Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo 2017: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition

GT2017
June 26-30, 2017, Charlotte, NC, USA

GT2017-63678

PORTED SHROUD FLOW PROCESSES AND THEIR EFFECT ON

TURBOCHARGER COMPRESSOR OPERATION
Sidharath. Sharma Martyn. L. Jupp Ambrose. K. Nickson John. M. Allport
Turbocharger Research Turbocharger Research BorgWarner Turbo Turbocharger Research
Institute, University of Institute, University of Systems, Institute, University of
Huddersfield, Huddersfield, Huddersfield, Huddersfield, Bradford, United Kingdom Huddersfield, Huddersfield,
United Kingdom United Kingdom United Kingdom

ABSTRACT OP Optimal efficiency/design point

The ported shroud (PS) self-recirculating casing treatment is PS Ported shroud
widely used to delay the onset of the surge by enhancing the PIV Particle image velocimetry
aerodynamic stability of the turbocharger compressor. The RANS Reynolds averaged Navier-Stokes
increase in the stable operation region of the turbocharger RSL Reference speedline, 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓
compressor is achieved by recirculating the low momentum fluid SP Surge point of a specific speedline
that blocks the blade passage to the compressor inlet through a SL Speedline
ported shroud cavity. While the ported shroud design delays SST Shear stress transport
surge, it comes with a small penalty in efficiency. LES Large eddy simulation
This work presents an investigation of the flow processes 𝐴𝑒 Impeller exit area, m2
associated with a ported shroud compressor and quantifies the 𝐷𝑒 Exducer diameter, m
effect of these flow mechanisms on the compressor operation. 𝐷𝑖 Compressor inlet diameter, m
The full compressor stage is numerically modelled using a Reference rotation speed of the
Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) approach employing 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓
compressor, rpm
the shear stress transport (SST) turbulence model for steady state 𝑄𝑖𝑛 Inlet volume flow, m3s-1
simulations at the design and near surge conditions. The wheel 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡,0 Total temperature at the outlet boundary
rotation is modelled using a multiple reference frame (MRF) 𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑝 Blade tip velocity, ms-1
approach. The results show that the flow exits the PS cavity at
𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡,0 Total pressure at the outlet boundary
the near surge condition in the form of three jet-like structures of
𝜑 Mass flow coefficient
varying velocity amplitudes. Net entropy generation in the
𝜌𝑖𝑛 Inlet flow density, kgm-3
compressor model is used to assess the influence of the ported
Π𝑡−𝑡 Total to total pressure ratio
shroud design on the compressor losses, and the results indicate
𝜂𝑠 Isentropic efficiency
a small Inlet-PS mixing region is the primary source of entropy
generation in the near surge conditions. The analysis also 𝜎 Standard deviation of the variable
explores the trends of entropy generation at the design and the 𝑥̅ Mean value of a variable
near surge condition across the different speed lines. The results 𝑢𝑎 Axial velocity, ms-1
show that the primary source of entropy generation is the 𝑢𝑟 Radial velocity, ms-1
impeller region for the design condition and the inlet-PS cavity 𝑢𝜃 Circumferential velocity, ms-1
region for the near surge condition. 𝑦+ Dimensionless wall distance
̂
Δ𝑠 Normalised entropy flux
NOMENCLATURE
CP Choke point of a specific speedline INTRODUCTION
IC Internal combustion Current turbocharging developments are mainly focused on
IBC Impeller backside cavity improving fuel economy and reducing the emissions [1] instead
J Axial momentum, kgms-1 of increasing the power output of an IC engine. The high-density
MRF Multiple reference frame intake charge increases the power output of the engine or allows
a decrease in size and operating speed of the prime mover whilst

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 maintaining similar power output; thereby generating fewer
losses along with improved emission and efficiency.
The downsized engine should ideally yield a uniform torque
curve over the majority of an engine operating cycle along with
high torque at low engine speeds to maintain the driving
experience of the vehicle similar to the one with an equivalent
high displacement engine. Therefore, a turbocharger compressor
should provide a high compression ratio over the low mass flow
region and work efficiently over a wide mass flow range. The
minimum mass flow rate for the stable operation of a
turbocharger compressor is limited by the phenomenon of surge.
A delay in the onset of surge and enhancement of the stable
flow region of compressor operation is achieved either by using
active flow control devices [2, 3] or passive flow control devices
[4-6]. Active flow control strategies include inlet/diffuser guide
vanes [2, 3], diffuser bleed valves, air injection and a movable
plenum wall. Passive flow control strategies include casing
treatment [4], a bleed system [5, 7] and internal recirculation [8,
9] which are all based on the principle of recirculating the low
momentum fluid that blocks the blade passage back to the
compressor inlet. Active flow control devices are high
maintenance components due to their complicated design and
also, are space and cost intensive. Therefore, limiting the use of
active flow devices in automotive turbochargers [6], which
demand compact and reliable designs; makes passive control the
preferred strategy to enhance the stable flow region of
compressor operation.
Jansen et al. [10] experimentally studied impeller wall
treatment, and vaned diffuser designs consisting of circular and
axial grooves to enhance the operating range of compressors.
The results showed an improvement in the compressor map
width with a penalty in efficiency specifically for the vaned
diffuser designs. Similar effects were reported by MacDougal
and Elder [4]. The experimental investigation of Fisher [6] on
self-recirculation casing treatment revealed that the pressure
gradient between the slots drives the flow through the bypass
(ported shroud) cavity. The numerical and experimental work of
Hunziker et al. [7] investigated the various geometrical
configurations of a bleed slot, and the optimal design showed an
enhanced stable flow region of the compressor without heavily
penalising the efficiency. A similar investigation to understand
the effects of bleed slot geometry was performed by
Sivagnanasundaram et al. [11, 12]. The impact of vanes in the PS
cavity was investigated in the work of Sivagnanasundaram et al.
[12, 13] and Tamaki [14] where substantial improvements in the
peak pressure ratio and surge mass flow were seen.
Recent studies to understand the flow mechanism and flow
field of a ported shroud design were conducted by Christou [15]
and Semlitsch et al. [16]. The numerical investigation of
Semlitsch et al. [16] employs a scale resolving LES turbulence
model to understand the compressor flow field. The results
indicate the reduction in the flow disturbances in the blade
passage as compared to the non-ported compressor along with an
efficiency penalty at off-design conditions due to losses inside
the cavity [17] and mixing losses.
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The current work investigates the flow structures associated
with the ported shroud design by employing a steady RANS
approach. The flow structures inside the PS cavity and at the PS
outlet are investigated along with their propagation at the
upstream of the impeller inlet. The effects of the PS design at
various operating points over multiple speed lines is explored.
The entropy generation in the various components related to the
PS compressor operation is also assessed and quantified.
METHODOLOGY
The approach employed in this work is to numerically solve
the (un)steady Navier-Stokes equations for each control volume
of the computational domain in their conservation form using a
commercial CFD coupled solver ANSYS CFX [18]. The full
compressor stage is modelled as the flow distortion caused by
the volute tongue [19] would not be captured using a single blade
passage model.
The steady-state RANS approach that is based on the
Reynolds averaging of the Navier-Stokes equations is used to
directly compute the mean flow solution. The Reynolds stress
tensor introduced by the Reynolds averaging formulation is
modelled using a two-equation SST closure model. The SST
formulation is widely used in turbomachinery CFD problems
due to its ability to accurately represent the boundary layer flow
and therefore, yields an accurate solution of detaching and
swirling flows [20]. The turbulence is assumed to be isotropic
with the curvature correction. The working fluid in the
compressor is assumed to be a perfect gas with the ideal gas law
modelling the fluid behaviour and Sutherland’s law
approximating the dynamic viscosity. The dependence of
specific heat on temperature is modelled by using a temperature
polynomial.
The impeller motion is modelled using the Multiple
Reference Frame (MRF) approach by employing a frozen rotor
interface [18] in the current steady-state work. The relative
orientation of the components across the interface is fixed in the
frozen rotor, and therefore the circumferential non-uniformity
induced by the volute tongue and PS design (struts) is preserved
across the interface. Furthermore, the position of the impeller
relative to the volute tongue does not have a substantial effect on
the compressor performance predictions [21] and hence, a single
impeller position is used in this work.
The combination of total pressure at the inlet and static
pressure at the outlet boundary is widely used in literature,
however it has been shown to be sensitive to an initial guess [18].
Therefore, a steady boundary condition as a combination of the
total pressure at the inlet and mass flow rate at the outlet is
prescribed in this work to model the entire operating range of the
compressor including design, choke and near surge conditions.
The values of mass flow rate and pressure used as boundary
conditions are determined experimentally for all the operating
points that are modelled numerically. The walls are modelled as
smooth with adiabatic and no-slip boundary conditions.
For the near surge operating conditions, flow separation,
flow reversal and large scale unsteadiness is enticipated, and
hence the steady RANS approach would be expected to yield
 poor predictions as the mean and turbulent time scales are of
comparable order [22]. To accurately model the flow near surge
operating conditions, scale resolving turbulence models are ideal
but are computationally expensive. The application of steady
RANS in the works of Yang et al. [8] and Christou [15] presents
a reasonable corelation with experimetal data, and
Sivagnanasundaram et al. [11-13] used steady RANS to analyse
the PS flow features for the compressor operating near the surge.
The current work extends the use of steady RANS approach to
model the near surge conditions to understand the global flow
features with the aid of the gas stand measurements to validate
the numerical predictions. The numerical results on velocity
distribution presented in this work are also found to be in broad
agreement with the observations made by Semlitsch et al. [16]
using LES.
GEOMETRY AND THE COMPUTATIONAL MODEL
A commercially-available turbocharger compressor
geometry with a ported shroud (PS) recirculation treatment is
used in this investigation. The front and section views of the
compressor CAD geometry along with the computational
domain and the PS feature are shown in Figure 1. The PS cavity
is structurally supported by three struts in a symmetric
arrangement, and therefore, working fluid can enter or exit the
PS slot via three channels. The impeller backside cavity (IBC)
i.e. the gap between the impeller and the diffuser back-plate
along with oil bearings has been modelled in this investigation.
The specification of the compressor is provided in Table 1.
FIGURE 1. COMPRESSOR GEOMETRY SCHEMATICS SHOWING
THE VARIOUS FEATURES OF THE PS
The computational domain is spatially discretized by an
unstructured polyhedral grid that is generated from the
tetrahedral cells by the vertex-centered numerical approach in
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ANSYS CFX [18]. A polyhedral mesh is less diffusive and offers
significant accuracy gains compared to an equivalent size
unstructured grid of other cell types (i.e. tetrahedral) [23].
Although a structured mesh would result in less numerical
diffusion and commensurately higher accuracy, it leads to some
cells in regions of high geometric complexity having
unavoidably large aspect ratios or heavy skewness, resulting in
unacceptable discretisation error. The inlet and outlet sections of
the compressor are extended by 2.5𝐷𝑒 upstream and downstream
to decrease the impact of the boundary conditions on the mean
flow as well as to capture the flow instability that would be
propagated upstream of impeller inlet in off-design conditions.
The numerical set-up (inlet/outlet extension and boundary
conditions exactness) are not the perfect replication of the
experimental set-up but are designed for the computational
efficiency.
TABLE 1. COMPRESSOR SPECIFICATIONS
TC design intent Commercial vehicles
Power 400-600 kW
Number of blades 7+7 (main and splitter)
Inducer to exducer ratio 0.67
Diffuser area ratio 0.62
The computational domain is assessed to yield the flow
solution independent of grid density by performing a mesh
independence study on successively refined grids. The near-wall
grids are investigated for their ability to resolve boundary layer
flow, specifically the viscous sub-layer, by achieving a value of
𝑦 + closer to unity. Figure 2 shows the global contours of
𝑦 + values along with the 𝑦 + distribution at the impeller surface.
The chosen grid consists of approximately 15 million cells and
the boundary layer region is modelled using 12 prism layers
growing exponentially with a growth ratio of 1.3. The turbulence
numerics are modeled using a high resolution scheme [18] which
uses a second order advection scheme and the combination of a
second order and a first order backward Euler scheme to
maintain a bounded solution. The numerical model uses 1%
turbulent intensity and a turbulent viscosity ratio of 10. The
operation of the compressor at various speeds is simulated across
the mass flow range from surge at one end to choke at another
end. The operating conditions under primary investigation are
detailed in the Table 2.
The numerical models are solved until a statistically converged
flow solution is obtained. The target residuals (10−4 ) for the flow
near surge conditions using the steady state approach are
achieved for the mass term but couldn’t be achieved for the
energy term although the mass and energy imbalance is under
1% for most of the compressor model components. A possible
way to obtain converged solution for the near surge condition is
to use a gradient relaxation factor [12] in the steady state
approach. In this work, however, the relaxation factor is not used;
instead, a statistical averaging procedure is used to get the mean
𝑥̅ and standard deviation 𝜎 of the performance variables once
the convergence monitors become periodic.
 turbocharger test bench characterizes both the compressor and
turbine as the turbocharger is tested as a whole machine. The test
rig uses pressurized air as the working fluid heated to 600 °C in
a combustion chamber. The mass flow rate of the compressor is
altered by controlling a back pressure valve located at the end of
the compressor outlet duct. Mass flow rate and ambient
temperature and pressure are measured at compressor inlet.
Static/total pressure and temperature are measured at the
compressor inlet and outlet sections. Turbo shaft speed is
measured using the machine’s own speed sensor. Surge (hard and
soft) is detected using an automated method based on the
compressor inlet pressure fluctuations. Data is generally sampled
at a frequency of 100 Hz except for inlet pressure that is
measured at 1 kHz to detect surge. Temperature measurement
absolute error is in the range ± 1 oC. Pressure ratio calculated
FIGURE 2. GLOBAL AND IMPELLER 𝒚+ CONTOURS OF THE values, rotational speed and mass flow rate measurement
NUMERICAL GRID
repeatability are within ±1%. The influence of the
TABLE 2. DETAILS OF THE OPERATING POINTS PRIMARILY USED instrumentation on the compressor flow is minimized by placing
IN THIS WORK the probes at suitable distance upstream and downstream of
compressor i.e. 4-8 times the duct diameter. The simplified
Isospeed line RPM Design mass Surge mass flow schematic of the test rig is shown in Figure 4.
flow
Reference
𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑚̇ 𝑟𝑒𝑓 0.6𝑚̇ 𝑟𝑒𝑓
speedline (RSL)
Speedline 1 (SL1) 0.8𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 0.8𝑚̇ 𝑟𝑒𝑓 0.4𝑚̇ 𝑟𝑒𝑓
Speedline 2 (SL2) 1.2 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 1.2𝑚̇ 𝑟𝑒𝑓 0.8𝑚̇ 𝑟𝑒𝑓

The mean values and limiting values (𝑥̅ ± 𝜎) of the inlet

mass flow and the outlet pressure at the near surge condition of
𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speed line is shown in Figure 3. Although the fluctuations
of global variables at near surge conditions, in principle are very
different from the fluctuations seen in the numerical model due
to non-convergence; the steady state approach at each time step
yields one of the many possible flow fields that evolve under
surge conditions and as such the results are closely related [8].
Furthermore, this is reinforced by the good agreement between
the mean values of the variables predicted by the numerical
model and the gas stand measurements reported in this work.
FIGURE 4. SCHEMATICS OF THE TURBOCHARGER TEST RIG

The total-to-total pressure ratio Π𝑡,𝑡 and isentropic

efficiency 𝜂𝑠 are plotted against air mass flow on a compressor
performance map shown in Figure 5. The fluctuations of the
compressor flow solution, as predicted by steady RANS
approach at various operating points, is displayed in the form of
error bars in Figure 5. The vertical error bar represents the
fluctuation of the ordinate i.e. pressure ratio/isentropic efficiency
and the horizontal bar indicates the variation in abscissa i.e. mass
FIGURE 3. INSTANTANEOUS VALUE, MEAN VALUE AND THE
flow rate. The error bars are small (barely visible) at design
RANGE OF COMPUTED VARRIABLES NEAR SURGE
condition implying flow is approximately steady as opposed to
the increased error bar sizes indicating unsteady nature of flow
VALIDATION OF THE NUMERICAL MODEL
at the conditions near the surge. The numerical predictions and
The computational model is validated by comparing the
the experimental measurements show good agreement at low
numerical results with gas stand measurement data. The
speeds although the deviation in results increases at higher
compressor measurements are performed at the gas stand testing
speeds as seen by Zheng [21].
facility in BorgWarner Turbo Systems, Bradford. The

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 The numerical performance parameters under-predict which
seems counter intuitive as the walls are modelled as smooth and
adiabatic. The work of Zhigang et al. [24] shows that modelling
the IBC results in the lower values of the performance variables
computed in the numerical model. Isentropic efficiency
predictions show a higher deviation from the measured data
specifically at the choke condition compared to the pressure ratio
predictions. Efficiency values are calculated using two
numerically computed variables 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡,0 and 𝑇𝑜𝑢𝑡,0 while pressure
ratio is dependent only on the 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑡,0 and therefore, the efficiency
values include a compounded error compared to pressure ratio.
Nevertheless, the computed results are considered acceptably
close to the gas stand measurements and consistently capture the
pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency trends.
Figure 6 shows the in-plane velocity vector field of a plane
3mm upstream of PS outlet at the design and the near surge
conditions of 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speedline. A similar velocity field with
localized high velocity regions near the struts is seen in the PIV
measurements performed by Gancedo et al. [25]. It is worth
mentioning that the PS compressor used by Gancedo et al. [25]
is slightly bigger in size with four struts, operating at the speed
lower than 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 but is sufficiently similar to compare the primary
trends of the flow. The difference in the in-plane flow field
specifically in the high velocity region near struts can be
attributed to the frozen rotor approach which models only a
single fixed position of the wheel along with the slightly different
geometrical and operating attributes.

FLOW FIELD CHARACTERISTICS

The flow characteristics at the PS outlet and inside the PS
cavity along with the upstream effects of the interaction of the
flow exiting the PS cavity with the incoming flow are discussed
in the following sections.

Flow Characteristics at the PS Outlet

The flow exiting the PS outlet and its interaction with the
incoming flow is hypothesised to have a substantial effect on the
FIGURE 5. PRESSURE T-T AND ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY MAP:
performance of the PS compressor [15-17]. Figure 7 shows the NUMERICAL RESULTS (RED SOLID LINE) ARE COMPARED TO
axial velocity component 𝑢𝑎 of the flow exiting the PS cavity at GAS STAND MEASUREMENTS (BLUE DASHED LINE)
the PS outlet plane for the design condition and near surge
condition of reference speedline (RSL). For the near surge
operating conditions, large negative velocities can be seen at the
outer periphery of the plots whereas very small velocities are
seen at the design condition. The axial velocity vectors indicate
that the flow exits in the form of three high-velocity jets as
reported by Christou [15] and Semlitsch et al. [16] corresponding
to the three struts used in the PS design to provide structural
support.
To further investigate the characteristics of flow exiting PS
cavity, axial velocities and in-plane velocities are explored. The
amplitude of in-plane velocity for a generic 𝑌𝑍 plane is
computed as |𝑣 𝑦𝑧 | = √𝑣𝑦 + 𝑣𝑧 . In-plane velocities (amplitude)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 2 2

and axial velocities of the flow at PS outlet plane are calculated

and plotted along two sections (L1 and L2) for the compressor FIGURE 6. IN-PLANE VELOCITY VECTOR FIELD OF 𝑵𝒓𝒆𝒇
operating at RSL in Figure 8. SPEEDLINE: A.) DESIGN CONDITION B.) NEAR SURGE CONDITION

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 FIGURE 7: THE CONTOURS OF AXIAL VELOCITY OVERLAID WITH
AXIAL VELOCITY VECTORS FOR A) NEAR SURGE CONDITION OF
RSL B) DESIGN CONDITION OF RSL AND C) SHOWS THE
LOCATION OF PS OUTLET PLANE

Figure 8 shows the two sections under consideration; L1

bisects the two upper struts at the top of the domain and passes
through the strut at the bottom of the domain. L2 is perpendicular
to the L1 and represents the region near the PS struts. Therefore,
it can be said that the flow field at L1 and L2 would be
representative of the entire flow leaving the PS cavity. The axial
velocity plot shows that the mean inlet flow is fairly symmetric
at both design condition and near surge condition while the flow
in the region directly above the PS cavity is asymmetric at both
operating conditions. The axial velocity distribution shows good
agreement with the results presented by of Semlitsch et al. [16]
using LES. The asymmetry in the PS cavity flow can also be seen
in the velocity vector plot shown in Figure 7. The in-plane
velocity plot is fairly symmetric for the design condition but non-
uniform for the surge condition. The magnitude of in-plane
velocity is higher at near surge operating condition compared to
the design condition for the majority of the flow region. This can
be attributed to the recirculation zone created by an interaction
between the flow exiting the PS cavity and the incoming inlet
flow, decreasing the effective inlet area.
The in-plane velocities are further investigated by studying
the profile of radial 𝑢𝑟 and circumferential 𝑢Ɵ velocities for the
𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speed line. The non-uniformity of the flow exiting the PS
cavity necessitates the use of additional lines to accurately assess
the flow field at the PS outlet. The schematics of the struts and FIGURE 8. NORMALISED AXIAL AND IN-PLANE VELOCITY
DISTRIBUTION AT DESIGN AND NEAR SURGE CONDITIONS OF
various lines used to assess the flow field are shown in Figure 9 RSL: A.) LOCATION OF L1 & L2. B.) & C.) AXIAL VELOCITIES AT L1
and normalized velocities are plotted in Figure 10. & L2. D.) IN-PLANE VELOCITY ALONG L1

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 The data indicates a large circumferential velocity component in
the flow at the compressor inlet (PS outlet plane) for the near
surge operating condition compared to the design condition. The
flow recirculating from the PS cavity at near surge condition i.e.
the flow removed at the PS slot contains swirl due to the work
done by the impeller. The interaction of this swirling flow with
the incoming inlet flow introduces a circumferential velocity
component in the direction of impeller rotation. The high
circumferential velocity can be clearly seen in the velocity
vectors at the PS outlet plane as displayed in Figure 9. The
circumferential velocity plots are non-uniform with a different
profile for each line in the PS outlet plane whereas the radial
velocity profile is consistent in the PS outlet plane but with
different amplitudes for different locations. The velocity
components have the lowest magnitude in the region near strut 3
whereas the region between strut 1 and 2 displays the highest
velocity magnitudes. The difference in the amplitude of axial
velocity jets as well as the profiles of circumferential velocity
could be either due to the fixed position of blades employed in
the frozen rotor scheme or this could be inherent aerodynamic
phenomenon dependent on the geometry of the compressor
(volute tongue) and ported shroud. Further investigations
employing an unsteady and sliding mesh approach will be
explored in future works.
FIGURE 9. IN-PLANE VELOCITY VECTOR FIELD ALONG WITH THE
LOCATION OF THE STRUTS/RIBS AND THE LINE SECTIONS
Upstream Effects of the PS Cavity Flow
The interaction of the flow exiting the PS cavity with the
inlet flow at the near surge condition is investigated by
examining the mass flow and velocities in the PS cavity and the
region between the PS cavity and the inlet domain boundary.
Figure 11 shows the plane perpendicular to the compressor inlet
flow used in this investigation, and Figure 12 shows the fraction
of compressor inlet flow that is recirculating through the PS
cavity 𝑚̇𝑝𝑠 ⁄𝑚̇ at near the surge condition, design condition and
choke condition for 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speedline (RSL).
Positive values in these plots correspond to the flow in the
direction of the main inlet flow and negative values correspond
to the flow in opposition to the direction of main inlet flow. The
plot clearly shows that for the near surge conditions, the flow is
removed from the impeller passages and is recirculated to the
main flow at the PS outlet via the PS cavity. The mass flow trend
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at the near choke condition shows that the flow is bypassing the
impeller leading edge and is added into main flow via the PS slot.
Finally, for the design/optimal efficiency condition, the
recirculated flow via the PS cavity is a minute fraction. The mass
flow fraction in the section under investigation reaches a steady
value commensurate with the operating point and area of the
section immediately after the PS outlet for the design and near
choke condition as seen in the plot. In the case of the near surge
points, the mass flow fraction reaches the steady value further
upstream confirming the propagation of flow distortion
upstream. Furthermore, a similar trend can be seen in the plots
of the velocity (lower part of Figure 12) i.e. steady value is
reached further upstream compared to the design point. The axial
velocity of the near surge point and the design point are in
proportion to their respective mass flow rates. It is worth noting
that the steady values for mass flow fraction and velocity
(constant gradient) are achieved at a similar axial distance i.e. 𝐷𝑖
(compressor inlet diameter) for design/choke point and 2𝐷𝑖 for
surge point from the reference point shown in Figure 11. This is
similar to the results reported by Despres et al. [26].
Flow Inside the PS Cavity
The fraction of mass flow in the middle of PS cavity is taken as
the mass flow recirculating through the PS cavity as the mass
flow does not change significantly for a particular operating
point as seen in Figure 12. The fraction of compressor inlet flow
that is recirculating through the PS cavity 𝑚̇𝑝𝑠 ⁄𝑚̇ is investigated
at multiple operating conditions for three different isospeed lines
(0.8𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 , 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1.2𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) and the results are plotted in Figure
13. The data shows a significant fraction of the compressor inlet
mass flow is recirculated through the PS cavity for near surge
operating conditions; up to 50% for the 0.8𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 . The results
show that the fraction of recirculating flow decreases with an
increase in the compressor operating speed. The fraction of
recirculating flow drops from 50% for the 0.8𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speed line
(SL1) to 23% for the 1.2𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speedline (SL2).
At the design condition, the recirculated flow through PS cavity
is not substantial, and the compressor behaves like a compressor
without ported shroud recirculation treatment. It is interesting to
note that the flow is recirculated from the blade passages to the
impeller inlet at the design condition when the compressor is
operating at lower speed (0.8𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) while the flow is added into
the blade passages via the PS slot for higher operating
speeds (1.2𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 ). The trend of the lines formed by joining near
surge points and optimal efficiency points respectively for
multiple speed lines are of negative gradient with increasing
speed while the line formed by joining the choke points for
various speed lines is straight owing to the procedure used to
determine the choke point. The choke point for a particular speed
line in this work is not the actual choke condition of the machine
but instead is the operating point which corresponds to a pre-
defined minimum total-total efficiency range for the compressor.
The flow exits the PS cavity at near surge condition in the
form of three high-velocity jets as indicated by the vector plot in
Figure 7 and is further quantified by the circumferential
 FIGURE 11. LOCATION OF THE PS CAVITY PLANE AND
DIMENSIONAL DETAILS OF THE INLET SECTION

FIGURE 10. CIRCUMFERENTIAL VELOCITY AND RADIAL

FIGURE 12. COMPUTED MASS FLOW FRACTION AND VELOCITY
VELOCITY PLOTS FOR RSL (𝑵𝒓𝒆𝒇 ): A.&C.) REGION DIRECTLY IN THE PS CAVITY PLANE AT VARIOUS OPERATING CONDITIONS.
ABOVE STRUTS B.) REGION IN THE MIDDLE OF TWO STRUTS

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FIGURE 13. THE FRACTION OF INLET FLOW RECIRCULATING
THROUGH THE PS CAVITY FOR VARIOUS OPERATING POINTS
distribution of the axial velocity on the PS outlet plane for 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓
speedline in Figure 14. The three peaks in the axial velocity
distribution correspond to the three struts located at 600 , 1800
and 3000 , these struts and the location of volute tongue (1200 )
are shown in Figure 14.
FIGURE 14. AXIAL VELOCITIES AROUND THE CIRCUMFERENCE
OF THE PS OUTLET PLANE
The flow leaving the PS cavity at the PS outlet act as a
source of axial momentum [15] defined as
𝐽 = ∫ 𝑢𝑎 𝑑𝑚̇
(1)
The ratio of the axial momentum of the flow exiting PS to
the axial momentum of the main stream inlet 𝐽𝑃𝑆 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 ⁄𝐽𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 for
the 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speedline is shown in Figure 15. The results show that
the value of 𝐽𝑃𝑆 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 is double the value of 𝐽𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 at the near
surge condition for the reference (𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) speedline. 𝐽𝑃𝑆 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
values for the design point and choke point are a minute fraction
of the total momentum of the inlet stream for that specific
operating point. The recirculated mass flow through PS cavity at
the design condition is negligible, making the 𝐽𝑃𝑆 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 value for
the design condition insignificant. In the case of the choke
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operating condition, although the absolute value of mass flow
recirculating through the PS cavity is of similar magnitude to the
surge condition, the fraction of inlet flow recirculating through
PS cavity for the choke condition (16%) is substantially lower
than surge condition (39%). Also, the velocity of the flow at the
PS out surface in the case of choke condition is lower than the
surge condition and thus, the compounded effect of lower
fraction of inlet flow recirculating through the PS cavity at lower
velocity leads to the insignificant 𝐽𝑃𝑆 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 value for the choke
condition. The PS cavity therefore can be seen as a source of
axial momentum by the incoming main stream flow at the near
surge condition and a sink of axial momentum at the choke
condition although the momentum absorbed by PS cavity at the
choke condition is very small.
FIGURE 15. RATIO OF THE AXIAL MOMENTUM DUE TO THE FLOW
RECIRCULATING IN THE PS CAVITY TO THE TOTAL INLET
STREAM MOMENTUM AT VARIOUS OPERATING POINTS OF RSL
Generation of Jet-Like Structures at the PS outlet is
investigated using a cylindrical surface located in the middle of
the PS cavity with a central axis coincident with the impeller
rotation axis. Static pressure contours on the PS cavity mid-
surface are overlaid with velocity streamlines at the near surge
operating point of 𝑵𝒓𝒆𝒇 speedline and are displayed in Figure 16.
FIGURE 16. STATIC PRESSURE CONTOURS ON THE PS CAVITY
MID SURFACE OVERLAID WITH THE VELOCITY STREAMLINES
FOR THE VARIOUS STRUTS.
The flow entering the PS slot near surge has a high swirl
component in the direction of impeller rotation due to work done
by the impeller on the fluid. The flow in the PS cavity is then
interrupted by the cavity support struts, leading to large a
separation zone which in turn causes a decrease in the static
pressure at the other (suction) side of the strut, as seen in Figure
16 (b). The separated flow from Strut 1 moves towards Strut 2
 and incoming flow at Strut 2 is unable to follow the strut contour, The 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑆𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 is normalized by the available work i.e. net
leading to corner separation as seen in Figure 16 (c). The enthalpy flux and normalized 𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑆𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 [15] is used in this
decrease in the static pressure at the suction side of Strut 2 work to assess the entropy production associated with various
extends until Strut 3, leaving the majority of the region components defined as
surrounding Strut 3 at low static pressure. The areas of low static
pressure entrain flow back into the PS cavity leading to the 𝑇𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 (∫ 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 )
formation of jet-like structures that exit the PS cavity at near ̂=
∆𝑠
surge conditions. This finding sheds light on how the jet-like ∫ ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∫ ℎ𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚̇𝑖𝑛
(3)
structures exiting PS cavity are formed, but the mechanism
responsible for the formation of jet-like structures and the The effect of compressor operating speed on the entropy
difference in the amplitudes of jets at various struts is not generation is investigated by comparing the operating points of
investigated. The behaviour of these jets within the complete two different speed lines at aerodynamically similar points i.e.
surge cycle, as well as the effect of the volute tongue on PS cavity the same value of mass flow coefficient (𝜑) which is defined as
flow, will be explored in future work.
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑚̇ 240𝜌𝑖𝑛 𝑚̇
Entropy generation in the PS compressor 𝜑= = ( ⁄𝜋 2 𝐷3 ) = 𝑘 ∗
𝑈𝑡𝑖𝑝 ∗ 𝐴𝑒 𝑁 𝑒 𝑁
To identify, assess and quantify the generation of entropy
associated with the operation of the ported shroud compressor,
240𝜌𝑖𝑛
the entropy generated in the individual compressor components where 𝑘 = ⁄𝜋 2 𝐷3
𝑒
is investigated. The compressor model under investigation is (4)
dissected into individual components as shown in Figure 17.
The value of 𝜑 for the operating points in a specific
compressor map is the function of inlet mass flow (𝑚̇) and
rotational speed (𝑁) as the inlet density and impeller outlet
diameter are constant for a particular compressor. The mass flow
coefficients of the various points used in this analysis are listed
in the Table 3. An additional operating point on the RSL with the
mass flow as 0.67𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 is studied as seen in the Table 3.
Entropy generated in various components ∆𝑠 ̂ for near surge
and design operating conditions at the 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 and 1.2𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speed
lines is displayed in Figure 18 and the entropy generated in the
FIGURE 17. SCHEMATICS OF THE VARIOUS COMPONENTS OF component as a fraction of the total entropy generated in the
THE PS COMPRESSOR USED IN THE ENTROPY ANALYSIS model ∆𝑠 ̂ 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 is displayed in Figure 19.
̂ 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 ⁄∆𝑠

Figure 17 show various conventional elements of a TABLE 3. MASS FLOW COEFFICIENT OF THE VARIOUS POINTS
compressor along with an additional component known as Inlet- USED IN THE ENTROPY ANALYSIS
PS mixing zone in the proximity of the PS outlet plane where the
flow leaving the PS cavity interacts with incoming inlet flow. Isospeed line Point 𝜑
The investigation is performed in three parts: OP 𝑘(𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ⁄𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
SL2
i. The entropy assessment between the design condition SP 0.67𝑘(𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ⁄𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
and near surge condition for the compressor running at a OP 𝑘(𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ⁄𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
specific speed line to understand the dominant entropy RSL SP 0.6𝑘(𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ⁄𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
generation mechanisms at different operating conditions 0.67𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 0.67𝑘(𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ⁄𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 )
ii. The entropy assessment at the operating points with
same mass flow coefficient at various speed lines to The data shows that the impeller region is the dominant source
understand the effect of operating speed. of entropy generation for the compressor operating at design
iii. The entropy distribution is assessed at different speed condition whereas the Inlet and PS cavity regions (including
lines to characterize the design operation and near surge Inlet-PS mixing region) are the major contributors of entropy at
conditions. the near surge conditions. This pattern about the dominant
regions of entropy generation is seen in both speed lines i.e. RSL
The entropy generation is calculated as the entropy flux across and SL2. The net entropy generation in the Inlet and PS region
the control volume defined as (including Inlet-PS mixing zone) increased from 2% at the
design condition to 42% at the near surge condition for the
1.2𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speedline. The small Inlet-PS mixing region accounts
𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑆𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑚̇𝑖𝑛
for the 24% and 36% of the net entropy generation at near surge
(2)

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 conditions for SL2 and RSL respectively. Therefore, a better
control of mixing and interaction of flow in the Inlet-PS region
can minimize the loss in the performance associated with the PS
design.
The entropy generation in the impeller and diffuser regions
increases at both the design condition and the near surge
condition as the operation of compressor moves from
RSL (𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) to SL2 (1.2𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 ). The entropy generation for the
compressor operating near surge condition in the Inlet and PS
region (including Inlet-PS mixing zone) decreased from 60% for
amplitude seen in the region that is in the direct proximity of the
volute tongue. The flow at the PS outlet has a high
circumferential velocity in the direction of the rotation of the
wheel due to the swirl introduced by the flow exiting PS cavity
as compared to the design operating condition.
0.16
0.14

Normalised entropy flux [∆𝑠]

the 𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speed line to 42% for the 1.2𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 speed line. The 0.12
increase in the entropy in the impeller and diffuser region at the 0.10
design points can be attributed to the increase in the operating
speed of the compressor, as the mass flow coefficient is same. 0.08
The increased impeller speed accounts for the higher tip leakage
0.06
losses in the rotor region leading to higher entropy generation. In
the case of near surge operation, higher entropy generation in the 0.04
impeller and the diffuser region for SL2 is a cumulative effect of
increased rotation speed and higher mass flow coefficient. The 0.02
investigation on the decreased entropy generation in the Inlet and 0.00
PS cavity region for the SL2 SP as compared to RSL SP even Inlet Ported Inlet-PS Impeller Diffuser Volute
though the mass flow coefficient is higher for SL2 SP is Shroud mixing
discussed in the next section. (PS)
The effect of compressor speed is investigated in Figure 20
Near surge - RSL Optimal efficiency - RSL
by comparing the entropy generation for the near surge point of
SL2 with same mass flow coefficient point in RSL i.e. 0.67𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 . Near surge - SL2 Optimal efficiency -SL2
The results show a decrease in the entropy generation in the PS FIGURE 18. NORMALIZED ENTROPY FLUX GENERATED IN EACH
cavity and Inlet-PS mixing region as the operating speed is COMPONENT FOR THE RSL AND SL2
increased to 1.2𝑁𝑟𝑒𝑓 while the entropy in the inlet duct increases.
The results are in-line with the observations on the decrease of
the recirculated mass flow through PS cavity at higher speeds as 1.0
shown in Figure 13. The reduced recirculated flow leads to fewer 0.12 0.09
0.18
mixing losses and thus, reduced entropy generation in the PS
0.19

cavity and Inlet-PS mixing region. The increased entropy

(∆𝑠) ̂_(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 )∕(∆𝑠) ̂_𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙

0.8 0.20
generation in the Inlet duct at SL2 can be hypothesized as being 0.24

the result of upstream propagation of flow instability at near 0.26 0.26

surge operation. The equivalent mass flow coefficient point at 0.6
0.08

RSL (0.67𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) is not in surge (0.6𝑚̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 ) and therefore, the 0.25

propagation of flow instability in the inlet duct is less.
0.4 0.36
CONCLUSIONS
The flow processes associated with the ported shroud 0.52
0.24 0.54
turbocharger compressor operating across the compressor map
for multiple speed lines are investigated in this study using the 0.2
0.16
steady RANS approach. The performance parameters i.e. 0.11

isentropic efficiency and pressure ratio predicted by the 0.08 0.07

numerical model are in good agreement with the experimental 0.0
values measured at the gas stand test rig. The computed results Near surge - Optimal Near surge -SL2 Optimal
RSL efficiency - RSL efficiency - SL2
consistently capture the pressure ratio and isentropic efficiency
trends. Inlet Ported Shroud (PS)
The investigation of the flow field at the PS outlet for the
compressor operating at the near surge condition shows that the Inlet-PS mixing Impeller
flow leaves the PS cavity non-uniformly along its outer Diffuser Volute
periphery. The flow exits along the struts in the form of high-
speed jets of different amplitudes with the highest velocity FIGURE 19. FRACTION OF THE ENTROPY GENERATED IN EACH
COMPONENT FOR RSL AND SL2

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0.16
0.14
Normalised entropy flux [∆𝑠]
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
Inlet Ported Inlet-PS Impeller Diffuser
Shroud mixing
(PS)
0.67mref - RSL Near surge - SL2
FIGURE 20. NORMALIZED ENTROPY FLUX GENERATED IN EACH
COMPONENT FOR THE SAME MASS FLOW COEFFICIENT POINTS
OF RSL (𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝒎̇𝒓𝒆𝒇 ) AND SL2 (SP)
Analysis of the flow field inside the PS cavity shows that the
significant fraction of the compressor inlet mass flow is
recirculated through the PS cavity, specifically at the near surge
operating conditions. The fraction of mass flow recirculating
through the PS cavity at the near surge condition decreases as the
operating speed of the compressor increases. The decrease in the
recirculated mass flow at higher operating speeds leads to lower
losses in the PS cavity as well as reduced mixing losses and
therefore makes the PS design more efficient at higher speeds.
The results also show that the flow inside the PS cavity at the
near surge operating condition is intercepted by the support struts
with a large incidence angle, leading to flow separation. The low-
pressure region formed inside the PS cavity entrains the flow
back inside the cavity leading to the formation of the jet-like
structures that subsequently exit the PS cavity.
The assessment of entropy generation in the various
components of the PS compressor indicates that the impeller
region is the dominant source of the entropy generation (losses)
for the design operating condition whereas the inlet and PS
cavity region (including Inlet-PS mixing region) are the primary
contributors to the entropy generation in the near surge operating
condition. The net entropy generation in the inlet and PS cavity
region at the near surge operating condition is high compared to
the design operating condition. The flow separation inside the PS
cavity and increased mixing losses due to high-velocity exit flow
is responsible for the increase in the entropy generation in the
inlet and PS cavity region for the near surge condition.
Furthermore, the small Inlet-PS mixing region is the single
largest source of the net entropy flux generated at the near surge
condition. The entropy generated in the impeller region increases
as compressor operates at higher speed lines while the entropy
generation in the Inlet and PS cavity regions reduces at higher
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speed lines. The increased rotor losses at high speeds and
increased inlet mass flow rates are responsible for the increase in
the entropy generation in the impeller region and the reduction
in the fraction of inlet mass flow recirculating through the PS
cavity at the higher compressor speed causes the decrease in the
entropy generated at inlet and PS cavity regions.
FUTURE WORK
A follow-up study using unsteady methods is underway to
explore the mechanism of the jet-like structure formation along
with the phenomenon responsible for the difference in the
amplitude of these jets exiting PS cavity. The effect of the volute
tongue non-uniformity on the PS flow field along with the effects
of the position of PS struts relative to the volute tongue is of
interest to understand the flow structures associated with the
Volute ported shroud compressor design.
The entropy generation distribution in a surge wave and the
contribution of viscous dissipation in the net entropy generated
is also of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The project is sponsored and supported by BorgWarner
Turbo Systems and the Regional Growth Fund (RGF Grant
Award 01.09.07.01/1789C). The authors would like to thank
BorgWarner Turbo Systems for permission to publish the results
presented in this paper. Also, thanks to Robert Lotz (Staff
Performance Engineer at BorgWarner) for the technical help.
The support of the HPC group at the University of Huddersfield
is gratefully acknowledged.
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