are not well understood, especially in horses. Epileptic aggression is re-AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS 643 ported in dogs,' so its occurrence in other species should not be sur- prising. In humans, early studies showed a significant correlation be- tween EEG abnormalities and aggressive or violent behavior." Both examples just point out the need for careful study in this area of vet- erinary medicine. Self-Mutilation There are horses that bite or rub their own skin to the point of creating lesions, This can result from neuritis, skin allergies, or irri- tants such as soap that was not completely washed off. The behavior can also be a habit that is precipitated during stressful situations. Phys- ical restraints such as cradles and crossties can help the lesions heal, but they will recur without some kind of stress management. Meges- trol acetate* (65 to 85 mg per 500 mg per horse, given orally, daily) and diazepam? (up to 2 to 3 mg per kg per horse, given intravenously, daily) have antianxiety properties and can be used in the initial stages of a program to eliminate the problem. Other measures that should be included are increased exercise, because this behavior usually oc- curs in stalled stallions,’ and an evaluation of training procedures to ensure that reward and punishments are used when appropriate, Other stresses should be eliminated, such as stalling estrous mares next to a stallion that is sel&mutilating. SUMMARY Accurate diagnosis of the cause of aggression in horses is essential lo determining the appropriate course of action. The affective forms of aggression include fear-induced, pain-induced, intermale, domi- nance, protective, maternal, learned, and redirected aggressions. Non- affective aggression includes play and sex-related forms. Irritable aggression and hypertestosteronism in mares are medical problems, whereas genetic factors, brain dysfunction, and self-mutilation are als concerns. REFERENCES 1, Beaver, B. V.c Clinical classification of canine aggression. Appl, Anim. Ethol 1035-43, 1983. Beaver, B. Y., and Amoss, M. S., Jn: Aggressive behavior assc cleyated serum testosterone in mares. Appl. Anim, Ethol,, 3. Clutton-Brock, J.; Domesticated Animals from Early Times. Texas Press, 1981. 4, Bichelman, B., Elliott, G. R., and Barchas, }. D.: Biochemical, pharmacological, and genetic aspects of aggression. In Hamburg, D, A., and Trudeau, M, B, (eds.): Biobehavioral Aspects of Aggression, New York, Ala R. Liss, 1981. ed with naturally 12S, 198: nistin, University of * Ovaban, Schering Corp., Kemlworth, New Jersey + Valium. Roche Laboratories, Nutley, New Jersey.16. 18, 19, . Kirk, J. H., Reese, N, D,, and Bartlett, P. C. Bonste V. Beavink stein, H.: Ass, mule, and onager, In Mason, I. L. (ed.): Evolution of Domesticated ‘Animals, New York, Longman, 1984. Feist, J. D., and McCullough, D. R.: Behavior patteras and communication in fe horses. Z. Tierpsychol.. 41:337-371, 1976. Houpt, K. Av: Self-directed aggression: A stallion behavior problem. Equine Pract., 5(2):6-8, 1083, Houpt, K. As Treatment of aggression in horses. Equine Pract,, 6(6):8-10, 1984 Houpt, K. A., and Wolski, T. lity of equine hierarchies and the prevention of dominanee related sguression, Equine Vet. [., 12:15-18, 1980. Houpt, K, A., and Wolski, T, Re: Domestic Animal Behavior for Veterinarians and Animal Scientists, Ames, The Towa State University Press, 1982. Stray voltage on Michigan dairy farms. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assov., 185:426-428, 1954. Kilgour, R., and Dalton, C.: Livestock Behavior: A Practical Guide. Boulder, West- view Press, 1984. Lagerweij, E., Nelis, P. C., Wiegant, V. M,, et al: The twitch in horses: A variant of acupuncture. Science, 225,1172-L174, 1984. . Leventhal, B. L., and Brodie, H. K. H. The pharmacology of violence. In Hambury, D, A., and Trudeau, M, B. (eds.) Alan R. Liss, 1981 Line, S, W., Hart, B. L., and Sanders, L.: Effect of prepubertal versus postpubertal castration on sexual and aggressive behavior in male horses. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc., 186:249-251, 1985. Moyer, K. E.: Kinds of aggression and their physiological basis. Commun. Beh Biol., 24:6587, 1968. Roberts, S. J., and Beaver, B. Vi: The use of progestins for aggressive and hyper- sexual horses. In Robinson, N, E. (ed.); Current Therapy in Equine Medicine. Philadelphia, W. B. Saunders Co. (in press), Voith, V. La: Treatment of fear-induced aggression in a hors 60:535-837, 1979. Waring, G, H.: Horse behavior: The Behavioral Traits and Adaptations of Domestic and Wild Horses, Including Ponies, Park Ridge, New Jersey, Noyes Publications, 1983. Biobehavioral Aspects of Aggression, New York, Mod. Vet. Pract, Department of Small Animal Medicine and Surgery College of Veterinary Medicine Texas A&M University College Statio: Texas 77843,