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Physical and Physiological Profiles of Taekwondo Athletes

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Sports Med (2014) 44:713–733
DOI 10.1007/s40279-014-0159-9
REVIEW ARTICLE
Physical and Physiological Profiles of Taekwondo Athletes
Craig A. Bridge • Jonatas Ferreira da Silva Santos •
Helmi Chaabène • Willy Pieter • Emerson Franchini
Published online: 19 February 2014
Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2014
Abstract Taekwondo has evolved into a modern-day
Olympic combat sport. The physical and physiological
demands of modern-day taekwondo competition require
athletes to be competent in several aspects of fitness. This
review critically explores the physical and physiological
characteristics of taekwondo athletes and presents impli-
cations for training and research. International taekwondo
athletes possess low levels of body fat and a somatotype
that characterises a blend of moderate musculoskeletal
tissue and relative body linearity. While there is some
variation in the maximum oxygen uptake of taekwondo
athletes, moderate to high levels of cardio-respiratory
C. A. Bridge (&)
Sport and Exercise Research Group, Department of Sport and
Physical Activity, Wilson Centre, Edge Hill University,
St Helens Road, Ormskirk L39 4QP, UK
e-mail: bridgec@edgehill.ac.uk
J. Ferreira da Silva Santos
E. Franchini
Martial Arts and Combat Sports Research Group, Sport
Department, School of Physical Education and Sport,
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
H. Chaabène
Research Unit, Analysis and Evaluation of Factors Affecting
Sport Performance, Higher Institute of Sports and Physical
Education, Ksar Said, Tunisia
H. Chaabène
Higher Institute of Sports and Physical Education,
Manouba University, Tunis, Tunisia
W. Pieter
Department of Taekwondo, College of Physical Education,
Keimyung University, Daegu, Republic of Korea
E. Franchini
Faculty of Sports Sciences, University of Montpellier,
Montpellier, France
fitness are necessary to support the metabolic demands of
fighting and to facilitate recovery between consecutive
matches. Taekwondo athletes demonstrate high peak
anaerobic power characteristics of the lower limbs and this
attribute appears to be conducive to achieving success in
international competition. The ability to generate and sus-
tain power output using both concentric and ‘stretch-
shortening cycle’ muscle actions of the lower limbs may be
important to support the technical and tactical actions in
combat. Taekwondo competitors also display moderate to
high maximum dynamic strength characteristics of the
lower and upper extremities, and moderate endurance
properties of the trunk and hip flexor musculature. The
dynamic nature of the technical and tactical actions in the
sport demand high flexibility of the lower limbs. More
extensive research is required into the physical and phys-
iological characteristics of taekwondo athletes to extend
existing knowledge and to permit specialised conditioning
for different populations within the sport.
1 Introduction
Taekwondo has evolved into a modern-day Olympic
combat sport. The sport element of taekwondo is practiced
under various governing bodies, but the World Taekwondo
Federation (WTF) is officially responsible for implement-
ing the rules and regulations in Olympic competition as
well as in world championships [1]. In addition to Olympic
competition, WTF events are regularly organised at
regional, national and international levels according to the
athletes’ age, sex, skill level and weight category. Matches
are typically structured across three 2-min rounds with a
1-min interval separating each round [1]. The objective of a
match is to overcome an opponent by obtaining either a
123
714
greater quantity of points for the execution of kicking and
punching techniques to permitted scoring areas or by
achieving a technical knockout. Under the current WTF
scoring system, 1 point is awarded for a valid attack on the
trunk protector, 2 points for a valid turning kick to the
trunk protector, 3 points for a valid kick to the head, and 4
points for a valid turning kick to the head [1]. Valid
techniques are those that are delivered accurately and
powerfully to legal scoring areas of the body and accu-
rately to permitted regions of the head [1]. Taekwondo
matches, similar to those in most combat sports, are
structured according to specific weight divisions. In
national, regional and international events, senior male
(\54, \58,\63, \68,\74, \80 kg, up to and including 87
and [87 kg) and female (\46, 49,\53, \57, \62,\67 kg,
up to and including 73 and [73 kg) competitors fight in
eight distinct weight divisions. In the Olympic Games,
males (\58, \68 kg, up to and including 80 and [80 kg)
and females (\49, \57 kg, up to and including 67 and
[67 kg) compete in four weight divisions. Successful
contestants, irrespective of weight division and competition
level, may be required to compete in several matches
during a single day.
Performance in taekwondo may be determined by a
competitor’s technical, tactical, psychological, physical
and physiological characteristics [2]. Taekwondo training
is therefore structured to target these specific performance
mediators [2, 3]. From a physical conditioning perspective,
the goal of taekwondo training is to prepare competitors to
effectively manage both the physical activity and the
physiological demands of combat. This approach to con-
ditioning requires detailed knowledge of both the physio-
logical demands of competition and the physical
capabilities of the competitors [4–7]. In championship
combats, competitors perform brief periods of fighting
activity [attacks] (1–5 s) interposed with longer periods of
non-fighting activity [pause] at average ratios between 1:2
and 1:7 in different taekwondo styles [8–13]. These con-
tests elicit near maximal heart rate (HR) responses ([90 %
HRpeak) and high lactate concentrations (7.0–12.2
mmol l-1), which infer that high demands are imposed
upon both aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during the
bouts [4, 8, 9, 11, 14–16].
The physical activity and physiological requirements of
taekwondo competition require athletes to be competent in
several aspects of fitness, including aerobic and anaerobic
power, muscular strength, muscular power, flexibility,
speed and agility [5, 6, 8, 17]. It is therefore important that
coaches and sports scientists collect objective information
about their players’ physical performance capabilities to
substantiate the objectives of training, establish short- and
long-term training programmes, provide objective feed-
back and to motivate athletes during training. In this
123
C. A. Bridge et al.
context, the information obtained from physical perfor-
mance tests can be used to identify strengths and weak-
nesses in an individual’s physical attributes, to monitor
fitness status over time and to verify the effectiveness of
specific training interventions [18, 19]. Such information
may also be useful to identify physical attributes that are
favourable for competitive success and serve as an indi-
cator of the minimum fitness standards required to compete
at specific levels [5, 8].
The objective of this review is therefore to present and
critically appraise the available data on the physical and
physiological characteristics of taekwondo athletes. It is
hoped that this information will serve as an ergonomic
framework to assist coaches and scientists to effectively
prepare competitors for the physiological demands of tae-
kwondo competition. This critical analysis may also help to
inform the direction and methodology of future investiga-
tions, thereby ensuring that the knowledge base that is created
is relevant to both scientific and practitioner communities.
2 Methods
A computer literature search of PubMed, ISI Web of
Knowledge, Google Scholar, SportDiscusÒ and Scopus
was performed for English-language peer-reviewed articles
from inception to March 2013 using the following key-
words: ‘taekwondo’, ‘taekwondo AND performance’,
‘taekwondo AND physical fitness’, ‘taekwondo AND
physiology’, ‘taekwondo AND body composition’, ‘tae-
kwondo AND somatotype’, ‘taekwondo AND aerobic fit-
ness’, ‘taekwondo AND anaerobic fitness’, ‘taekwondo
AND strength’, ‘taekwondo AND flexibility’, ‘taekwondo
AND speed’ and ‘taekwondo AND agility’. The electronic
search was supplemented by manual inspection of the
reference lists of the retrieved articles, where appropriate,
to locate additional articles that matched the key search
terms and major themes of the review. The themes of the
review were selected to represent the major fitness com-
ponents that are required to support the physical activity
and the physiological demands of combat in the context of
athlete preparation and performance, including body
composition, somatotype, aerobic and anaerobic power,
muscular strength, muscular power, flexibility, speed and
agility. Only those articles examining the above-mentioned
fitness characteristics, using established and accepted
methods, in the context of athlete preparation and perfor-
mance were included. Articles that demonstrated tenuity
and/or ambiguity in the fitness tests/methods used to obtain
data, and/or those that reported aspects that lacked
emphasis on, or direct application to, athlete preparation
and performance (e.g. injury prevention, rehabilitation,
heath and wellbeing focus) were omitted.
Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes 715

Table 1 Body fat percentage of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)
Athlete characteristics (n) Body mass Body fat (%) Method (prediction equation reference) References
(kg)

Male
US international (14) 70.9 ± 12.0 7.5 ± 1.5 Skinfold measures (Lohman [99], Siri [100]) Pieter and Taaffe
[101]
US international (12) 72.5 ± 12.2  7.5 ± 1.7  Skinfold measures (Lohman [99], Siri [100]) Taaffe and Pieter
[30]
Recreational (14) 73.1 ± 10.1 18.9 ± 5.4 Underwater weighing (Wilmore [102]) Thompson and
Vinueza [103]
Polish national (7) 66.4 ± 4.8 13.2 ± 2 NR Drabik [104]
US junior Olympic camps
Pre-pubertal 45.4 ± 1.8 13.8 ± 0.8 Skinfold measures (Slaughter et al. [105]) Bercades et al. [50]
Post-pubertal 62.2 ± 1.2 11.0 ± 0.4
Korean
International (11) 76.6 ± 9.5 7.3 ± 1.4* Skinfold measures (Ross and Marfell-Jones Olds and Kang [25]
State (90) 70.6 ± 9.9 10.7 ± 3.9 [106])
Taiwanese international (11) 65.4 ± 6.9 13.2 ± 1.0 NR Lin et al. [48]
Czech international (11) 62.3 ± 7.4 8.2 ± 3.1 Skinfold measures (Seliger [107]) Heller et al. [8]
Puerto Rican international (13) 67.1 ± 11.8 9.6 ± 2.7 Skinfold measures (Siri [100]) Rivera et al. [29]
Jordanian athletes Skinfold measures (Lohman [108], Lohman Melhim [110]
Club-level adolescent (19) 52.4 ± 3.6 13.1 ± 4.9 et al. [109])
Recreational
Novice (7) 81.2 ± 15.3 ,à 16.0 ± 5.4 ,à Skinfold measures (Jackson and Pollock [111]) Toskovic et al. [27]
 
Experienced (7) 68.6 ± 6.8 12.7 ± 3.7 
Tunisian international (8) 70.8 ± 6 11.8 ± 3 Skinfold measures (Durnin and Womersley Bouhlel et al. [17]
[112])
Malaysian recreational adolescents 56.4 ± 7.7 19.6 ± 2.6 Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al. Erie and Pieter [114]
(8) [113])
Malaysian junior recreational (30) 47.8 ± 14.4 18.6 ± 4.0  Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al. Erie and Pieter [114]
[113])
German international (31) 70.6 ± 12.2 8.7 ± 1.7 Skinfold measures and bioelectrical impedance Fritzsche and
(Siri [115]) Raschkam [116]
Kelantan team—Malaysian (8) 68.3 ± 20.7 21.4 ± 6.3 Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al. Noorul et al. [65]
[113])
Brazilian state (12) 71.3 ± 9.5 11.7 ± 2.1 Skinfold measures (Faulkner [117]) Sant’Ana et al.
[118]
Taiwanese university team (16) 71.1 ± 10.2 16.6 ± 5 Bioelectrical impedance (NR) Tsai et al. [22]
Spanish international (8) s 78.0 9.5 Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry and Úbeda et al. [119]
bioelectrical impedance (NR)
Israeli national athletes (10) (junior 49 ± 9.9 14.1 ± 2.8  Skinfold measures (Slaughter et al. [105]) Pilz-Burstein et al.
and cadet division) [120]
Italian international (11) 78.6 ± 14.0 10.9 ± 2.0 Skinfold measures (Jackson and Pollock [111]) Chiodo et al. [16]
Turkish
International (24) 71.1 ± 10.7 11.8 ± 1.9** Skinfold measures (Yuhasz [121]) Ghorbanzadeh et al.
Recreational (24) 64.2 ± 7.3 10.5 ± 1.3 [38]
Females
US international (15) 59.3 ± 8.4 12.9 ± 2.5 Skinfold measures (Jackson et al. [122], Siri Pieter and Taaffe
[100]) [101]
US international (8) 61.4 ± 8.6  12.0 ± 1.7  Skinfold measures (Jackson et al. [122], Siri Taaffe and Pieter
[100]) [30]
US junior olympic
Pre-pubertal 47.6 ± 3.1 20.4 ± 1.5 Skinfold measures (Slaughter et al. [105]) Bercades et al. [50]
Post-pubertal 53.2 ± 1.0 19.5 ± 0.5

123
716 C. A. Bridge et al.

Table 1 continued
Athlete characteristics (n) Body mass Body fat (%) Method (prediction equation reference) References
(kg)

Taiwanese international (7) 55.6 ± 7.3 19.4 ± 4.3 NR Lin et al. [48]
Czech international (12) 69.9 ± 8.7 15.4 ± 5.1 Skinfold measures (Seliger [107]) Heller et al. [8]
Puerto Rican international (9) 58.6 ± 11.2 18.3 ± 5.6 Skinfold measures (Lohman [123]) Rivera et al. [29]
US athletes
Novice (7) 63.5 ± 3.1  20.3 ± 3.9 ,à Skinfold measures (Jackson and Pollock [111]) Toskovic et al. [27]
   
Experienced (7) 59.4 ± 10.2 16.1 ± 3.8
Croatian international (13) 60.1 ± 9.0 16.5 ± 2.7 Skinfold measures (Durnin and Rahaman Marković et al. [5]
[124])
Iranian international (13) 57.5 ± 13.7 17.3 ± 4.4 NR Rahmani-Nia et al.
[125]
Malaysian recreational adolescents 52.4 ± 5.8 31.1 ± 2.6 Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al. Erie and Pieter [114]
(8) [113])
Malaysian junior developmental 45.5 ± 15.0 29.9 ± 5.2  Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al. Erie and Pieter [114]
team (27) [113])
Kelantan team—Malaysian (9) 59.7 ± 10.0 32.5 ± 3.9 Regression equation (Deurenberg-Yap et al. Noorul et al. [65]
[113])
German international (21) 57.8 ± 5.4 15.8 ± 2.5 Skinfold measures and bioelectrical impedance Fritzsche and
(Siri [115]) Raschkam [116]
Croatian international (7) 59.8 ± 10.5 14.8 ± 1.7 Skinfold measures (Durnin and Rahaman Markovic et al.
[124]) [126]
Taiwanese national sport university 56.7 ± 6.0 23.7 ± 3.1 Bioelectrical impedance (NR) Tsai et al. [22]
(10)
Israeli international (10) (junior and 50 ± 6.8 24 ± 3.2  Skinfold measures (Slaughter et al. [105]) Pilz-Burstein et al.
cadet division) [120]
Italian international (4) 59.8 ± 2.3 16.5 ± 4.9 Skinfold measures (Jackson and Pollock [111]) Chiodo et al. [16]
Turkish
International (16) 60.3 ± 8.3 11.2 ± 1.6** Skinfold measures (Yuhasz [121]) Ghorbanzadeh et al.
Recreational (16) 54.4 ± 4.8 12.3 ± 1.3 [38]
Recreational adolescents (21) Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (NR) Kim et al. [19]
Pre-training 53.0 ± 6.1 31.2 ± 4.1^
Post-training 29.0 ± 4.3
Korean adolescents—different levels 58.6 ± 12.8 15.4 ± 7.4 Bioelectrical impedance (NR) Lee et al. [127]
(23)
 
Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): * International vs. state; ** International vs. recreational; Sex
difference; à Novice vs. experienced; ^ Pre- vs. post-training
International athletes who compete at international level, National athletes who compete at national level, NR not reported, Recreational non-
competitive and/or club practitioners, s SD not reported, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level

3 Body Composition and Somatotype
3.1 Body Composition
A significant proportion of taekwondo athletes regularly
reduce their body mass to compete in selected weight
divisions [20–22]. To optimise the power-to-weight ratio
in combat, it is desirable for competitors to achieve this
body mass change via reductions in fat mass with mini-
mal disruption to musculature [23]. In accord with this
principle, elite international taekwondo competitors dem-
onstrate a propensity for low levels of body fat (Table 1).
The percentage of body fat reported for this specific
population of competitors ranges between 7–14 % and
12–19 % for males and females, respectively (Table 1).
Based on the studies presented in Table 1, the mean body
fat percentage is approximately 10 and 15 % for inter-
national male and female athletes, respectively. This
range of values, albeit low, is within the limits recom-
mended to maintain health [24]. While it is not possible
to provide recommendations about the optimal body fat
percentage required to facilitate performance, the avail-
able data suggest that low levels may be a prerequisite for
international competition.

123
Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes
The literature provides evidence of differences in body
composition between athletes who engage in different
levels of competition (Table 1). Olds and Kang [25], for
instance, identified a lower proportion of body fat in
international competitors (7.3 %) than their state-level
counterparts (10.7 %; d = 0.93, 95 % confidence interval
[CI] 0.13–1.76). However, this finding has not been
observed consistently in studies that have implemented
within-study comparisons of different levels of competitors
[26]. As the available data in this area are somewhat dated
[25, 26], there is need for further research into the body fat
characteristics of athletes who compete at different levels
of competition, especially since recent rule changes could
impact on such characteristics. However, more recent
evidence does provide evidence of disparity in body fat
between practitioners of varying levels of experience
(Table 1), although the effect was unclear for both males
(d = 0.73, 95 % CI -3.28–3.47) and females (d = 1.09,
95 % CI -1.80–3.91) [27]. Toskovic et al. [27], for
instance, reported significantly lower body fat in experi-
enced male (12.7 %) and female (16 %) taekwondo prac-
titioners than in their novice counterparts (males 16.1 %;
females 20.3 %) (Table 1). The variation in body compo-
sition between different levels of competition and experi-
ence may be a function of divergent training volumes [27],
nutritional practices and/or the requirements to ‘make
weight’ for competition [22, 28].
Female taekwondo athletes tend to demonstrate greater
body fat than their male counterparts [8, 16, 29, 30]. This
trend is also evident among non-competitive male and
female practitioners [27], and is consistent with the norma-
tive data reported across a range of sports [31]. The body fat
range reported for junior male (11–14.1 %) and female
(19.5–24 %) competitive taekwondo athletes tends to be
higher than that reported for their senior counterparts
(Table 1). This may reflect a reduced emphasis on/impor-
tance of ‘weight making’ practices in this younger population
and/or differences in the training volumes. However, com-
petitive junior taekwondo athletes do exhibit a lower range of
body fat than their recreational counterparts, which is prob-
ably a function of disparate training volumes [19].
The available data provide insight into the body fat of
taekwondo practitioners, which seems to be mediated by
numerous factors, including competition level, experience,
sex and age. The variation in body fat demonstrated by
these different taekwondo populations should be
acknowledged when developing strategies to ‘make
weight’ for competition. To the best of our knowledge,
there have been no attempts to describe the body fat per-
centage of taekwondo athletes in relation to different
weight categories. As each weight division may warrant
different body composition requirements, further research
is clearly needed in this area.
717
To date, skinfold measures constitute the most widely
used method to estimate the body fat percentage of tae-
kwondo practitioners (Table 1), which probably reflects the
accessibility and ease of use of the equipment in the field.
However, practitioners should be aware of the potential
limitations of using different prediction equations to esti-
mate body fat percentage via this method [32]. Indeed, a
potential area for future research may be the development
of reliable and valid prediction equations, specifically for
taekwondo athletes, similar to those devised in other sports.
This approach may improve the knowledge base that is
generated via this method and thereby the efficacy of the
‘weight making’ practices used in the field.
3.2 Somatotype
The somatotype of male taekwondo athletes is typically
characterised by a higher proportion of mesomorphy,
indicating a predominance of musculoskeletal tissue
(Table 2). This tends to be accompanied by a smaller,
albeit sometimes evenly distributed, ectomorphy compo-
nent, characterising the relative linearity, and a markedly
lower endomorphy, reflecting the relative degree of fatness
(Table 2). Male taekwondo athletes may therefore be pre-
dominantly classified as ‘ectomorphic mesomorph’ in
accordance with conventional descriptors [33]. Despite
such broad classification, Olds and Kang [25] have repor-
ted significantly smaller endomorphy, but similar meso-
morphy and ectomorphy, in international male athletes
when compared with their state and recreational level
counterparts (Table 2). This finding seems to coincide with
the lower body fat exhibited by international compared
with both state and recreational competitors (Table 1) and
may imply a greater power-to-weight ratio in this group of
athletes. In contrast to senior male competitors, a sub-
stantial number of junior male athletes display comparable
mesomorphy and ectomorphy, resulting in a more ‘meso-
morph-ectomorph’ character [34–36]—possibly a function
of maturation [37]. The somatotype of senior female ath-
letes is less concordant, but there is evidence of higher
proportions of both mesomorphy [38] and ectomorphy [30]
components in international female competitors. However,
female athletes do typically demonstrate higher endomor-
phy than their male counterparts (Table 2). In contrast with
international senior female competitors, junior and recre-
ational female athletes appear to display a more ‘central’
[33] somatotype [35, 36].
The somatotype data presented here may serve as a
framework for athlete preparation and a valuable com-
posite of talent identification. The predominant mesomor-
phic and ectomorphic character displayed by international
male and female taekwondo athletes would suggest that a
blend of moderate musculoskeletal tissue and relative body
123
718 C. A. Bridge et al.

Table 2 Somatotype of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)

Athlete characteristics (n) Endomorphy Mesomorphy Ectomorphy References

Males
Junior athletes (9) 2.0 ± 0.4 4.0 ± 0.8 4.3 ± 0.9 Pieter and Taaffe [34]
US international (12) 1.6 ± 0.6 4.5 ± 1.0  3.6 ± 1.3 Taaffe and Pieter [30]
Korean
International (11) 1.4 ± 0.3*,** 4.1 ± 1.0 3.2 ± 1.0 Olds and Kang [25]
State (90) 2.2 ± 1.0 4.5 ± 1.0 2.7 ± 0.8
Recreational (45) 2.5 ± 1.1 4.9 ± 1.2 2.5 ± 1.1
US junior team (9) 2.2 ± 0.7 4.0 ± 0.8 3.8 ± 0.9 Pieter [35]
US junior Olympic taekwondo athletes
Competition experience \5 y (41) 2.3 ± 0.9  4.3 ± 1.3  3.3 ± 1.4 Pieter [36]
Competition experience [5 y (37) 2.2 ± 0.8  4.1 ± 1.1  3.7 ± 1.3
British athletes club level (10) 4.2 ± 1.1  4.7 ± 1 2.9 ± 1 Chan et al. [128]
German international (31) s 3.0 4.7 3.8 Fritzsche and Raschkam [116]
Cuban international (28) 1.8 ± 0.4 4.4 ± 1.1 3.5 ± 0.9 León et al. [129]
Turkish
International (24) 2.6 ± 0.7** 2.6 ± 1.5** 3.5 ± 1.0 Ghorbanzadeh et al. [38]
Recreational (24) 2.0 ± 0.5 3.6 ± 1.1 3.7 ± 0.9
Females
US international (8) 2.1 ± 0.4 3.2 ± 0.8  4.0 ± 1.0 Taaffe and Pieter [30]
US junior Olympic taekwondo athletes Pieter [36]
Competition experience \5 y (24) 3.3 ± 0.9  3.5 ± 1.0  2.9 ± 1.2
 
Competition experience [5 y (27) 3.1 ± 0.8 3.3 ± 1.2  3.2 ± 1.6
US junior team (9) 2.9 ± 0.7 3.2 ± 1.0 3.4 ± 1.0 Pieter [35]
British athletes club level (10) 6.3 ± 1.5  4.2 ± 1 2±1 Chan et al. [128]
German international (21) s 4.0 4.2 3.5 Fritzsche and Raschkam [116]
Turkish Ghorbanzadeh et al. [38]
International (16) 2.4 ± 0.9** 5.1 ± 1.2** 3.6 ± 1.1
Recreational (16) 3.1 ± 0.7 3.4 ± 1.1 3.1 ± 0.9
 
Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): * International vs. state; ** International vs. recreational; sex difference
International athletes who compete at international level, National athletes who compete at national level, Recreational non-competitive and/or club
practitioners, s SD not reported, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level

linearity with low relative fatness may be desirable for this
sport. Indeed, a number of authors postulate that longer
lower extremities may be advantageous in combat sports
where kicking techniques constitute the predominant
means of attack [5, 39]. However, there is limited evidence
to suggest that the length of the upper and lower extremi-
ties may directly influence success in taekwondo [5, 39–
41]. Some research groups have identified reciprocal
ponderal index (males r = -0.45; females r = 0.68) and
height (males r = -0.48; females r = 0.60) as the most
significant anthropometric factors contributing to the match
outcome in senior national taekwondo athletes [42].
Whereas, in university taekwondo athletes, height (females
r = 0.611) and mesomorphy (males r = 0.377) were
reported as potential anthropometric performance predic-
tors, second to general taekwondo experience (males
r = 0.943; females r = 0.644) and competition-specific
experience (males r = 0.924; females r = 0.611) [42].
Taken together, these data support the notion that a com-
bination of moderate muscular skeletal tissue and relative
body linearity is desirable for taekwondo competition.
Future research is warranted into the somatotypes of spe-
cific weight divisions to extend the existing knowledge
base.
4 Anaerobic Profile
In championship matches, taekwondo competitors repeat-
edly perform brief periods of fighting [attacks] (1–5 s)
interposed with longer periods of non-fighting [pause] at
average ratios between 1:2 and 1:7 [8–13]. These brief
fighting to non-fighting ratios impose a high demand upon
anaerobic metabolic pathways, namely phosphocreatine
(PCr) degradation and moderate anaerobic glycolysis
activation [4, 8, 9, 11, 16]. As such, taekwondo competitors

123
Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes 719

Table 3 Lower body Wingate anaerobic test performance in taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)
Athlete characteristics (n) and test details Peak power (W) Peak power Mean power Mean power References
(W/kg) (W) (W/kg)

US international Taaffe and Pieter

M (12) 30 s Wingate test [load: 0.075 kp/kg] 864.6 ± 246.2  
11.8 ± 2.0 671.2 ± 151.3  
9.2 ± 1.2   [30]
F (8) 30 s Wingate test [load: 0.075 kp/kg] 621.4 ± 145.4 10.2 ± 2.5 481.9 ± 77.2 7.9 ± 1.2
US junior Olympic athletes Taaffe et al. [51]
M (27) 30 s Wingate test (load: 0.075 kp/kg) 675.8 ± 30.7 10.7 ± 0.3 526.9 ± 22.2 8.4 ± 0.2
F (24) 30 s Wingate test (load: 0.075 kp/kg) 435.5 ± 12.3 8.4 ± 0.3 340.0 ± 8.3 6.6 ± 0.2
US junior Olympic athletes Bercades et al.
30 s Wingate test (Load: 0.075 kp/kg) [50]
M (76)
Pre-pubertal 504.1 ± 24.7 11.1 ± 0.3 347.7 ± 16.7 7.6 ± 0.2
Post-pubertal 705.9 ± 20.7 11.3 ± 0.2 513.1 ± 14.1 8.2 ± 0.1
F (54)
Pre-pubertal 392.2 ± 24.1 8.3 ± 0.3 297.8 ± 14.4 6.3 ± 0.3
Post-pubertal 477.9 ± 14.7 9.0 ± 0.2 346.4 ± 7.5 6.6 ± 0.1
Spanish junior national athletes 30 s Wingate test
(load NR)
M (5) NR 8.3 ± 2.6 NR NR Pérez-Gómez et al.
F (3) 5.4 ± 1.1 [52]
Tunisian national Bouhlel et al. [17]
M (8) 7 s force-velocity test (incremental Pmax = 855 ± 125 Pmax = 12.1 ± 1.7 NR NR
breaking forces)
Czech international Heller et al. [8]
M (11) 30 s Wingate test (load 6 W/kg) NR 14.7 ± 1.3 NR NR
F (12) 30 s Wingate test [load: 5 W/kg] 10.1 ± 1.2
M (19) Junior Jordanian club athletes Melhim [110]
30 s Wingate test (load 0.075 kp/kg)
Pre-training 422 ± 87.6^ 8.1 ± 1.2^ 235.6 ± 70.2^ 4.5 ± 0.6^
Post-training 541.1 ± 95.6 10.3 ± 2 380.5 ± 85.1 7.3 ± 0.9
M Taiwanese international 30 s Wingate test (load Lin et al. [48]
0.1 kp/kg)
\54 kg (1) NR 8.3 NR 6.9
\58 kg (3) 8.3 ± 1.2 6.3 ± 0.8
\62 kg (3) 9.2 ± 0.2 7.0 ± 0.7
\67 kg (2) 8.3 ± 0.1 6.5 ± 0.4
\72 kg (1) 8.5 6.2
\78 kg (1) 6.8 6.1
Mean 8.4 ± 0.9 6.6 ± 0.6
F Taiwanese international 30 s Wingate test (load:
0.075 kp/kg)
\47 kg (3) 6.5 ± 0.3 5.5 ± 0.2
\51 kg (2) 6.6 ± 0.7 5.6 ± 2.1
\59 kg (1) 6.5 5.1
\67 kg (1) 7.2 5.4
Mean 6.6 ± 0.4 5.5 ± 0.9

123
720 C. A. Bridge et al.

Table 3 continued
Athlete characteristics (n) and test details Peak power (W) Peak power Mean power Mean power References
(W/kg) (W) (W/kg)

M (12) junior recreational 30 s Wingate test (load

NR)
Pre-training 451.4 ± 70.7 NR 343.2 ± 91.7 NR Teng et al. [73]
Mid-training 491.2 ± 89.3 373.0 ± 101.3
Post-training 495.9 ± 74.7 373.6 ± 87.2
Athletes (M and F combined) with mouth guard NR 9.5 ± 1.5§ NR 7.2 ± 1.0§ Cetin et al. [74]
(21)
Athletes (M and F combined) without mouth guard 9.1 ± 1.5 7.0 ± 0.9
(21)
30 s Wingate test (load 0.075 kp/kg)
M Polish national and international 30 s Wingate Sadowski et al.
test (load NR) [40]
Senior medallists (28) NR 9.9 ± 1.0# NR NR
Senior non-medallists (36) 9.3 ± 1.1
M Polish national and international 30 s Wingate Sadowski et al.
test (load NR) [41]
Junior medallists (27) NR 8.6 ± 1.4 NR NR
Junior non-medallists (36) 8.7 ± 1.2

Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05):   sex difference, # medallists vs. non-medallists, ^ pre- vs. post-training, § mouth
guard vs. no mouth guard
F female, kp/kg load prescribed as kilopond per kilogram of body mass, International athletes who compete at international level, M male, National
athletes who compete at national level, NR not reported, Pmax highest power achieved during the force-velocity test, Recreational non-competitive and/or
club practitioners, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level, W/kg load prescribed as watts per kilogram of body mass

require high anaerobic power abilities to effectively man-
age the energetic requirements of the bouts.
The 30 s Wingate test constitutes the most common
method of assessing peak anaerobic power and capacity of
taekwondo competitors (Table 3). Relative peak power has
been reported for both senior male (8.4–14.7 W/kg) and
female (6.6–10.2 W/kg) taekwondo competitors using the
Wingate test (Table 3). The upper range of peak power
values generated by both male and female taekwondo
athletes [8, 17, 30] compare favourably with those pro-
duced by athletes in other combat sports [43, 44] and a
range of explosive power-based events [45, 46]. They may
also be ranked amid the highest percentile norms for
physically active males and females aged between 18 and
28 years [47]. These findings attest to the intense anaerobic
character of this combat sport and suggest that the ability of
the lower limbs to generate high peak power may be
important in competition. Indeed, Sadowski et al. [40]
reported that successful male taekwondo athletes (medal-
lists in the Polish Senior Taekwondo Championships)
demonstrated higher peak power on the Wingate test than
their less successful counterparts (non-medallists in the
Polish Senior Taekwondo Championships). The authors
postulated that this difference could have exerted an
influence on the efficacy (speed and strength) of the kick-
ing techniques during the bouts. The ability to generate
high peak anaerobic power using the lower extremities may
therefore be desirable to achieve success in competition.
Notably, though, the lower range of values reported in the
literature suggest that some athletes exhibit relatively poor
lower limb peak power capabilities [48]. However, this was
acknowledged by the authors of the investigation, who
emphasised a need to improve this component of fitness to
effectively manage the demands of combat.
There have been few attempts to compare relative peak
power between different weight categories and/or compe-
tition levels in taekwondo. Lin et al. [48] appear to be the
only research group to document the relative peak power
characteristics across different weight divisions (Table 3).
However, the small sample sizes preclude the ability to
draw definitive conclusions about whether specific weight
divisions mediate different peak power requirements.
Further research is clearly needed in this area to specialise
anaerobic conditioning to the requirements of specific
weight divisions. Allometric scaling may also be consid-
ered when comparing groups differing in size rather than
the conventional per ratio standards.
Few investigators have reported the mean anaerobic
power generated by senior male and female taekwondo
athletes on the Wingate test. The limited available data
demonstrate a range of values for both males (6.6–9.2 W/
kg) and females (5.5–7.9 W/kg) (Table 3). The upper

123
Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes 721

Table 4 Maximum oxygen uptake of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)
Athlete characteristics (n) Ergometer _ 2max (ml kg-1 min-1)
VO References

Males
US international (12) Treadmill 55.8 ± 3.9 Taaffe and Pieter [30]
Brazilian NR Baldi et al. [26]
International (10) 61.0 ± 7.0
State (9) 54.7 ± 6.9
Recreational (14) Treadmill 44.0 ± 6.8 Thompson and Vinueza [103]
Italian international (11) Treadmill 63.2 ± 6.1 Chiodo et al. [16]
Polish national (7) Treadmill 60.7 ± 3.3 Drabik [104]
Czech international (11) Cycle ergometer 53.9 ± 4.4 Heller et al. [8]
Puerto Rican international (13) Treadmill 59.3 ± 4.5 Rivera et al. [29]
Tunisian international (8) Shuttle run test 56.2 ± 2.6 Bouhlel et al. [17]
Malaysian (8) Shuttle run test 49.0 ± 3.9 Erie and Pieter [114]
Recreational juniors
Korean international Shuttle run test Butios and Tasika [60]
(8) \68 kg 53.9 ± 4.1
(8) up to and including 80 kg 54.7 ± 4.1
(8) [80 kg 52.6 ± 3.9
Spanish junior national (5) Shuttle run test 48.6 ± 2.5 Pérez-Gómez et al. [52]
Malaysian recreational juniors (30) Shuttle run test 41.3 ± 6.2 Erie and Pieter [114]
Brazilian international (7) Shuttle run test 51.9 ± 2.9 Perandini et al. [130]
Malaysian recreational adolescents (8) Shuttle run test 42.2 ± 7.9 Noorul et al. [65]
Serbian international (20) Treadmill 44 ± 3 Cubrilo et al. [131]
Australian international (2 M, 2 F) Shuttle run test 53.3 ± 5.7 Ball et al. [18]
Females
US international (8) Treadmill 46.9 ± 7.5 Taaffe and Pieter [30]
Czech international (12) Cycle ergometer 41.6 ± 4.2 Heller et al. [8]
Puerto Rican international (9) Treadmill 48.9 ± 8.0 Rivera et al. [29]
Croatian international (13): medallists Treadmill 49.6 ± 3.3 Markovic et al. [5]
Non-medallists 47.2 ± 2.1
Malaysian (8) recreational juniors Shuttle run test 39.5 ± 2.8 Erie and Pieter [114]
Spanish junior national (3) Shuttle run test 41.1 ± 3.2 Pérez-Gómez et al. [52]
Malaysian junior developmental team (27) Shuttle run test 33.4 ± 4.4 Eire and Pieter [114]
Malaysian recreational adolescents (9) Shuttle run test 30.8 ± 5.5 Noorul et al. [65]
Croatian international (7) Treadmill 49.8 ± 2.8 Markovic et al. [126]
Brazilian international (4) Shuttle run test 41.6 ± 2.4 Perandini et al. [130]
Italian international (4) Treadmill 51.1 ± 2.3 Chiodo et al. [16]
Korean adolescents—different levels (23) Treadmill 49.2 ± 4.8 Lee et al. [127]
F female, International athletes who compete at international level, M male, National athletes who compete at national level, NR not reported,
_ 2max maximum
Recreational non-competitive and/or club practitioners, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level, VO
oxygen uptake

range of values [30] compare favourably with those pro-
duced by athletes in other intense short-duration events,
which elicit high demands on both adenosine triphosphate
(ATP)/PCr and anaerobic glycolytic metabolic pathways
[44, 45, 49]. This suggests that the ability to sustain high
power output via anaerobic metabolic pathways may be
important in taekwondo. Recent estimates of the energy
system contributions during simulated taekwondo bouts
suggest that this may be predominately via the breakdown
of ATP/PCr with smaller, albeit important, contributions
from anaerobic glycolysis [9]. The lower range of mean
power values reported in the literature indicates that some
taekwondo athletes demonstrated a poor ability to sustain
power during the Wingate test [48]. Although it remains
unclear how this may influence performance during a
match, a reduced ability to both generate and maintain

123
722
power through the breakdown of PCr and the activation of
anaerobic glycolysis is, arguably, undesirable in combat.
Senior male taekwondo competitors demonstrate higher
relative peak and mean power on the Wingate test than
their senior female counterparts [8, 30, 48] (Table 3). This
trend is also displayed in junior athletes [50–52] and is
consistent with the data reported for other combat sports
[43, 53] and a range of athletic populations [31]. Contrary
to their senior counterparts, peak power did not discrimi-
nate between levels of success (e.g. medallists vs. non-
medallists) in junior athletes [41]. However, senior male
and female taekwondo competitors show a higher range of
peak and mean power performances on the Wingate test
than their adolescent male (peak 8.3–11.3 W/kg; mean
7.6–8.4 W/kg) and female (peak 5.4–9.0 W/kg; mean
6.3–6.6 W/kg) counterparts (Table 3). These differences
probably reflect variation in the groups’ muscle fibre
composition, motor-unit activation and anaerobic/glyco-
lytic capacities [37, 54, 55], which should be considered
when designing conditioning programmes for these popu-
lations. Scaling issues might also be considered when
comparing groups differing in size.
The available data generated via the Wingate test pro-
vide insight into the anaerobic power and capacity char-
acteristics of different taekwondo populations, which may
be useful for developing preparatory strategies within the
sport. However, coaches and scientists should be aware of
the inherent limitations associated with the existing
knowledge base, namely the lack of standardisation of
Wingate protocols and mechanical specificity demon-
strated by the test. Variation in the Wingate loads, warm-
up, start procedures, testing protocols and ergometer
models may confound the efficacy of data comparisons
between existing investigations. Researchers and sports
scientists in taekwondo may therefore wish to consider
working towards a consensus on the standardisation of
Wingate procedures to improve the application of the
results in both research and practice. As the Wingate test
lacks mechanical specificity to the actions of taekwondo,
the validity of the existing power profiles may also be
subject to scrutiny. There is clearly a need for the devel-
opment of more specialised anaerobic power and capacity
tests that better represent both the mechanical actions and
the anaerobic demands of the sport.
5 Aerobic Profile
Recent evidence suggests a high reliance on aerobic
metabolism to support the activity of taekwondo matches
and to facilitate recovery between successive bouts in
championship events [4, 8, 9, 14–16, 56]. A well developed
cardio-respiratory system is therefore required to
123
C. A. Bridge et al.
effectively support these metabolic demands. The cardio-
respiratory fitness of taekwondo athletes has been deter-
mined by measuring and estimating maximum oxygen
uptake (VO_ 2max ) (Table 4).
The VO_ 2max of senior male and female international
athletes ranges between 44–63 ml kg-1 min-1 and 40–
51 ml kg-1 min-1, respectively (Table 4). The wide range
of values reported for both groups is likely to reflect dif-
ferences in the structure and phase of training, and/or
modes of exercise testing. This range of VO _ 2max scores is
similar to that of males and females in other combat sports
that elicit marked demands on aerobic metabolism [43, 53,
57, 58], but they are lower than those exhibited by athletes
_ 2max of these
in endurance-based events [59]. The VO
international taekwondo competitors may also be ranked
within the 60–100 and 80–100 percentiles for healthy
physically active male and female adults, respectively [31].
These data suggest that moderate to high levels of cardio-
respiratory fitness may be necessary to support the meta-
bolic demands of international taekwondo competition.
Comparison of cardio-respiratory fitness between dif-
ferent levels of competition, success, experience and
weight categories in taekwondo is restricted by the limited
diversity of existing research. Few studies have examined
_ 2max of taekwondo athletes in relation to their level
the VO
of competition success. Markovic et al. [5] reported no
differences in VO_ 2max between international female med-
allists and non-medallists using an incremental treadmill
test. Sadowski et al. [40, 41], on the other hand, observed a
tendency for senior and junior male medallists to perform a
greater number of shuttles during multistage shuttle run-
ning tests than their non-medallist counterparts. Unfortu-
nately, VO_ 2max was not estimated from these running
scores. These findings may suggest that cardio-respiratory
fitness is conducive to achieving success in competition,
but it should be emphasised that these differences may not
entirely be causal. Cardio-respiratory fitness may not affect
performance per se, but rather exert an influence indirectly
by facilitating recovery during the bouts [40]. This is in
line with the general consensus that cardio-respiratory fit-
ness is important to support the metabolic demands of
competition, but it does not directly determine success in
combat sports [43, 53, 57].
Few studies have directly examined the VO _ 2max of tae-
kwondo athletes in relation to the level of competition
(Table 4). One study has reported higher VO _ 2max in inter-
national male taekwondo competitors when compared with
their state-level counterparts [26]. Although no confidence
intervals were reported, this finding could suggest that the
level of competition mediates different cardio-respiratory
fitness requirements, but further research is warranted,
especially since the study was conducted before taekwondo
Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes
became an official Olympic sport. Only a single study [60]
has attempted to compare VO _ 2max between different weight
categories. In contrast to other combat sports [43, 44, 61],
no significant differences were reported in VO _ 2max , as
estimated from multistage shuttle running, between \68
kg, up to and including 80 kg and [80 kg taekwondo
weight divisions [60]. This preliminary evidence may
suggest that different weight divisions require similar lev-
els of cardio-respiratory fitness, but large-scale investiga-
tions examining VO _ 2max across a wide range of taekwondo
weight divisions, using large volumes of athletes, are
necessary before definitive conclusions may be drawn.
Senior male international taekwondo competitors dem-
onstrate a higher range of VO _ 2max scores than their female
counterparts (Table 4). This trend is also displayed in
junior athletes (males 41–49 ml kg-1 min-1; females 31–
41 ml kg-1 min-1) and is consistent with the data reported
in other combat sports [43, 53] and a range of athletic
groups [31]. However, senior male and female taekwondo
_ 2max values
competitors demonstrate a higher range of VO
than their adolescent male and female counterparts. These
differences probably reflect variation in both central and
peripheral physiological factors [62–64]. Scaling methods
have rarely been used in taekwondo when dealing with
groups differing in size [65].
_ 2max of different taekwondo
The available data on the VO
populations provide insight into their cardio-respiratory
fitness, which may be useful in developing preparatory
strategies within the sport. However, coaches and scientists
should acknowledge the limitations associated with the
existing knowledge base. Some studies have obtained
direct measurements of VO _ 2max , whereas others have relied
on indirect estimations using multi-stage shuttle running.
The latter may underestimate the true VO _ 2max of taekw-
ondo competitors by 16 % [66], ultimately perplexing data
comparisons between studies and preparations for compe-
tition. For this reason, Cetin et al. [66] developed a
_ 2max
regression equation to improve the accuracy of VO
estimations from multi-stage shuttle running, which could
be considered in instances where logistical constraints
preclude the direct measurement of VO _ 2max . Studies that
have directly measured VO _ 2max using incremental tests
have incorporated different modes of exercise (Table 4).
The VO_ 2max determined from incremental cycling can elicit
8–15 % lower VO _ 2max values compared with those
obtained from incremental treadmill running in the same
individuals [67, 68]. This phenomenon is likely a function
of peripheral physiological factors and may further con-
found data comparisons between investigations. In this
regard, the modes of exercise used to assess VO _ 2max lack
mechanical specificity to taekwondo. Research consistently
723
_ 2max
demonstrates that trained athletes generate higher VO
on tests that are similar, mechanically, to the movements
performed in the sport when compared with generic exer-
cise modes [69–71]. The development of specialised
incremental tests that better represent the mechanical
actions and metabolic demands of taekwondo may improve
_ 2max assessment.
the validity of VO
6 Strength
Taekwondo athletes require muscular power, strength and
strength endurance to effectively perform and sustain the
technical and tactical actions in a match—including kick-
ing, punching, blocking, holding, pushing and footwork
[10–13, 72]. The muscular strength characteristics of tae-
kwondo athletes will be reviewed relative to dynamic
power, maximal strength and strength endurance actions
using accepted and established field-based testing methods.
The limited available data on the isokinetic strength char-
acteristics of taekwondo athletes [19, 73–75] were omitted
from the review on the basis that this analysis technique
tends to be reserved for research, rehabilitation and injury
prevention purposes as opposed to being implicated in the
regular monitoring of fitness status and/or strength devel-
opment in the context of athletic preparation for perfor-
mance. Furthermore, this technique has been criticised on
the basis that isokinetic movement, albeit accurate, seldom
occurs in actual human performance tasks and the isolation
of muscle groups during testing reduce the validity of
measurements to functional performance, as the multi-joint
movements that occur in many sports are not recreated
[76, 77].
6.1 Power
Power may be defined simply as the rate of force produc-
tion in a single movement or repetition [78, 79]. The
muscular power of taekwondo athletes has been deter-
mined through the use of squat/static jump tests (SJ) and
counter-movement jump tests performed with (CMJA) or
without (CMJ) arm swings (Table 5). The mean SJ per-
formances reported for national and international compet-
itors in the literature ranged between 35.8–45.4 cm for
males and 23.7–29.8 cm for females [5, 7, 8], whereas the
CMJ performances ranged between 39.3–43.9 cm and
26.4–32.8 cm for national and international male and
female athletes, respectively [5, 7, 16]. These SJ and CMJ
performances are lower than those generated by national
and international athletes in other combat sports [43, 44,
53] and a range of sports that rely heavily on explosive
actions of the lower limbs in competition [31]. Contrary to
123
724 C. A. Bridge et al.

Table 5 Vertical jump performances of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)
Athlete characteristics (n) Test method Height (cm) References

Males
Czech international (11) Force platform SJ = 45.4 ± 4.5 Heller et al. [8]
Recreational Jump and reach Toskovic et al. [27]
 ,à
Novice (7) SJ = 43.7 ± 5.0
Experienced (7) SJ = 51.1 ± 8.6 
Malaysian junior developmental team (30) Jump and reach CMJ = 35.6 ± 4.1  Erie and Pieter [114]
Recreational adolescents (8) Jump and reach CMJ = 52.1 ± 11.1  Noorul et al. [65]
Club athletes Jump and reach Suzana and Pieter [90]
Junior (10) CMJ = 51.3 ± 2.8
Senior (10) CMJ = 55.5 ± 7.0
Italian international (11) Optical acquisition system Chiodo et al. [16]
Pre-match CMJ = 40.8 ± 4.9 
Post-match CMJ = 43.9 ± 5.2 ,^
Junior national (10) Optical acquisition system Chiodo et al. [56]
 
Pre-match CMJ = 25 ± 6
Post-match CMJ = 28 ± 6 ,^
Australian international (2 M, 2 F) Optical acquisition system Ball et al. [18]
Pre-training CMJ = 35 ± 0.5
Post-training CMJ = 43 ± 0.7
Italian national Optical acquisition system Casolino et al. [7]
Selected (NR) SJ = 40.7 ± 6.8
Not selected (NR) SJ = 35.8 ± 3.7
Total (NR) SJ = 38.4 ± 6.0 
Selected (NR) CMJ = 42.4 ± 7.1
Not selected (NR) CMJ = 39.3 ± 2.7
Total (NR) CMJ = 41.0 ± 5.6 
Females
Czech international (12) Force platform SJ = 29.8 ± 4.0 Heller et al. [8]
Recreational Jump and reach Toskovic et al. [27]
Novice (7) SJ = 32.1 ± 3.4 
Experienced (7) SJ = 31.3 ± 3.1 
Croatian international Electronic jump mat Markovic et al. [5]
Medallists (6) SJ = 29.8 ± 2.9
Non-medallists (7) SJ = 27.7 ± 2.4
Medallists (6) CMJ = 32.8 ± 3.9#
Non-medallists (7) CMJ = 28.7 ± 1.9
Medallists (6) CMJA = 36.4 ± 3.5#
Non-medallists (7) CMJA = 33.2 ± 2.3
Malaysian junior developmental team (27) Jump and reach CMJ = 35.6 ± 6.1  Erie and Pieter [114]
Recreational adolescents (9) Jump and reach CMJ = 34.0 ± 5.2  Noorul et al. [65]
Athletes (M and F) with mouthguard (21) Cord-based jump meter SJ = 43.5 ± 6.2 Cetin et al. [74]
CMJ = 47.1 ± 6.3
Athletes (M and F) without mouthguard (21) SJ = 43.2 ± 5.9
CMJ = 47.2 ± 6.4
Italian International (4) Optical acquisition system Chiodo et al. [16]
Pre-match CMJ = 28.2 ± 2.5 
Post-match CMJ = 30.8 ± 2.3 ,^

123
Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes 725

Table 5 continued
Athlete characteristics (n) Test method Height (cm) References

Junior national athletes (7) Optical acquisition system Chiodo et al. [56]
Pre-match CMJ = 22 ± 2 
Post-match CMJ = 22 ± 2 
Italian national Optical acquisition system Casolino et al. [7]
Selected (NR) SJ = 27.9 ± 4.4
Not selected (NR) SJ = 23.7 ± 2.1
Total (NR) SJ = 25.5 ± 3.7 
Selected (NR) CMJ = 28.8 ± 3.7
Not selected (NR) CMJ = 26.4 ± 1.8
Total (NR) CMJ = 27.4 ± 2.8 
  ^
Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): sex difference; à novice vs. experienced; pre- vs. post-match;
#
medallist vs. non-medallists
CMJ counter-movement jump, CMJA counter-movement jump with arm swing, F female, International athletes who compete at international
level, M male, National athletes who compete at national level, NR not reported, Recreational non-competitive and/or club practitioners, SD
standard deviation, SJ squat jump, State athletes who compete at regional level

the character of combat, these data suggest that national
and international taekwondo competitors demonstrate rel-
atively poor lower limb muscular power [80]. However, the
available data should be interpreted with caution as it
represents a small sample of competitors from a limited
number of studies. Markovic et al. [5] observed higher
CMJ and CMJA, but similar SJ, performances in interna-
tional female medallists compared with non-medallists, but
the effects of these differences were unclear (CMJ:
d = 1.46, 95 % CI -1.66–2.87; CMJA d = 1.12, 95 % CI
-1.68–2.83)—possibly a result of the small sample used in
the study. These findings may tentatively suggest that the
ability to generate power using ‘stretch-shortening cycle’
actions of the lower limbs may be important for taekwondo
performance, more so than the expression of muscular
power purely through concentric muscle actions [5].
Differences in lower limb muscular power have also
been observed between taekwondo practitioners’ level of
experience (Table 5). Toskovic et al. [27], for instance,
reported higher SJ in experienced recreational male tae-
kwondo practitioners than their novice counterparts (51.1
vs. 43.7 cm). This finding is probably a function of the
different training regimes undertaken by these groups and
may represent the muscular adaptations arising from
repeated exposure to the actions performed within the
sport. Interestingly, though, differences in muscular power
were not observed between experienced and novice female
practitioners [27].
This response is difficult to explain, but it might reflect
disparity in the adaptive properties of the muscles and/or
training stimulus between these groups [81]. Senior and
junior male taekwondo athletes demonstrate higher abso-
lute muscular power, as represented by higher SJ and CMJ
performances, than their respective female counterparts [8,
16, 27, 56] (Table 5). This is consistent with the literature
on athletes in other combat sports [43, 44] and a range of
athletic groups [31]. There is also evidence for higher CMJ
performances in senior athletes compared with their junior
counterparts [16, 56] (Table 5). These differences may
reflect variation in the muscle fibre composition and motor-
unit activation between these populations [37, 55, 56].
However, there is marked variability in senior and junior
CMJ performances between studies, which may represent
differences in the contractile properties of the muscle, but
also varied testing procedures.
The available data on the SJ and CMJ provide limited
insight into the muscular power characteristics of taekw-
ondo athletes. Further research is required into the mus-
cular power characteristics of international taekwondo
competitors to assist preparations for international com-
petition. Additional research into the muscular power
characteristics of taekwondo athletes in relation to sex, age
and weight categories is also needed to assist preparatory
strategies for different populations within the sport. These
investigations might want to consider reporting height/
power in absolute terms and scaled relative to lean body
mass or height [82]. Variation in the procedures and
equipment used to assess SJ and CMJ in the literature
(Table 5) often confounds the effective comparison of data
between investigations [83, 84]. Researchers in taekwondo
might want to consider working toward a consensus on the
standardisation of SJ and CMJ procedures and equipment,
or advocate the use of methods and equipment that dem-
onstrate good concurrent and convergent validity [85] to
enhance the application of the results in research and
practice. Researchers may also wish to consider developing
more specialised tests to determine the muscular power
characteristics of taekwondo athletes.

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726 C. A. Bridge et al.

Table 6 Maximal dynamic strength of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)
Athlete characteristics (n) Strength test Absolute 1RM score (kg) Relative 1RM score (kg/body mass) References

Males
Recreational Toskovic et al. [27]
Experienced (7) Bench press 84.3 ± 23.9  1.23 ± 0.3 
Novice (7) (machine based) 86.1 ± 26.8  1.06 ± 0.3 
 
Experienced (7) Leg press 217.1 ± 42.3 3.2 ± 0.6
Novice (7) (machine based) 196.4 ± 33  2.4 ± 0.6
Females
Recreational Toskovic et al. [27]
Experienced (7) Bench press 37.1 ± 13.3  0.62 ± 0.1 
Novice (7) (machine based) 36.1 ± 7.9  0.57 ± 0.1 
 
Experienced (7) Leg press 151.4 ± 30.2 2.6 ± 0.5
Novice (7) (machine based) 147.9 ± 25  2.3 ± 0.4
Croatian international Markovic et al. [5]
Medallists (6) Bench press 55.7 ± 11.6 0.9 ± 0.1
Non-medallists (7) (free weights) 48.5 ± 8.2 0.8 ± 0.1
Medallists (6) Back squat 89.1 ± 17.6 1.4 ± 0.2
Non-medallists (7) (free weights) 72.1 ± 15.2 1.2 ± 0.2
 
Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): Sex difference
International athletes who compete at international level, Recreational non-competitive and/or club practitioners, SD standard deviation, 1RM 1
repetition maximum

6.2 Maximal Dynamic Strength
Maximum muscular strength may be defined as the ability
to voluntarily produce maximal force or torque under
specific conditions defined by muscle action, movement
velocity and posture [86]. A limited number of studies have
assessed the maximum dynamic strength of taekwondo
athletes using one repetition maximum (1RM) tests of both
upper and lower body musculature (Table 6).
Markovic et al. [5] investigated the maximum upper and
lower body strength of international female taekwondo
athletes using 1RM bench press and bilateral back squat
tests (Table 6). However, the interpretation of these results
is challenging because of the limited available comparative
data in combat sports and other athletic groups [31].
Nevertheless, tentative comparisons with the general
female population aged between 20 and 29 years indicate
that the relative 1RM bench press of international female
taekwondo athletes is well above the 100th percentile rank
[31], whereas the back squat 1RM may be rated as ‘fair’ to
‘average’ [31]. These preliminary results suggest that
international female taekwondo athletes possess well
developed upper body muscular strength, but less well
developed lower body muscular strength. Markovic et al.
[5] also noted a trend for greater absolute 1RM bench press
(d = 0.74, 95 % CI -8.54–6.81) and back squat (d = 1.04
95 % CI -13.04–12.30) performances in international
female medallists compared with non-medallists, but the
differences were unclear (Table 6). However, for relative
bench press (d = 1.00, 95 % CI 0.92–1.07) and back squat
(d = 1.00, 95 % CI 0.84–1.15) performances, the differ-
ences between these groups were (statistically) more
notable (Table 6). These data tentatively suggest that while
the ability to generate maximum strength may be important
in taekwondo, it might not determine success in interna-
tional competition.
Higher absolute 1RM bench and leg press performances,
and higher relative 1RM bench press performances, have
been reported in recreational male taekwondo practitioners
compared with their female counterparts [27] (Table 6).
This finding is in agreement with the data reported in other
combat sports [43] and a range of athletic populations [31],
and may reflect differences in muscle fibre composition
and motor-unit activation between these groups [55, 81].
Further research is needed into taekwondo athletes’ maxi-
mum strength characteristics in relation to age, sex, com-
petition levels and weight categories to enhance existing
knowledge and to permit effective preparatory strategies
for different populations within the sport.
6.3 Muscular Endurance
Muscular endurance may be defined as the ability to vol-
untarily produce force or torque repeatedly against sub-
maximal external resistances, or to sustain a required level
of submaximal force in a specific posture for as long as

123
Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes 727

Table 7 Muscular endurance of taekwondo athletes (data are presented as mean ± SD)
Athlete characteristics (n) Exercise: test details Result (number of repetitions) References

Males
Brazilian Sit-ups: 60 s test Baldi et al. [26]
International (10) 47.7 ± 4.7
State (9) 51.8 ± 6.1
Recreational Sit-ups 60 s test 53.7 ± 3.2 Thompson and Vinueza [103]
Recreational Toskovic et al. [27]
Novice (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 48.1 ± 5.5 
Experienced (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 53.4 ± 6.9 
Polish senior national and international Sadowski et al. [40]
#
Medallists (28) Sit-ups: 30 s test 34.5 ± 4.1
Non-medallists (36) Sit-ups: 30 s test 30.0 ± 2.9
Polish junior national and international Sadowski et al. [41]
Medallists (27) Sit-ups: 30 s test 31.5 ± 5.1#
Non-medallists (36) Sit-ups: 30 s test 27.7 ± 4.2
Females
Croatian international Markovic et al. [5]
Medallists (6) Sit-ups: 60 s test 58.7 ± 7
Non-medallists (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 52.2 ± 3.5
Medallists (6) Push-ups: 60 s test 25.8 ± 8.5
Non-medallists (7) Push-ups: 60 s test 23.1 ± 7.7
Recreational Toskovic et al. [27]
Novice (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 40.9 ± 7.7 
Experienced (7) Sit-ups: 60 s test 45.0 ± 6.8 
  #
Statistically significant difference presented within the study (p \ 0.05): Sex difference; medallist vs. non-medallists
International athletes who compete at international level, National athletes who compete at national level, Recreational non-competitive and/or
club practitioners, SD standard deviation, State athletes who compete at regional level

possible [87]. The most common field tests used to assess
the dynamic muscular endurance of taekwondo athletes
include sit-up and push-up tests. A limited number of
studies have examined the trunk and hip flexor muscular
endurance of taekwondo athletes using 30- and 60-s timed
sit-up tests (Table 7). The 60-s sit-up test scores reported
for national- and international-level taekwondo athletes in
the literature range between 48–52 repetitions and 52––59
repetitions for males and females, respectively [5, 26].
These scores may be ranked within the 50–60th and
60–70th percentiles for male and female adults aged
18–25 years [31], and imply that these athletes demonstrate
moderate trunk and hip flexor muscular endurance.
Few studies have examined the trunk and hip flexor
muscular endurance of taekwondo athletes in relation to
competition success and experience. Markovic et al. [5]
reported higher 60-s sit-up test performances in interna-
tional female medallists compared with non-medallists, but
this difference was not statistically significant. In contrast,
Sadowski et al. [40, 41] claimed significantly higher 30-s
sit-up test scores in a large group of international male
(senior and junior) medallists compared with non-
medallists (Table 7). These preliminary findings may
emphasise the importance of trunk and hip flexor muscular
endurance in international taekwondo competition. No
significant differences in 60-s sit-up test performances have
been reported between athletes who were active at various
levels of competition [26] or between recreational practi-
tioners with different training experience [27] (Table 7).
These findings could reflect similar muscular endurance
requirements within these competitive and recreational
settings.
There have been few attempts to examine the sit-up test
performances in relation to age and sex. A slightly higher
range of 30-s sit-up test performances has been reported in
international senior male athletes [40] compared with
juniors [41] (Table 7). Recreational male taekwondo
practitioners also demonstrate higher 60-s sit-up test scores
than their recreational female counterparts [27]. This var-
iation in sit-up test performances between age groups and
sex are in agreement with the data reported across a range
of athletic groups [31].
Only a single study has examined the endurance prop-
erties of the upper-extremity and trunk musculature of

123
728
taekwondo athletes (Table 7). Markovic et al. [5] examined
the upper-extremity and trunk muscular endurance of
international female taekwondo athletes using a 60-s push-
up test. However, the interpretation of these findings is
challenging because of the limited available data on the
standard push-up test scores of combat sport athletes and
females in general [31]. No differences in 60-s push-up test
scores have been reported between international female
taekwondo medallists and non-medallists (Table 7). This
preliminary finding might suggest that while the endurance
properties of the upper extremities may be important to
support several technical and tactical actions in combat, it
does not determine success in international competition.
The available sit-up and push-up test data provide lim-
ited insight into the muscular endurance characteristics of
taekwondo athletes. Further studies are required into the
muscle endurance characteristics of taekwondo athletes in
relation to age, sex, competition level and weight catego-
ries to permit effective conditioning for different popula-
tions within the sport. Coaches and scientists should
consider examining the endurance properties of a range of
muscle groups and actions that are functionally relevant to
the technical and tactical actions performed in combat.
Indeed, the available data are limited to relatively simple
field-based assessments of the trunk and upper-extremity
muscles. A variety of alternative field tests are available for
the assessment of the endurance properties of different
muscle groups. Most of the available testing methods
involve performing repetitions to failure, with loads set at a
percentage of the individual’s body mass, at a percentage
of 1RM or as an absolute load [87].
7 Speed and Agility
Speed may be defined as the shortest time required for an
object to move along a fixed distance and incorporates two
important phases, acceleration (the rate of change in speed
up to the point at which maximum speed is reached) and
maintenance (the speed that is maintained for the remain-
der of the distance of interest) [88]. In contrast, agility may
be defined as a rapid whole-body movement with a change
of velocity or direction in response to a given stimulus (e.g.
incorporates both deceleration and acceleration phases)
[89]. A limited number of studies have examined the speed
characteristics of taekwondo athletes using conventional
field-based testing methods, including 20-m sprint [5, 74],
30-m sprint [40] and 6-s sprint tests [90]. The limited
available data demonstrate that successful male (30-m
sprint—medallists: 4.62 ± 0.41 s vs. non-medallists:
4.81 ± 0.51 s) [40] and female (20-m sprint—medallists:
3.6 ± 0.2 s vs. non-medallists: 3.81 ± 0.1 s) [5] compet-
itors perform faster sprint times than their less successful
123
C. A. Bridge et al.
counterparts. Even fewer studies have examined the agility
characteristics of taekwondo athletes using field-based
testing methods, including side step tests [5] and 50-m
(10 9 5 m) shuttle run sprint tests [19]. Markovic et al. [5]
reported faster side step test performances in successful
female athletes (medallists: 7.8 ± 0.3 s vs. non-medallists:
8.21 ± 0.2 s) when compared with their less successful
counterparts. These findings highlight the importance of
both speed and agility in taekwondo and could suggest that
these aspects of fitness may be a prerequisite for success in
international competition. However, further research is
warranted to substantiate this idea.
The field-based tests used to assess speed and agility in
the literature may be criticised on the basis that they lack
mechanical specificity to many of the technical and tactical
actions performed in the sport. To this end, several research
groups have attempted to incorporate speed assessments
that are more specific to the technical actions performed in
taekwondo [91–93]. Using an electronic dual-beam timing
system, Pieter and Pieter [91] reported faster kicking
speeds in male compared with female athletes (e.g. turning
kick 15.5 ± 2.3 vs. 13.79 ± 1.6 m s-1, respectively), and
they observed that kick speed was dependent upon the type
of kicking technique (e.g. turning kick 15.5 ± 2.3 vs. side
kick 6.87 ± 0.4 m s-1 in male athletes). In contrast, Ja-
kubiak and Saunders [93] used a digital timer and mounted
floor and kick pad sensors to determine the effectiveness of
elastic conditioning on the development of turning kick
speed. The authors reported a 7 % increase in turning kick
speed as a consequence of the 4-week training intervention.
Falco et al. [92] developed a specialised device, comprising
a force platform and pressure sensors integrated into the
body amour of a manikin, to measure the turning kick
speed of competitive and non-competitive taekwondo ath-
letes. Faster turning kick speeds were reported for the
competitive athletes (0.254 ± 0.057 s) than for their non-
competitive counterparts (0.317 ± 0.100 s) [92]. While
these studies [91–93] have endeavoured to enhance the
specificity of speed assessment in taekwondo, a lack of
conformity in both the testing methods and the equipment
limit the efficacy of data comparisons between studies and
their usefulness as a framework for athlete preparation.
Furthermore, the reliability and validity of such measure-
ments and/or devices have seldom been reported.
Researchers and sports scientists may therefore wish to
consider developing valid, reliable and practical tests to
assess the speed and agility of taekwondo athletes.
8 Flexibility
Flexibility may be defined as the range of motion (ROM) at
a single joint or a series of joints [94]. Taekwondo is a
Physical Characteristics of Taekwondo Athletes 729

Table 8 Flexibility of taekwondo athletes as measured by the sit- greater flexibility in females [8, 27, 29]. No differences in
and-reach test (data are presented as mean ± SD) sit-and-reach test scores were identified between junior and
Athlete characteristics (n) Sit-and-reach References senior club athletes [90].
(cm) However, junior taekwondo practitioners demonstrate a
tendency to elicit lower sit-and-reach test scores than most
Males
seniors (Table 8). These differences should be acknowl-
Recreational (14) 53.2 ± 6.6 Thompson and
Vinueza [103] edged when developing preparatory strategies for different
Recreational Toskovic et al. [27] populations within the sport.
Novice (7) 31.7 ± 9.7 The available data on the flexibility of taekwondo ath-
Experienced (7) 39.1 ± 4.3
letes are mostly limited to sit-and-reach test measurements,
Czech international (11) 36.9 ± 4.5 Heller et al. [8]
which provide a reasonably valid assessment of hamstring
flexibility, but a less valid indication of low-back flexion
Puerto Rican 36.0 ± 9.1 Rivera et al. [29]
international (13) ROM [96]. Several research groups have attempted to
Malaysian club athletes Suzana and Pieter [90] assess the ROM in other joints using less conventional
Senior (10) 16.83 ± 6.54 methods, such as front [40] and side [27, 40, 97] leg split
Junior (10) 17.20 ± 3.19 tests. The limited available data demonstrate that experi-
Females enced male taekwondo athletes display superior side leg
Recreational Toskovic et al. [27] split test performances when compared with novice tae-
Novice (7) 37 ± 7.2
kwondo athletes (152.3 ± 27.2° vs. 115.3 ± 8.3°, respec-
Experienced (7) 35.9 ± 6.2
tively) [27], and successful male taekwondo competitors
Czech international (12) 37.9 ± 3.4 Heller et al. [8]
produce superior front leg split test scores when compared
with their less successful counterparts (medallists:
Puerto Rican 35.2 ± 6.0 Rivera et al. [29]
international (9) 90.4 ± 8.8 cm vs. non-medallists: 82.0 ± 7.6 cm) [40].
Croatian international Markovic et al. [5] Although this is an important step towards enhancing the
Medallists (6) 54.8 ± 4.5 specificity of ROM assessment in taekwondo, more
Non-medallists (7) 56.6 ± 5.2 extensive research is required into the validity and reli-
Junior recreational (21) Kim et al. [19] ability of such measurements before being implemented
Pre-training 16.2 ± 7.0^
more widely to assess and monitor the flexibility of athletes
Post-training 18.2 ± 6.4
in the field. Given the nature of the technical actions per-
formed in taekwondo, there is clearly scope for more direct
Statistically significant difference presented within the study and comprehensive assessments of the flexibility of tae-
(p \ 0.05): ^ Pre- vs. post-training
kwondo athletes. Indeed, the use of clinical goniometry
International athletes who compete at international level, Recrea-
tional non-competitive and/or club practitioners, SD standard may permit more direct assessment of the ROM across an
deviation array of joints that are functionally important to the tech-
nical actions in taekwondo [94].

dynamic activity in which the movements require a large

ROM, especially in the lower limbs [95]. The most widely
used test to assess the flexibility of taekwondo athletes is
the sit-and-reach test (Table 8).
The sit-and-reach test scores reported for senior inter-
national taekwondo athletes ranged between 36–36.9 cm
for males and 35.2–56.6 cm for females. These scores lie
within the 80th and 70–100th percentile ranks for males
and females aged 20–29 years [31]. These high flexibility
scores may be a consequence of the adaptations caused by
specific taekwondo training and the functional require-
ments of the technical actions in the sport [19]. While
flexibility may be important in this context, it does not
appear to discriminate between athletes’ level of compet-
itive success [5]. Female athletes demonstrate a higher
range of sit-and-reach scores than males (Table 8), but
within-study comparisons provide little evidence to suggest
9 Conclusions and Future Research
The last few decades have witnessed considerable interest
in the scientific study of taekwondo, and numerous
research groups have described the physical and physio-
logical profiles of the athletes [5, 7–9, 14, 16, 27, 35, 40,
97]. International taekwondo athletes possess low levels of
body fat and a somatotype that characterises a blend of
moderate musculoskeletal tissue and relative body linear-
ity. While the VO2max of taekwondo athletes is somewhat
variable, the available data suggest that moderate to high
levels of cardio-respiratory fitness are necessary to support
the metabolic demands of fighting and to facilitate recovery
between consecutive matches. Taekwondo athletes dem-
onstrate high peak anaerobic power characteristics of the
lower limbs and this attribute appears to be conducive to

123
730
achieving success in international competition. The ability
to generate and sustain power output using both concentric
and ‘stretch-shortening cycle’ muscle actions of the lower
limbs may be important to support the technical and tac-
tical actions in combat. Taekwondo competitors also dis-
play moderate to high maximum dynamic strength
characteristics of the lower and upper extremities, and
moderate endurance properties of the upper extremity,
trunk and hip flexor musculature. The high degree of
flexibility displayed in the lower limbs of taekwondo ath-
letes is functionally important to support the technical
actions in the sport.
It is hoped that the physical and physiological charac-
teristics of the taekwondo athletes presented in this review
will serve as an ergonomic framework to prepare com-
petitors for the physiological demands of taekwondo
competition. However, there is a scarcity of research
available on the physical characteristics of taekwondo
athletes in relation to age, sex, competition levels and
weight categories. These shortcomings may limit the
development of specialised conditioning programmes for
different populations within the sport. More extensive
research is warranted in these areas to permit population-
specific training recommendations. Information on the
maximal dynamic strength, muscular endurance and flexi-
bility characteristics of taekwondo athletes is particularly
deficient and requires concerted research attention.
Research should consider evaluating a more extensive
range of fitness components that are pertinent to the sport.
Speed and agility, for instance, are essential for many of
the technical and tactical actions performed in taekwondo,
but these attributes have received limited research atten-
tion. Researchers should also consider addressing the lim-
itations associated with the existing knowledge base,
namely the lack of specificity of the testing protocols, and
standardisation of test procedures and use of equipment.
The development of specialised fitness tests that better
reflect the mechanical actions, activity patterns and meta-
bolic demands of the sport would improve the validity of
the data and hence their application in both research and
practice. There is a need for greater conformity in the use
of testing procedures and equipment by researchers,
including diligent description of the testing methods and
the stage of the season that testing was undertaken to
improve the efficacy of data comparisons between studies.
Finally, researchers should include appropriate sample
sizes and statistical techniques [98] to address specific
research questions, and to ensure that effects are mean-
ingful and that inferences are accurate.
Acknowledgments No sources of funding were used to assist in the
preparation of this review. The authors declare that they have no
conflicts of interest.
123
C. A. Bridge et al.
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