TOPIC 9: COMPOUNDS OF METALS

A compound is a substance formed by the chemical combination of two or more elements.

Metals react with other substances, especially nonmetals, to form different compounds. The
common compounds formed by metals include: Oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, hydrogen
carbonates, sulphates, nitrates and chlorides.
METAL OXIDES
An oxide is a compound formed by the combination of oxygen with another element. Metal
oxides are compounds of metals with oxygen. Oxides are binary compounds. This means they
contain two elements, one of which must be oxygen.
PREPARATION OF METAL OXIDES
Metal oxides can be prepared using two methods namely, direct and indirect methods.
a) Preparation of metal oxides by direct method
In this method, a metal is directly heated in oxygen to give a metal oxide. Many metals burn
rapidly when heated in oxygen or in air, hence producing their oxides. Metals form basic oxides
when they react with air.
Sodium
Sodium burns in air with a persistent yellow flame to form sodium peroxide which is a pale
yellow solid.
2𝑁𝑎( ) + 𝑂 ( ) → 𝑁𝑎 𝑂 ( )
When sodium is exposed to air, it reacts with the oxygen in the air to form sodium oxide which is
a whitish-grey solid.
4𝑁𝑎( ) + 𝑂 ( ) → 2𝑁𝑎 𝑂( )
This is the reason why sodium is stored under oil. Sodium oxide is also formed when sodium is
burnt in a limited supply of air.
When sodium peroxide dissolves in water at room temperature, it forms an alkaline solution.
Oxygen gas also evolved.
2𝑁𝑎 𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) → 4𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝑂 ( )
With ice-cold water, sodium peroxide forms hydrogen peroxide.
𝑁𝑎 𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐻 𝑂 ( )
Sodium oxide reacts with water to give sodium hydroxide.
𝑁𝑎 𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( )
Depending on the degree of heating, sodium peroxide and sodium oxide can be formed at the
same time.
6𝑁𝑎( ) + 2𝑂 ( ) → 𝑁𝑎 𝑂 ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎 𝑂( )
Magnesium
Magnesium burns in air with a very brilliant white flame to form a white solid, magnesium
oxide.
2𝑀𝑔( ) + 𝑂 ( ) → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂( )
Magnesium oxide reacts with water to form basic magnesium hydroxide.

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 𝑀𝑔𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻) ( )
Calcium
Calcium burns in air with a red flame to form calcium oxide which is white.
2𝐶𝑎( ) + 𝑂 ( ) → 2𝐶𝑎𝑂( )
Calcium oxide reacts with water to form calcium hydroxide.
𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) ( )
Calcium hydroxide is sparingly soluble in water.
Metals high in the reactivity series such as sodium and potassium readily react with oxygen
directly to form oxides. Magnesium and calcium also react with air to form an oxide coating on
the metals.
When some metals are burned in the air, they react with oxygen of the air to form metal oxides.
However, this method is not intensively used because some metals tend to form a protective
layer of an oxide on the surface of metal and prevent further attack by oxygen. The best example
of such metals is aluminium which, when hated in the air, forms a protective layer of aluminum
(III) oxide (𝐴𝑙 𝑂 ) on the surface of a metal which prevents further attack by oxygen.
b) Preparation of metal oxides by indirect methods
The indirect methods of preparing metal oxides are:
i) Preparing a compound which is then decomposed by heating to give the oxide.
ii) Decomposing an already prepared compound by heating it to give the oxide.
 Heating a metal hydroxide.
Metal hydroxides decompose on heating to give an oxide and water. The hydroxides of lithium,
sodium and potassium are stable and do not decompose on heating. Hydroxides of silver, gold
and mercury do not exist.
Hydroxide Products on heating Colour of oxide Colour of oxide on
when hot cooling
Copper (II) hydroxide 𝐶𝑢𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 Black Black
(green)
Zinc hydroxide 𝑍𝑛𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 Yellow White
(white)
Lead hydroxide 𝑃𝑏𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 Reddish-brown Yellow
(white)
Iron (III) hydroxide 𝐹𝑒 𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 Reddish-brown Reddish-brown
(reddish brown)
Magnesium hydroxide 𝑀𝑔𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 White White
(white)
Aluminium (III) 𝐴𝑙 𝑂 + 𝐻 𝑂 White White
hydroxide (white)

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  Heating a metallic carbonates
When green powder of copper (II) carbonate is strongly heated in attest tube it decomposes to
give black copper (II) oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐶𝑢𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
Zinc carbonate, which is white in colour, decomposes to give zinc oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝑍𝑛𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
Lead carbonate decomposes to give lead (II) oxide which is reddish brown when hot and yellow
when cold.
𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝑃𝑏𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
Iron (II) carbonate decomposes to give iron (II) oxide which is black.
𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐹𝑒𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
The iron (II) oxide formed is immediately oxidized to iron (III) oxide.
4𝐹𝑒𝑂( ) + 𝑂 ∆𝐻⃗ 2𝐹𝑒 𝑂 ( )
Magnesium carbonate decomposes only on strong heating to give magnesium oxide.
𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝑀𝑔𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
Calcium carbonate, like magnesium carbonate, will only decompose when strongly heated.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
Alkali metal carbonates such as sodium carbonate do not decompose when heated. The oxides of
these metals cannot therefore be prepared using this method.
 Heating a metallic nitrate
When white crystals of lead nitrate are heated in a test tube it decomposes to give a mixture of
brown gas (nitrogen dioxide) and oxygen. The oxygen gas rekindles a glowing wooden splint. A
hot, brown residue of lead oxide remains in the test tube and turns yellow on cooling. Calcium
nitrate behaves similarly when heated.
2𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 2𝑃𝑏𝑂( ) + 4𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
2𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 2𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 4𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL OXIDES
Metal oxides can be grouped into various categories based on their solubility in water and their
reactions with acids and bases.
Soluble metal oxides readily dissolve in water to form a metal hydroxide solution. They include
potassium and sodium oxides. Soluble metal oxides are known as alkalis. Oxides of calcium are
sparingly soluble in water.
Insoluble metal oxides do not dissolve in water. Most metal oxides are insoluble in water.
Basic oxides are metal oxides that react with acids to give a salt and water only. Such reactions
are referred to as neutralization reactions.
For example:
𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
𝐹𝑒𝑂( ) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 𝐹𝑒(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )

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Amphoteric oxides are oxides which have both acidic and basic properties. They form simple
salts with acids and complex salts with strong alkalis. Examples of amphoteric oxides are zinc,
lead and aluminium oxides.
𝑍𝑛𝑂( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻) 𝑁𝑎 ( )
[Sodium zincate]
𝑃𝑏𝑂( ) + 2𝐾𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝑃𝑏(𝑂𝐻) 𝐾 ( )
[Potassium plumbate]
𝐴𝑙 𝑂 ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 3𝐻 𝑂( ) → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻) 𝑁𝑎( )
[sodium aluminate]

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL OXIDES

Reaction with water
Soluble metal oxides react with water to form their metal hydroxides.
For example:
𝐾 𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) → 2𝐾𝑂𝐻( )
𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) ( )
Reaction of metal oxides with acids and alkalis
All metal oxides react with acids to form salts and water only. The reaction is called
neutralization. Amphoteric oxides react with both acids and alkalis. Amphoteric oxides they
complex salts with strong alkalis.
𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
𝑃𝑏𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
𝐴𝑙 𝑂 ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 3𝐻 𝑂( ) → 2𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻) 𝑁𝑎( )
Action of heat on metal oxides
Metal oxides are stable to heat except mercury (II) oxide which decomposes to free metal and
oxygen.
𝐻𝑔𝑂( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐻𝑔( ) + 𝑂 ( )
USES OF METAL OXIDES
Metal oxides have different uses which are related to the properties of the specific metal oxide.
Calcium oxide
The following are the uses of calcium oxide
a) Preparation of calcium carbide
b) Lining of furnaces
c) Formation of slag
d) Drying agent
e) Preparing mortar
f) Manufacture of cement
g) Soil treatment

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Magnesium oxide
Magnesium oxide is used for making the lining for open-hearth and steel furnaces because of its
high melting point (2800℃). Also it is used as liming material.
Other oxides
Other oxides that have useful uses include:
 Zinc oxide, which is used as a white pigment in paints, a filter in rubber and as a
component of glazes, enamels and antiseptic ointments.
 Naturally occurring aluminium oxide (corundum), which is used as an abrasive.

METAL HYDROXIDES
A metal hydroxide is an inorganic compound that contains a metal and a hydroxyl ion (𝑂𝐻 ).
Most metal hydroxides are bases. Alkali metal hydroxides, such as sodium hydroxide, are very
soluble in water and are very strong bases. Alkaline earth metal hydroxides, such as calcium
hydroxide, are only sparingly soluble in water.
PREPARATION OF METAL HYDROXIDES
Metal hydroxides can be prepared either by direct or indirect methods.
Preparation of metal hydroxides by direct method
In this method, metals, especially those high in the reactivity series, are reacted with water to
form their hydroxide.
Sodium reacts vigorously with water to form an alkaline solution of sodium hydroxide. Sodium
hydroxide is very soluble in water.
2𝑁𝑎( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) → 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐻 ( )
Potassium reacts more vigorously with water to give an alkaline solution of potassium
hydroxide.
2𝐾( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) → 2𝐾𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐻 ( )
Calcium hydroxide is alkaline and is sparingly soluble in water.
𝐶𝑎( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 𝐻 ( )
Magnesium also forms magnesium hydroxide and hydrogen gas, but the reaction is quite slow.
𝑀𝑔( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝑀𝑔(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 𝐻 ( )
Hydroxides of metals below hydrogen in the reactivity series cannot be prepared by the direct
method.
Preparation of metal hydroxides by indirect method
In this method, an alkali is reacted with different salts such as chlorides, sulphates and nitrates to
form a metal hydroxide.
Hydroxides of metals below sodium in the reactivity series can be prepared by precipitating their
aqueous salts with potassium, sodium or ammonium hydroxide.
𝐹𝑒𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) → 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙 ( )
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝑁𝐻 𝑂𝐻( ) → 𝐶𝑢(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + (𝑁𝐻 ) 𝑆𝑂 ( )
𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 2𝐾𝑂𝐻( ) → 𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 2𝐾𝑁𝑂 ( )

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 CLASSIFICATION OF METAL HYDROXIDES
Solubility of metal hydroxides
Alkali metal hydroxides such as potassium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide are very soluble in
water. Alkaline earth metal hydroxides such as calcium and barium are sparingly soluble in
water. The other metal hydroxides are insoluble in water.
Basic hydroxides
Basic hydroxides react with acids to give salt and water only.
Amphoteric hydroxides
Amphoteric hydroxides they react with both acids and bases. They form complex salts with
strong alkalis. These are zinc, lead and aluminium hydroxides.
𝑍𝑛(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) → 𝑁𝑎 𝑍𝑛𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( )
𝑃𝑏(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) → 𝑁𝑎 𝑃𝑏𝑂 ( ) + 3𝐻 𝑂( )
𝐴𝑙(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) → 𝑁𝑎𝐴𝑙𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( )
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL HYDROXIDES
Action oh heat on metal hydroxides
Hydroxides of metals high in the reactivity series such as potassium and sodium do not
decompose on heating. Other metal hydroxides decompose to give a metal oxide and water.
𝑃𝑏(𝑂𝐻) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝑃𝑏𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
𝐶𝑢(𝑂𝐻) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐶𝑢𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
Action of acids on metal hydroxides
All metallic hydroxides react with dilute acids to form salts and water only. For example:
𝐾𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙( ) → 𝐾𝐶𝑙( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
𝐶𝑢(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( )
USES OF METAL HYDROXIDES
The uses of metal hydroxides are very similar to those of the corresponding metal oxides. Some
of the uses of metal hydroxides are described below.
a) Agriculture
Calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) is used in soil treatment.
b) Medicine
Aluminium and magnesium hydroxides are used as antacids to neutralize stomach acid.
Magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia) is a common laxative.
c) Building and construction
Whitewash is a thick suspension of slaked lime in water. It is smeared on the walls of
buildings to give them a smooth protective finish. Slaked lime mixed with sand and water is
used to stick bricks together.
d) Bleaching of pulp
Calcium hydroxide is used in the preparation of calcium hydrogensulphite(𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝑆𝑂 ) )
which is required in preparing sulphite pulp from wood. The pulp is used in making paper
and artificial silk.

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e) Softening of water
Calcium hydroxide is used to remove temporary hardness of water, that is hardness caused
by calcium hydrogencarbonate. Both calcium hydroxide and calcium hydrogencarbonate are
converted into the carbonate and precipitated out.
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) ( ) → 2𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( )
f) Manufacture of paints
Calcium hydroxide is used in the manufacture of undercoat paints which are applied as the
first coat on plaster walls or on wood before applying the final gloss paint.
g) Qualitative analysis
 Calcium hydroxide is sparingly soluble in water forming lime water. Lime water is used
as a qualitative test for carbon dioxide. When carbon dioxide is passed through lime
water, a white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed.
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
 Sodium hydroxide is also an important reagent in the qualitative analysis of metal
cations. Zinc, lead and aluminium ions form precipitates with sodium hydroxide
solution. The precipitate dissolves in excess alkali.
h) Extraction of metals
Sodium hydroxide is used in the extraction of aluminium from bauxite ore.

CARBONATES AND HYDROGENCARBONATES OF METALS

Metal carbonates and hydrogencarbonates are derived from carbonic acid (𝐻 𝐶𝑂 ).
METAL CARBONATES
Metal carbonates are formed when both hydrogen atoms in carbonic acid are replaced by a metal.
Carbonic acid is dibasic. This means that it has two replaceable hydrogen atoms in its molecule.
PREPARATION OF METAL CARBONATES
The method used to prepare carbonates depends on whether the carbonate is soluble in water or
not.
Preparation of soluble metal carbonate
Soluble metal carbonates can be prepared by passing carbon dioxide through solutions of
potassium or sodium hydroxides. The soluble metal carbonates are those of potassium and
sodium carbonates only. They are prepared in the laboratory by passing carbon dioxide through
their hydroxides.
2𝐾𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( ) → 𝐾 𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( ) → 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
Preparation of insoluble metal carbonate
All insoluble metal carbonates can be prepared by the precipitation method. Any soluble
carbonates, such as sodium and potassium carbonates, can be reacted with another soluble salt
solution of the metal.
For examples:
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙( )

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 𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 ( ) → 𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 2𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂 ( )
CLASSIFICATION OF METAL CARBONATES
Carbonates can be classified into two groups based on their solubility in water.
Soluble carbonates dissolves in water to form solutions. Only carbonates of alkali metals are
soluble in water. All other metal carbonates are insoluble in water.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL CARBONATES
Action of heat on metal carbonates
The carbonates of potassium and sodium are very stable compounds and do not decompose on
heating. The other metal carbonates decompose to give the metal oxide and carbon dioxide.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐶𝑢𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
Action of acids on metal carbonates
Acids react with metal carbonates to form their respective salts, water and carbon dioxide.
For example;
The addition of an acid, to chalk (calcium carbonate) causes effervescence (production of
bubbles) as carbon dioxide is given off.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
TEST FOR METAL CARBONATES
To a sample solution into a test tube, add Barium chloride (𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙 ) solution. If the precipitate
forms, add dilute Hydrochloric acid (HCl). White precipitate soluble in dilute HCl is formed.

METAL HYDROGENCARBONATES
Metal hydrogencarbonates are formed when only one of the two hydrogen atoms in the carbonic
acid is replaced with a metal ion. All metal hydrogencarbonates are soluble in water. Aluminium,
zinc, iron, lead and copper hydrogencarbonates do not exist.
Preparation of metal hydrogencarbonates
When excess carbon dioxide gas is passed through concentrated sodium hydroxide solution,
sodium hydrogencarbonate is precipitated out. The reaction takes place in two stages. In the first
stage, sodium carbonate is formed.
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( ) → 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
When excess carbon dioxide is passed through, it reacts with the sodium carbonate to form
sodium hydrogencarbonate.
𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) → 2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂 ( )
A white precipitate of calcium carbonate is formed when carbon dioxide is briefly passed
through lime water.
𝐶𝑎(𝑂𝐻) ( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
When excess carbon dioxide is passed through, the calcium carbonate dissolves to form calcium
hydrogencarbonate.
𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )

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When calcium hydrogencarbonate solution is boiled, it decomposes to form calcium carbonate,
carbon dioxide and water.
𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) ( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
The solid calcium carbonate is obtained as a precipitated in the boiling mixture.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF HYDROGENCARBONATES
Action of heat on metal hydrogencarbonates
Hydrogencarbonates readily decompose on heating into carbonates, water and carbon dioxide.
𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
2𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝑁𝑎 𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
Action of acids on hydrogencarbonates
Dilute acids react with hydrogencarbonates to form a salt, water and carbon dioxide.
𝐶𝑎(𝐻𝐶𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑎𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) + 2𝐶𝑂 ( )
𝑁𝑎𝐻𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙( ) → 𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
TEST FOR SOLUBLE CARBONATES AND HYDROGENCARBONATES.
 To a sample solution into a test tube, add few drops of Magnesium sulphate (𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 )
solution. If white precipitate is formed, it indicates the presence of soluble carbonates.
 To sample solution into a test tube, add few drops of Magnesium sulphate (𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 )
solution. If no precipitate is formed, warm the contents. White precipitate is formed
after warming the contents it indicates the presence of hydrogencarbonates
USES OF CARBONATES AND HYDROGENCARBONATES
a) Softening hard water
b) Manufacture of glass
c) Qualitative and quantitative analysis
d) Manufacture of sodium hydroxide
e) Manufacture of “water glass”
f) Baking
g) Health salts
METAL NITRATES
Metal nitrates are metal salts of nitric acid formed by displacement of the hydrogen ion of the
acid by a metal.
Preparation of metal nitrates
There are different methods of preparing metal nitrates. These include:
a) reaction of a metal with dilute nitric acid
𝑀𝑔( ) + 4𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 𝑀𝑔(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) + 2𝑁𝑂 ( )
b) reaction of a metal hydroxide with dilute nitric acid
𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
c) reaction of a metal carbonate with dilute nitric acid
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 𝑍𝑛(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
d) reaction of a metal oxide with dilute nitric acid

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 𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL NITRATES
Effect of heat on metal nitrates
Nitrates of sodium and potassium decompose on heating to their respective nitrites and oxygen
2𝐾𝑁𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 2𝐾𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
2𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 2𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
Nitrates of calcium, magnesium, aluminum , zinc, iron, lead and copper decompose to the metal
oxide , nitrogen dioxide and oxygen. For example;
2𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 2𝐶𝑎𝑂( ) + 4𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
2𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 2𝐶𝑢𝑂( ) + 4𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
Nitrate of the least reactive metals such as silver decompose to give free metals, nitrogen dioxide
and oxygen. For example;
2𝐴𝑔𝑁𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 2𝐴𝑔( ) + 2𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
𝐻𝑔(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐻𝑔( ) + 2𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑂 ( )
Action of nitrate with acid
When barium nitrate reacts with sulphuric (VI) acid, a double decomposition reaction occurs.
𝐵𝑎(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( )
Potassium nitrate with hydrochloric acid show the same reaction.
𝐾𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙( ) → 𝐾𝐶𝑙( ) + 𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( )
TESTS FOR NITRATES
Various tests are used to identify metal nitrates in solution or in solid form. These tests include
the action of heat on nitrates. When any metal nitrate except sodium and potassium is heated,
reddish brown fumes of nitrogen dioxide are observed.
There are two common tests for nitrates namely: copper turnings test and brown ring test.
Copper turnings test
Put a spatulaful of the solid nitrate into the test-tube, add few mls of distilled water (about 5 ml).
Shake well to dissolve the salt. Add copper turnings followed by concentrated 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 then
warm.
Concentrated sulphuric acid first reacts with the nitrate to give nitric acid.
𝐻 ( ) + 𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( )
The nitric acid then reacts with copper to give the brown gas (nitrogen dioxide) and other
products according to the following equation. The evolution of brown gas confirms that nitrate
ions are present.
𝐶𝑢( ) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑢(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝑁𝑂 ( )
Brown ring test
To a solution of nitrate in the test tube, add freshly prepared ferrous sulphate (𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ) solution
and shake well to mix the two solutions. Carefully pour concentrated 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 along the side of the
test-tube.

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When concentrated sulphuric acid is poured down the side of the test tube, it moves down and
settles at the bottom of the test tube. This is because the acid is denser than the mixture of the test
solution and iron (II) sulphate.
A “brown ring” forms between the layer of concentrated sulphuric acid and the mixture of the
solution and iron (II) sulphate, if the test solution is a nitrate. All nitrates form this brown ring.
This test is therefore known as the ‘brown ring’ test for nitrates.
How the brown ring is formed
Concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with the nitrate ions to form nitric acid.
𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝑆𝑂 ( )
The nitric acid formed oxidizes iron (II) sulphate to iron (III).
𝐹𝑒 ( ) → 𝐹𝑒 ( ) + 𝑒
Nitric acid is itself reduced to nitrogen monoxide.
4𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 4𝑁𝑂( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( ) + 3𝑂 ( )
The nitrogen monoxide combines with some of the remaining iron (II) sulphate to form a dark
brown complex 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ∙ 𝑁𝑂( ) .
𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝑁𝑂( ) → 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ∙ 𝑁𝑂( )
If the solution is disturbed, the brown ring disappears. This is because concentrated sulphuric
acid and water mix, producing a lot of heat which helps to decompose the 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ∙ 𝑁𝑂. The
𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ∙ 𝑁𝑂 is a very unstable compound.
𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ∙ 𝑁𝑂( ) → 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝑁𝑂( )
The formation of the brown complex is a reversible chemical reaction.
𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝑁𝑂( ) ⇌ 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ∙ 𝑁𝑂( )
USES OF METAL NITRATES
Nitrates have a number of uses. They are used in different fields such as:
a) Agriculture.
Nitrogenous fertilizers are mainly nitrates. They include ammonium nitrate, potassium
nitrate and calcium nitrate. Nitrogenous fertilizers are manufactured from nitric acid.
b) Photography.
Silver nitrate is used in the production of photographic films and plates.
c) Weapons.
Gunpowder is a mixture of potassium nitrate, charcoal and sulphur. Ammonium nitrate is
also used in making explosives and blasting agents which are used in mines, quarries and
constructions.
d) Food preservation.
Nitrates and nitrites are used in curing meats and fish. Not only do they kill bacteria but they
also produce a characteristic flavour, and give meat a pink or red colour.

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 e) Medicine
Antiseptics are chemical agents that are used on the skin and mucous membranes to kill
germs. Silver nitrate is an active ingredient in antifungal creams that treat skin and mucus
membranes infections.
METAL CHLORIDES
Chlorides are salts that are derived from hydrochloric acid.
PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE METAL CHLORIDES
Soluble metal chlorides can be prepared by
a) action of dilute hydrochloric acid on metals
b) direct combination of a metal and chlorine
c) action of dilute hydrochloric acid on bases
d) action of dilute hydrochloric acid on carbonates or hydrogencarbonates
PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE METAL CHLORIDES
Insoluble metal chlorides can be prepared by precipitation reactions using hydrochloric acid or
soluble chlorides.
SOLUBILITY OF METAL CHLORIDES
All chlorides of metals are soluble in cold water except silver chloride. Lead (II) chloride is
sparingly soluble in warm water.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL CHLORIDES
Effect of heat on metal chlorides
Generally, apart from ammonium chloride, chlorides do not decompose on heating. However,
hydrated chlorides undergo hydrolysis when heated strongly.
Ammonium chloride decomposes on heating to ammonia and hydrogen chloride. This reaction is
reversible.
𝑁𝐻 𝐶𝑙( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝑁𝐻 ( ) + 𝐻𝐶𝑙( )
Hydrated magnesium chloride gives up its water of crystallization when it is gently heated.
𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙 ∙ 6𝐻 𝑂( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 6𝐻 𝑂( )
When strongly heated, the magnesium chloride decomposes to give a greenish-yellow gas
(chlorine), magnesium oxide and water.
2𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙 ∙ 6𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝑂 ( ) → 2𝑀𝑔𝑂( ) + 2𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 12𝐻 𝑂( )
Action with concentrated sulphuric acid
When a little concentrated sulphuric acid is added to a chloride salt in test tube, dense white
fumes of hydrogen chloride gas are evolved.
𝐻 ( ) + 𝐶𝑙 ( ) → 𝐻𝐶𝑙( )
For example:
2𝐾𝐶𝑙( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐾 𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙( )
𝑃𝑏𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙( )

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TEST FOR CHLORIDES
To a sample solution add few drops of dilute nitric acid followed by about 3 drops of silver
nitrate solution. White precipitate is formed, hence indicates the presence of chloride.
USES OF METAL CHLORIDES
The following are some of the areas where metal chlorides are used.
a) Manufacture of dry batteries
Zinc chloride mixed with ammonium chloride is used in dry batteries.
b) Food preservation
Sodium chloride is used in preservation of foods such as fish and other meat products.
c) Petroleum industry
Aluminum chloride is used in the manufacture of synthetic lubricating oils and as a
catalyst in reactions that involve hydrocarbons.
d) Food stuffs
Common salt (sodium chloride) is added to food to give it taste.
e) Textile industry
Magnesium chloride is used to lubricate cotton threads in the textile industry.
f) Dentistry
Magnesium chloride is one of the constituents of the tooth cavity filling paste.

METAL SULPHATES
Metal sulphates are metallic salts of sulphuric acid made by displacement of hydrogen ions of
the acid by a metal. Some sulphates are soluble in water while others are not.
PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SULPHATES
Soluble sulphates can be prepared by reacting a metal, a metal carbonate, a metal hydroxide or a
metal oxide with sulphuric acid.
For example:
𝑍𝑛( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 ( )
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝑁𝑎 𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻 𝑂( )
𝐶𝑢𝑂( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( )
𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑂( ) + 𝐶𝑂 ( )
PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SULPHATES
Barium and lead sulphates are the two common metal sulphates which are not soluble in water.
Insoluble metal sulphates are prepared by precipitation reactions.
Barium and lead sulphates canbe prepared by reacting a soluble salt of barium and lead with
dilute sulphuric acid, respectively.
 A precipitation reaction takes place when lead nitrate solution reacts with dilute sulphuric
acid.
𝑃𝑏(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( )
 Lead (II) sulphate is precipitated out.

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 𝑃𝑏 ( ) + 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝑃𝑏𝑆𝑂 ( )

 A white precipitated barium sulphate is formed when dilute sulphuric acid is added to barium
chloride solution.
𝐵𝑎𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙( )
 A similar reaction would take place if barium nitrate was used.
𝐵𝑎(𝑁𝑂 ) ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐵𝑎𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( )

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SULPHATES

Action of heat on metal sulphates
Sulphates of alkali metals and alkaline earth metals are stable compounds and do not decompose
on heating. Only a few sulphate decompose on heating to give different products:
2𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐹𝑒 𝑂 ( ) + 𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝑆𝑂 ( )
2𝐹𝑒 (𝑆𝑂 ) ( ) ∆𝐻⃗ 𝐹𝑒 𝑂 ( ) + 3𝑆𝑂 ( )
When crystals of hydrated copper sulphate are heated, the colour changes from blue to white due
to the formation of anhydrous copper (II) sulphates.
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 ∙ 5𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 5𝐻 𝑂( )
On strong heating, the anhydrous copper (II) sulphate decomposes to coper (II) oxide and
sulphur trioxide gas.
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐶𝑢𝑂( ) + 𝑆𝑂 ( )
The gas turns a wet blue litmus paper red.
Zinc sulphate decomposes in the same way on strong heating.
𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝑍𝑛𝑂( ) + 𝑆𝑂 ( )
When hydrated iron (II) sulphate is gently heated, it gives up its water of crystallization to give
anhydrous iron (II) sulphate.
𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ∙ 7𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 7𝐻 𝑂( )
(𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 ) (𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑡𝑒)
The colour of the iron (II) sulphate changes from light green to white.
On strong heating, the anhydrous iron (II) sulphate decomposes to form a reddish-brown iron
(III) oxide, sulphur trioxide and sulphur dioxide.
2𝐹𝑒𝑆𝑂 ( ) → 𝐹𝑒 𝑂 ( ) + 𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 𝑆𝑂 ( )
Sulphur dioxide turns the filter paper dipped in acidified potassium dichromate solution to green.
When hydrated iron (III) sulphate is gently heated, it releases its water of crystallization to form
a reddish-brown solid which is anhydrous iron (III) sulphate.
𝐹𝑒 (𝑆𝑂 ) ∙ 9𝐻 𝑂( ) → 𝐹𝑒 (𝑆𝑂 ) ( ) + 9𝐻 𝑂( )
On strong heating, the anhydrous iron (III) sulphate decomposes to a reddish-brown iron (III)
oxide and sulphur trioxide.
𝐹𝑒 (𝑆𝑂 ) ( ) → 𝐹𝑒 𝑂 ( ) + 3𝑆𝑂 ( )
Sulphur trioxide turns a wet blue litmus paper red.

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Action of sulphates with acids
Metal sulphates react with acids in a double decomposition reaction.
A blue solution of copper sulphate reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce a light green solution
of copper chloride.
𝐶𝑢𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙( ) → 𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( )
Other examples;
𝑀𝑔𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙( ) → 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑙 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( )
𝑁𝑎 𝑆𝑂 ( ) + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂 ( ) → 2𝑁𝑎𝑁𝑂 ( ) + 𝐻 𝑆𝑂 ( )
TEST FOR SULPHATES
To a sample solution add few drops of dilute hydrochloric acid followed by a few drops of
barium chloride solution. White precipitate is formed indicates the presence of sulphates.

USES OF METAL SULPHATES

a) Medicine
 Calcium sulphate (plaster of Paris) is used to make plasters and to immobilize broken
bones.
 Iron (II) sulphate tablets and tonic are used to treat iron deficiency.
 Barium sulphate is used for X-ray of images of digestive tract.
 Hydrated sodium sulphate (Glauber’s salt) is used as a laxative.
 Zinc sulphate is used as an emetic and in the treatment of certain skin diseases.
b) Agriculture
 Iron (II) sulphate is used in the production of weed killers and fungicides.
 Copper (II) sulphate is used in spraying grape vines and potatoes as a fungicide to kill
moulds.
 Iron (II) sulphate is used in the coagulating of blood in slaughter-houses.
c) Water treatment
 Iron (II) sulphate is used in the treatment of sewage
 Potassium and aluminium sulphates are used in water treatment plants.
d) In industries
 Calcium sulphate is used in the production of ceiling boards and wall plaster.
 Iron (II), barium and copper (II) sulphates are sued in the production of paitns.
 Potassium aluminium sulphate[𝐾𝐴𝑙(𝑆𝑂 ) ] , aluminium sulphhate, hydrated zinc
sulphate and iron (II) sulphate are used in the production of dyes.
 Aluminium sulphate is added to paper pulp to reduce the hygroscopic nature of the
paper.
 Copper (II) sulphate is used as a catalyst in the production of ethanol.
 Zinc sulphate is used in the preservation of wood and electrolytic zinc plating.
 Iron (II) sulphate is used in the laboratory for the brown ring test. It is also used in the
manufacture of potassium ferricyanides and ferrocyanides used for testing iron (II) and
iron (III) ions.

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