Basic Principles, Concepts and Definitions ‘Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy. Although everybody a feeling of what energy is, itis difficult to give a precise definition for it. Energy can be viewed as the ability to cause changes. ‘The name thermodynamics stems from the Greek words therme (heat) and dynamis (power), which is most descriptive of the early efforts to convert heat into power. Today, the same name is broadly interpreted to include all aspects of energy and energy transformations including power generation, refrigeration, and relationships among the properties of matter. Some Application Areas of Thermodynamics Photosynthesis: 1 Tero sr ara me 8) 2 Twemestdaince, amen { 2. etn ey ona 4 Papa eww steam we (Psp or) a 5 ears nen) @) 6 Thepan ss the sgt gow ezlic Sela Ran conga tips (Poti) i gpa. V)oB0¢ Depleten Layer Yes saat «lag opie Puce SolFundamental Concepts and Assumptions ‘Systems and Control Volumes ‘A system is defined as a quantity of matter or a region in space chosen for study. The mass or region outside the system is called the Surroundings surroundings. The real or imaginary surface that separates the an system from its surroundings is called the boundary. The boundary . ‘of a system can be fixed or movable. Note that the boundary is the System. contact surface shared by both the system and the surroundings. , Mathematically speaking, the boundary has zero thickness, and thus Pe -, it can neither contain any mass nor occupy any volume in space. 7 Boundary Systems may be considered to be closed or open, depending on whether a fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study. Closed System (also known as a control mass), consists of a fixed amount of ‘mass, and no mass can cross its boundary. That is, no mass can enter or leave a closed system. But energy, in the form of heat or work, can cross the boundary; and the volume of a closed system does not have to be fixed. If, as a special case, even energy is not allowed to cross the boundary, that system is called an isolated system Open System ‘An open system, or a control volume, as it is often called, is a properly selected region in space. It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor, turbine, or nozzle. Flow through these devices is best studied ny by selecting the region within the device as the control volume. Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume. PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM Property — any characteristic of a system. Example: # Pressure, P Temperature, T * Volume, V Mass, m Viscosity ‘Thermal Conductivity Modulus of Elasticity Thermal Expansion Coefficient Electric Resistivity Velocity * ElevationIntensive Properties - are those that are independent of the mass of a system. Extensive properties - are those whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system. Extensive properties per unit mass are called specific properties. Example: * Specific Volume (v = V/m) * Specific Total Energy e = E/m DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY Density is defined as mass per unit volume o=2,(8)(2) Specific Volume ~ The reciprocal of det v ity, which is defined as volume per unit mass. Specific Gravity or Relative Density - the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a specified temperature (usually water at 4°C for which pr29 = 1000“. SG = Set Pwo Specific Weight - The weight of a unit volume of a substance. N v= on) TEMPERATURE AND THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS, ‘Thermal Equilibrium — The equality of temperature when a body is brought into contact with another body that is at a different temperature, heat is transferred from the body at hig! temperature to the one at lower temperature until both bodies attain the same temperature. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that if two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other. ‘The zeroth law was first formulated and labeled by R. H. Fowler in 1931. As the name suggests, its value as a fundamental physical principle was recognized more than half.a century after the formulation of the first and the second laws of thermodynamics. It was named the zeroth law since it should have preceded the first and the second laws of thermodynamics. ‘Temperature Scales * Celsius scale, °C (SD) + Fahrenheit scale, °F (English) ‘Thermodynamic (Absolute) Temperature Scales © Kelvin scale, K (SI) ‘© Rankine scale, R (English) The Kelvin scale is related to the Celsius scale by T(K) = T°C + 273 ‘The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by T(R) = TF + 460‘The temperature scales in the two unit systems are related by T(R) = 1.8T(K) Te = 1.8T°C + 32 Change in Temperature (AT) AT(R) = ATF Pressure Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area. =f a Where: P = Pressure, (Pa) (%) ( or psi) () Lbar = 10°Pa = 0.1 MPa = 100 kPa 01,325 Pa = 101.325 kPa = 1.01325 bars 9.907 S = 9.807 x 10* 807 x 10*Pa = 0.9807 bar 9679 atm Absolute Pressure - The actual pressure at a given position. Gage Pressure - The difference between the absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. ‘Vacuum Pressure - the difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure. Peage = Paps — Patm Poac = Patm — Paps Toc” Absolue, gg and vacuum presses.Pressure in a liquid at rest increases linearly with distance from the free surface P= Patm + pgh Page = ph PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES Barometer —a device used to measure atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric pressure is, often referred to as the barometric pressure. Patm = pgh ‘The Manometer It is commonly used to measure small and moderate pressure differences, A manometer consists of a glass or plastic U-tube containing ‘one or more fluids such as mercury, water, aleohol, or oil ( To keep the size of the manometer to a manageable level, heavy fluids such as mercury are used if large pressure differences are anticipated. ‘The basic manometer. Dimensions and Units Dimension — any physical quantity. Example: mass, length, time and temperature. Units — magnitudes assigned to the dimensions. Example: meter, kilograms, second and Kelvin Two Commonly Used Units / English system, which is also known as the United States Customary System (USCS), metric ST (from Le Systéme International d’ Unit és), which is also known as the International System.The seven fundamental (or primary) dimensions and their units in ST and English Dimension Unit (SI) Unit (English) Length ‘Meter (m) Foot (ft) ‘Mass Kilogram (kg) Slug or pound (slug or Ibm) Time Second (5) Second (5) ‘Temperature Degree ("Cor K) | Degree (°F or R) Force F = mass acceleration IN=1kg: aa Libf = 32.2 Ibm: Ja = 1 fs? In SI, the force unit is the newton (N), and itis defined a= 1 be as the force required to accelerate a mass of 1 kg at arate of 1 m/sec. In the English system, the force unit is the pound-force (Ibi) and is defined as the force required to accelerate a mass of 32.174 Ibm (I slug) at a rate of 1 ft/sec? Weight The term weight is often incorrectly used to express mass, particularly by the “weight watchers.” Unlike mass, weight W isa force. It is the gravitational force applied to a body, and its magnitude is determined from Newton's second law, W=mg fe-osurms? |x szrse? Where: W987 gee 214 et Weight in (N)(Ibf) rite m = mass of the body, (kg) (slug, Ibm) g = acceleration due to gravity, (9. 81 4) (22) Work - Is a form of energy, can simply be defined as force times distance. wW=Fd Where: Work in (J)(Btu) J=1N-m Power - Is the time rate of energy in (W)(hp) Electrical energy typically is expressed in the unit kilowatt-hour (kWh), which is equivalent to 3600 kJ. An electric appliance with a rated power of 1 kW consumes 1 kWh of electricity when running continuously for one hour.PROCESSES AND CYCLES Process - Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another suet Path - The series of states through which a system passes during a process. Quasi-static or Quasi-equilibrium process ake ‘A process proceeds in stich a manner that the system remains a infinitesimally close to an equilibrium state at all times. A quasi- equilibrium process can be viewed as a sufficiently slow process that allows the system to adjust itself internally so that properties in one a part of the system do not change any faster than those at other parts. Oormemee Process diagrams plotted by employing thermodynamic a properties as coordinates are very useful in visualizing the processes. T7 Some common properties that are used as coordinates are temperature tod F |P- T, pressure P, and volume V (or specific volume v). Figure shows the ——_—_ P-V diagram of a compression process of a gas. Isothermal Process — constant temperature, T = C Isobaric Process — constant pressure, P = C Isometric or Isochorie ~ constant specific volume, v = C Isentropie — constant entropy, s = C A system is said to have undergone a eyele if it returns to its tial state at the end of the process. That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical, Steady-flow Process A process during which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily. That is, the fluid properties can change from point to point within the control volume, but at any fixed point they remain the same _ during the entire process. Therefore, the volume V, the mass m, and the ; total energy content £ of the control volume remain constant during a steady flow processExample Problems 1 ‘The mass of air in a room 3 x 5 x 20m. m is known to be 350 kg. Determine the density, specific volume, and specific weight. Solution: For density, p B= ee = 1.167 8 v > GmGmeom For Specific Volume, v 1 nt v5" aig 0887 For Specific Weight, w w=pg= (1 167 ) (981) = 11.455, ‘The temperature of a system rises by 70°C during heating process. Express this rise in temperature in Kelvin, Solution: AT = 70°C = 70K ‘The flash point of an engine oil is 363°F. What is the absolute flash-point temperature in K and R? Solution: ‘T(R) = 363°F + 460 = 823R TK) = BS = 22 = 457k ‘The temperature of ambient air in a certain location is measured to be ~40°C. Express this temperature in Fahrenheit (*F), Kelvin, (K) and Rankine (R) units. Solution: T = —40°C = (—40)(1.8) + 32 = —40°F T= 40°C +273 T= 40°F + 460 The temperature of a system drops by 45°F during a cooling process. Express this drop in temperature in K, R, and °C. Solution; AT(R) = ATCF) = 45R ATK) = S0® = 88 = ask 18 18 AT(*C) = AT(K) 25°C The pressure in a water line is 1500 kPa. What is the line pressure in tb (@)B units and (b) Solution: a P = 1500 kPa = 1500°% x P = 31,345.76 Mt Ibe P = 31,345.76 fe P = 217.768 psi (psidunits? 10008 toy (am? ye tle Lt!) Ten * aa (HBF7. Determine the atmospheric pressure at a location where the barometric reading is 750 mmHg, Take the density of mercury to be 13,600 * Solution: kg 7 Prim = pg = (23,600 J(o 81 ™/.¢2) (0.750 m) ky 10,0628 m Pym = 100,062 Pytm = 100.062 kPa 8. ‘The meteorologist reports that the air pressure during storm is 70 em of mercury, Calculate the air pressure in kPa. Assume SGyig = 13.6 Solution: Prig = SGX Pray = 13.6 x 1000“ = 13,600 * The pressure is now calculated using the acceleration of gravity as 9.81 ™Y/..2 3,600 (9.81 ™/.,.2) (70cm x) Tooem, Patm = pgH = I ky Be 93,400 8 = 93,400 —2— x = 93,4008" n= sect” m= see see Pyem = 93, 400 Pa x PS Pytm = 93.40 kPa 9. A manometer is used to measure the pressure of a gas in a tank. The fluid used has a specific gravity of 0.85, and the manometer column height is 55 cm, as shown. If the local atmospheric pressure is 96 kPa, determine the absolute pressure and gage pressure within the tank. Solution: Solving for Absolute Pressure P= Pxtm + pH > working equation kg kg p=SG X pyro = 0.85 (0004) = 8505 P = 96 kPa + (850 kg/m? )(9.81 m/s? )(0.55 m) P= 100.6kPa Paps = Patm + Peage — Peage = Pabs — Patm = 100.6 kPa — 96 kPa ~ Pyage = 4.6 kPa10. The water in a tank is pressurized by air, and the pressure is measured by a multifluid manometer as shown, The tank is located on a mountain at an altitude of 1400 m where the atmospheric pressure is 85.6 kPa. Determine the air pressure in the tank if hy = 0.1m, if hy = 0.2 m and if hy = 0.35 m, Take the densities of water, oil, and mercury to be 1000 = and aso and 13,600 respectively. Solution: Pit + Pater + Pig + Ph ’oit + Pwater + Pig + Pr — PwaterBhi — Pongh2 + Pigshs P, = Pam + 8(Prighs ~ Pwwaterhs ~ Poutsh2) P, = 85.6kPa + 9.81 [13,600 *8 (0.35m) — (1000 130,000 Pa = 130 kPa (0. m) ~ 8504 (0.2 m)]