316 TEXT BOOK OF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY cordingly, the discharge of any river or stream is seldom constant Tn rivers the nature of flow of water is characterised mostly by the gradientnd velocity. Accordingly, there are two types of flow vire Ta laminar or filamented flow and 2. turbulent flow. In the case of Taminar flow (also known as streamline flow) the water particles travel in parallel paths, Tisis possible when theriveris having afat radione inl low velocity, The movement of ground water and also that of Slaciers ae generally laminar in nature Ine case of natural seas oF vers, the flow of water i so rapid thatthe motion of water particles is Tregutar ie., the ratc of flow at each of the river is not constant swan regard to either velocity or drcion. Thus the flow is random and Shaping, ‘Thus turbulent fow is characterised by eddies, which result _Sathe thorough mixifg ofthe enire mass of flowing water from bowlom to top. Ithas been commonly observed thatthe maximum turbulates Tesjustbeneath andon her side ofthe maximum velocity Le: nea the midstream and near the stream where contact between waterand bed seis up eddying. When there are eddies the water takes up the debris oe eal from the botiom and brings them in toa suspended state. When partcam follows a.curve,then the greatest velocity is shifted towards the deeper water which is generally on the ouside of a curve. ‘a tiver'swork capacity isgoverned by tskineticenergy. Accord ing tothe formula of kinetic energy. cw BME + incase of iver 2 K = the kinetic energy of the river, ‘m= mass of water or the discharge, Y= velocity ofthe stream flow. Ttindicates that the ability of river to perform work s more when theriver caries much water and the velocity ofthe steam flow is high arsnotier words, te rivers work capacity is directly proportional othe ‘mass of water and velocity of stream flow. GEOLOGICAL-ACTION OF RIVER f eaat der cant during the later stages. It may, however, be remembered that GEOLOGICAL WORK OF RIVERS 217 1 Accordingly rivers are considered as the most important ofthe i important oh geomorphic agents in bringing st ibe drain of (Of the above processes, the first four are th ane ur are the types of mechani rosin and the lst one belongs 10 the type of chemical oa Ezosion is manly responsible fr the development of river valleys though riverbed erosion Ge. downcuting of the river bed) and Iara erosion. While riverbed erosion is predominant during. the ‘of development of a river, lateral erosion. becomes signif the i Processes of erosion operate in their own ways, both for down-218 TEXT BOOK OF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY Cutting or lateral cutting of river-valleys: Is the process of mechanical loosening or removal of the material by the action of the water alone, As we know, itis the turbulent flow of water which can loosen rock and soil particles along the river channel and move them away. Maximum turbulance gives maximum capacity for erosion. It is, therefore, that maximum erosion takes place in the belt of greatest turbulance along the outside of a stream bend. The effectiveness of hydraulic action of a river is dependent on the following faciors: (@) Gradient 1 is the the angle of inclination of two points along the stream divided by the horizontal distance between these two points, (b) Velocity of the stream. (©) Width, depth and shape of the channel (@, Discharge i.e. the amount of water flowing in the river at a given time , ‘The stream channel and banks are eroded by moving water due 10 the forces inherent in.them, Hydraulic action’s effectiveness is best observed where the flow of water is responsible for undercutting banks of unconsolidated alluvium. ‘The material which are being carried away by the running water act as tools of destruction and during their transportation, because of their rubbing agairst the surface of the bed-rock, they bring about a serapping of the surface. , This process of wearing-away of surfaces by mechanical processes such as rubbing, cutting, scratching, grinding, ishing etc. is known-as Abrasion 9r Corrasion. Sa Te: a and scour their chaanel or in other words, the rock-wastes which are being carried in tke river current as load are responsible for the abrasive action of the river. Three types of situations may arise, GEOLOGICAL WORK OF RIVERS 219 i: 38 follows on the basis ofthe hardness of the transported material: © ifthe rock-waste is hard and the bed-rock is soft. 4 k I-rock is soft abrasion of bed-rock is more pronounced, = Gi) ifrock-waste is hard and bed-rock is also hard, it results in the Polishing of the bed-rock. (Gil) ifrock-waste is soft and bed-rock is hard, abrasion of the bed: rock is not remarkable, since the rock-waste, in such cases, is itself eroded away, Abrasion may be vertical or lateral, While vertical abrasion causes deepening of the channel, lateral abrasion gives rise to valley- widening. The abrasive action of the river is considered to be the most. important means of erosion in bed-rock which are 100 strong 10 be affected by simple hydraulic action. ‘The products of abrasion and hydraulic action are carried away in the iver-flow, which often collide among themselves, with the bedrock and + also with the sides during their transit and in tum get themselves teared This process of mechanical wear and tear of the transported. rock {fragments through which big boulders aré gradually reduced in size and finally reach the size-grade of sand and silt, is known as attrition. Since, in: this process rock-tragments in transit suffer mutual collision and repeated impacts, their irregularities and angularities _ Are worn out and they become spherical and rounded. f ‘ti sometimes considered as a type of hydraulic actio ‘Particularly observed where river water suddenly acquires { ceptionally a high velocity such as at water-falls. Rapid i Velocity reduce the internal pressure in the water. “Tt has: established that where stream velocity exceeds 12-1 ressure at that point equals vapour pressuire of water’a Of water vapour form and the water foams. As <0 “eereased due to friction against the floor or sid220 TEXT BOOK OF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY intemal pressure increases again and the bubbles become unstable. The bubbles then collapse suddenly and violently resulting in shock waves which deliver hammer-like blows to the adjoining surface (bed and ‘banks) producing a crop of rock-fragments to becarried away by theriver flow. This process, thus, produces hollows in river beds which, in ue course, are developed into pot-holes. ‘Sometimes, highly turbulent rivers in rocky channels erode their beds by hydraulic plucking, in which blocks of bed-rocks etc. are lifted ‘out by suction in strong eddies spiraling up around vertical axes. This sucking out of the rock pieces produces depressions or holes within the rock, which may develop into pot-holes in due course of time. Thus the rate of erosion is speeded up due to the process of cavitation. ‘The chemical processes of rock-erosion by river-water are known as Corrosion of Solution. In the presence of some aiding substances like alkali materand gases like carbon-dioxide etc, river wateriscapable of dissolving matter from minerals that constitute the bed-rock in the channel and the rock particles in transport. It has been observed that whenever the water containing carbon-dioxide comes in contact ‘with limestone, it gets dissolved into the water easily. The effectiveness of the process'of corrosion depends much on the composition of the rock constituting the river bed (ie. its solubility) and the composition of the river-water. IMPORTANT EROSIONAL FEATURES PRODUCED BY RIVER ACTION . 1. Pot-holes These are cylindrical or bow!-like depressions in the rocky beds of streams, which are excavated in the floors ofthe streams by extensive, localised abrasion. These are commonly formed in the softer bed-rocks of the stream floor. The drilling of the pot-holes are usually caused by stones swirled round by eddies, The boulders and pebbles etc. act as boring tools and themselves Becomes rounded in the process, while the potholes continue o grow in size. Pot-holes may vary in dimensions ranging from a few centimetres to several metres. “GEOLOGICAL WORK OF RIVERS 224 2. Water falls When the river flows over surface with an originally broken relief, the river literally falls from a height and acquires ‘normal flow against some distance below. ‘Thus, sheer precipices along the course of a river give rise 10 waterfalls. As we know, the surface over which a river flows is usually tuneven and sometimes the rocks composing the surface are of different hhardness. The harder beds may withstand erosion by river. while the softer ones are relatively quickly worn down causing a local differ- ence of elevation in the channel. Two types of situations may arise. (@ if.ahard bed dips gently down the stream, that the steepness is ‘ot so pronounced, the river passing over it generally forms a ‘rapid. These are: water-falls of small-dimensions. | | {A&B = Ouerop of resistant rocks | X & Y= Slope on which the river flows. | 123, = Sottede | x i KR. | SS = | ee ' ees y Fic. Gip irthe'nafa bed is Horizontal or dips’ gently up’ thé siréam; the river will erode away partially the softer rocks beneath it. In such cases, the hard rock may stand as a ledge where trom water Jumps down, falling on lower beds with increased velocity, kiving rise to what is known as a waterfall. Thus, when a river falls from a vertical escarpment it forms a waterfall. Due to recession, gradually there takes place a diminution, height of a waterfall and with continued recession, waterfall ‘degenerate into rapids and become extinct. A fall that descends in a series of leaps is referred Gerosoppa (Jog) water-falls in the Swarvati River’ “the highest water-fall-in India. Sg ae 3. River valleys The typical river rises in the down duc to the pull of gravity. The channels carve230 TEXT BOOK OF PHYSICAL GBOLOGY 9, Badlands “These are rugged land surface of steep slopes, which are developed on weak clay formations of clay-tich regolith by ‘Alyvial erosion too rapig io permit plant growth and soil formation. Clay and silt formation have litde permeability, as such there is litle infitra: tion of water. Besides, they are weak and yield readily to the attack of running water. Therefore, due i pronounced erosion, the terrain constituted of argillaceous rocks are intricately dissocted by gullies and ravines. Such terrains are known as badlands, As we know, the work carried out by a river is related to.the energy available (0 it, Each river has @ certain quantity of potential energy ‘determined by the height of its source region and the volume of water ‘entering the river system, This energy is converted to kinetic energy as itmoves through the system. The products both of fluvial erosion and ‘weathering constitute tie load ofthe river which are carried downstream long with the flow of running water. That is to say that river transports 4ts load due to the kinetic energy associated with its flow. ‘The load cared by a river can be subdivided as follows: Transporation of Loat ofa aver Jes: 1 (Chemical-Transporstion ‘Mechanical-transportation {carried in solution (carried mechanically as dissolved load) due to the force of the current of the flow as sediment Carried in suspension Carried along the bed as bed-load as suspended load ‘The percentage of contribution to whe total Joad made by the aforesaid classes vary widely with the nature of the river, the climate, the lithology of the river-bed etc, A river carries the greatest amount of materials during floods and spates. @ Saltation and GEOLOGICAL WORK OF RIVERS 211 considerable amount of mineral matter is tanported in a dissolved state Le. in solution. ‘The foad in solution sctually becomes a part of the liquid in the stream. Limestone, dolomite ‘and salls are very much soluble and some compounds of iron, manga nese, phosphorous etc. are transported in the form of collidal solution. |2.Mechanical Transportation This is influenced by three main factors as follows: (@) Velocity of the river-current; (©) Nature of the river-current; and (©) Density of rock materials to be transported. ‘The load carried through the mechanism of mechanical wranspor- tation are grouped in to two categories as Suspended load and Bed load. Fine particles of clay and silt are transported in suspension. These particles sometime float on the surface of the water and sometinse they are carried within the water and become part of the fluid mass. The intensity of turbulance and the velocity ofthe river-flow determines the: Jength of time a particle remains in suspension, 1. comprises the heavier particles of sand, pebbles, gravels und cobbles which move close to the channel floor by rolling or sliding and an occasional low leap. It is moved along on, and supported by the bed of the channel. The transportation ofthe bed-load takes place in two ways: i) Traction. () Sattaiion Here a panicle resting on the river-bed is. empora- rily lifted up by the eddies and is carried wo some distance before it again falls wo rest. The smaller the particle, the higher the lift and the longer the jump. This process of Saltation is mostly effective in the transportation of sand grains. (ii) Traction The transportation of sediments by creeping is known as ‘traction’, Bigger fragments of rocks like boulders, cobt32 TENT ROOK OF PHYSICAL GEOLOGY Se thie ‘are rolled long the oltcin er they imey stip dnd hong ine cana. The weight of fapments Out can te roled Sioar the Potion is proportional to the sitth power of seam iy. aceerling 40 the Airy’s law. This a mountain river ‘anspor rock-fragments of bigger size much more in Com ‘Parison to that of the flat-country rivers, importani deposition IMPORTANT DEPOSITIONAL FEATURES | BY RIVER ACTION ean 1, Alluvial fans and Cones When streams flow abruptly from steeper to gentler gradients, as at the base of a mountain or ridge, its velocity is checked and the huge quantities of material casried by the river are dropped there giving rise to a brosd, Jow'cone-shaped deposit called an alluvial fan. Thus alluvial fans form where a stream leaves a confined valley and enters a flatier region. The material constituting a fan includes coarse boulders and pebbles ai its head to finer material pace a are Doulders And Pebbles al ts head 10 finer mpertal downs slope. ‘The terin alluvial fan is commonly used when the slope of the ‘deposit is below 10 degrees and alluvial cone when the slope is from 10 EROLOGICAL WORK OF RIVERS 9 to SO degrees Aseries of adjacent fans may itt time coalesce to forman extentive piedmont alluvial plain, alse krow a Baiada’. 2. Flood-plaia deposits Flood. plains ate areas of tow and refatively fat tand bordering the channel on one or both the sides. at bank evel “These areas are readily submerged under water during feed time, when the river water overtops the banks of the channel and rises above: the channel at low water. Deposits formed on floed plain by Flood-water ‘outside the actual channel. are known as Overbunk deposits. ‘A number of features are associated with the flood plains, which are.as follows: (@) Meanders and oxbow lake Dominating the flood-plain i the ‘meandering river channel, i. the river lows across the flood plain in broad sweeping curves, Known as meanders. Mean ders are common where the gradient of a river becomes extremely low. Ina flood plain a slight obstacle oF. accidental invegularity usually causes adeviation of the cutrent with whe initiation of a bend. Once started the bends tend 10 grow and ‘gradually become more pronounced. The water flows faster around the outerside of the bend.and is slow on the ineer cufve. ‘Accordingly, erosion becomes more towards the outside: of each bend and the channel deepens along the downstream part of the bend which is also vermed as theunder-cut side, AL the same time there starts. deposition towards the innerside of each bend forming what is known ax the stip~ff stope, Thus the river shifts its channel: wowards the outer tank and aves gently rounded slip-off slope on the inside of the growing curve. ‘A meander grows until it becomes. bullrshaped with. a narrow neck, because: of the constant broadening of @ fiver’ ‘bond during the ecosionof the outer bank and deposition 08 the inner bank, During floods, the increased pawer af the flow may carry the stream across. this neck. As a teaulh the: river straighlens ils channel. The former meander, therefore, re mains asa back-water for sometime and- th entrances to ‘gradually get silted up since the river follows the “shonest i | i {