Course content

1. Conservation principles and balance equations

2. Extended fluid flow analysis
3. Piping Networks and Pump selection
4. Flow rate and Velocity Measurement
5. Drag and Lift
6. Dynamic pumps design
7. Turbomachinery: Turbines

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 Course Objectives
The student is expected to:
• Understand and apply the conservation principles and balance equations in fluid
flow systems analysis.
• Efficiently examine forces acting for and against fluid flows .
• Analyse piping networks, design and effectively select pipes and pumps.
• Appreciate the operational mechanisms of turbines.

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 Course references
• Chemical Engineering Fluid Mechanics 2nd Ed. © 2001, Darby R.

• Fluid and Thermodynamics Vol 1. 1st Ed. © 2016, Hutter K., Wang Y.

• Fluid Mechanics, Heat Transfer and Mass Transfer © 2011, Raju K.

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 Course organisation
• 4 hours regular lectures per week

• Periodic reading assignments

• Mid-semester exam - Quizzes (40% of assessment)

• Final examination (60% of assessment)

• Academic/Technical discussions: Email at your convenience

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1. Conservation principles
and the Balance equations

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 Conservation of mass
Law of conservation of mass
During a chemical reaction/process, matter is neither created nor destroyed.
In any chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants must equal the total mass
of the products.

• Atoms are not created or destroyed, they may be rearranged, forming

other substances.

• Valid only for closed system. Does not hold in nuclear reactions

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 Conservation of mass
Illustration 1.

Atoms are not created or destroyed…

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 Conservation of mass
Illustration 2.

… they may be rearranged, forming other substances.

 Conservation of mass
At the molecular level:
For closed system with two colliding diatomic molecules, A and B;

Example:

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 The General Balance Equation
• Balance equations are just like accounting in finance or population
balance

• Births
Population of
• Deaths
Ghana
• Immigration
• Emigration

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 The General Balance Equation
• In an algebraic form, Ghana’s population will increase or decrease based
on the following equation:

Or

This is the General balance equation!

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 The General Balance Equation

• If we apply the equation to a given period such as a year,

This becomes a rate equation

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 The General Balance Equation
• The balance equation deals only with changes in the system being
accounted for but not with the total amount present.

• For the population example we can tell the numerical value

mathematically by:

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 The Mass Balance
• It is the most important chemical engineering balance.

• Note the general balance equation:

• Remember we said “Atoms are not created or destroyed”. Therefore

creation and destruction terms are zero!

• The mass balance equation is,

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 The Mass Balance
• We can carefully apply the mass balance equation to transport
phenomena.

• When we divide the equation by time, the mass balance equation

becomes,

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 The Mass Balance
• This whole idea was not known until 1780 when Lavoisier
demonstrated that:
If water is evaporated over a glass jar resting on a balance,
there was no loss of mass; the visible water had changed to
invisible water vapour, but the mass of the contents of the jar
did not change.

• This mass balance equation has several names, including:

• principle of conservation of mass,
• the continuity equation,
• the continuity principle
• the material balance. 17
 The Mass Balance
• Mass balance on a furnace: Exhaust
gas

LPG gas

System boundary

Air

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 The Mass Balance

Steady-state balances

• In the furnace during warm-up, velocities and temperatures of the gases

changes.
• After warm-up, the temperature becomes constant. This stage is
described as steady-state.
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• Steady-states means nothing is changing with respect to time.

 The Mass Balance

Steady-state balances
• At one specific point, there is always water
flowing by at a fixed velocity.

• Velocity here is function of time and position.

Mathematically,

• At steady state this becomes

, , O
H H
• Similarly, for steady state of any measurable
property is zero. Meaning for such a system 20

the mass contained is not changing with time.

 The Mass Balance

Steady-state balances

• So for the furnace at steady state, the mass balance equation simplifies
to

• Flows in = Flows out 21

• (valid only at steady with no creation or destruction)
 The Mass Balance
Steady-state flow, One-Dimensional Mass balance
• Lets consider the steady-state flow of fluid in a pipe of varying cross section,
Mass flow rate in at point 1 = Mass flow rate in at point 2

• To calculate the total flow rate across the system boundaries at point 1,
breaking the area across which flow

[steady flow in a 22

pipe or channel]
 The Mass Balance

Average Velocity
• No real flow has a completely uniform velocity over the whole cross
section.
• For many problems we use an appropriate average velocity and assume
that it is uniform across the cross-section of the pipe.

In the above equation,

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 The Mass Balance

Average Velocity
• Since the density is uniform across the cross-section of the pipe we can
define volumetric flow rate (also called discharge),

• Dividing the volumetric flow rate by the cross-sectional area of the pipe
or channel,

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 The Mass Balance

Average Velocity
Example 1.
A self-service gasoline pump puts 15 gal of fuel into our tank in 2 min.
The inside diameter of the nozzle is 1.0 in. What are the volumetric flow rate, mass flow
rate and average velocity.
Solution:
The volumetric flow rate is,

Using a gasoline specific gravity of 0.72 (density of water 62.3 lbm/ft3), the mass
flow rate is,

The average velocity is therefore:

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The Mass Balance

Velocity distribution
• Before we can effectively discuss velocity distribution, we have to briefly
discuss flow types in pipes: Turbulent and Laminar flow.

• Turbulent flow is the most common type of flow in industrial pipes, tubes
and channels.

• Laminar flow occurs in very small pipes and channels (e.g. blood flow in
the body) and highly viscous fluids (e.g. pouring honey on pancakes)

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 The Mass Balance

Velocity distribution
• Despite these two different flow types we characterize the flow in pipe as having
one velocity.

• In the figure, for the block flow assumption, the velocity is constant at 6ft/s over
the entire pipe cross-section.

• The curve for turbulent flow shows

that the velocity goes to zero at each
of the pipe walls. For average
velocity of 6 ft/s, the max. velocity at
the centre is 7.35 ft/s.

• For laminar flow, the velocity at the

pipe walls is also zero. Also, for the 27

average velocity to 6ft/s, the max.

velocity at the centre must be 12 ft/s.
 The Mass Balance

Velocity distribution
• With the velocity simplification from the block flow assumption, and the
assumption that the density of the fluid is constant across the cross section,
the steady-state pipe flow equation,

• Is integrated as,

[steady flow in a pipe or channel]

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 The Mass Balance

Velocity distribution
Example 2.
In a natural gas pipeline at Tema station, the pipe diameter is 2 ft and the flow conditions are
800 psia, 60 ᵒF and 50 ft/s velocity. At the Kaneshie station the pipe diameter 3ft and the flow
conditions are 500 psia, 60 ᵒF. What is the velocity at Kaneshie station? What is the mass flow
rate?
(Density of natural gas is 2.58 lb/ft3 for Tema and 1.54 lb/ft3 for Kaneshie station)

Solution:
Substituting the given data into the steady-state pipe flow equation,

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 The Mass Balance

Velocity distribution

Example 3 (Give it a try!).

Water is flowing in a pipe. At point 1 the inside diameter is 0.25 m and the velocity is
2 m/s. What are the mass flow rate and the volumetric flow rate? What is the velocity
at point 2 where the inside diameter is 0.125 m? (Density of water=998.2 kg/m3)

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The Mass Balance

Velocity distribution
Solution:
Substituting the given data into the steady-state pipe flow equation,

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 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

• A power plant burns fuel to
produce electricity.

• At normal operation its

process behaviour is
calculated as fairly steady-
state

• At steady-state its efficiency is

maximised

• Unsteady-state behaviour simply refers to sudden process disturbances 32

which causes a deviation from steady-state behaviour

 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

• However, a sudden lighting
strike shuts down its major
customer reducing load
demand

• This causes unsteady-state

behaviour which has been
reported to cause several
industrial disasters

• Unsteady-state behaviour simply refers to sudden process disturbances 33

which causes a deviation from steady-state behaviour

 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

Example 4.
A 10 ft3 tank contains air which may be considered as an ideal gas. A vacuum pump is
pumping the air out while the heating coils in the tank holds the temperature in the tank at 68
ᵒF. The volumetric flow rate at the inlet of the pump, independent of pressure, is 1.0 ft3/min.
How long does it take the pressure to fall from 1 atm to 0.0001 atm?

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 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

Solution:
Our system is the tank up to the pump inlet.
For this system the mass balance gives:

But we know:

Since the system volume is constant,

Remember that:

But the volumetric flow rate is constant therefore the density of the air in and out is also
constant, therefore:
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 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

Solution (cont’d):
This is a first order differential equation, which can be rearranged to

Integrating from initial to final states, yields:

For low-pressure gases at constant temperature the densities are proportional to the pressures,
so we can solve for the required time:

,
,
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 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

Example 5.
In example 4, we considered a vacuum system with zero leaks but in actuality there is no real
vacuum system without leaks. If the tank in example 2 has a leak of 0.0001 lb/min of air, what
will be the final pressure?

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 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

Solution:
For this system the mass balance becomes:

not:

Retaining as a constant in our equations, we find:

Rearranging:

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,
 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

Solution cont’d:
If we ask how long it takes for the system to reach 0.0001 atm, we will find that it can never
get there. To see what its steady state pressure is, we put .
That can only be possible if the numerator of the fraction on the left becomes zero, or:

At 68ᵒF = 20ᵒC the density of air is , and for ideal gases densities are
proportional to pressures, so:

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 The Mass Balance

Unsteady-state mass balances

Example 6. (Give it a try at home)
A cylindrical tank 3 m in diameter, with axis vertical has an in-flow line of 0.1 m inside
diameter and an outflow line of 0.2 m inside diameter. Water is flowing in the inflow line at a
velocity of 2 m/s and leaving by the outflow line at a velocity of 1 m/s. Is the level in the tank
rising or falling? How fast?

Answer:
The volume of the tank is decreasing and the level is falling.
The rate of fall of the level is: -0.00673 ft/s

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The Mass Balance

Mass balances for mixtures*

• In the previous examples, the flowing materials have been uniform
single species such as air and water.

• However, there are problems which could involve two or more

components mixed inside the system we are considering.

• In such cases we make a simple assumption i.e. there is perfect mixing

of all components.

• Based on this assumption we can apply the simple balance equation as

done previously.

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The Mass Balance

Mass balances for mixtures

Example 8. (Give it a try at home)
A tank contains 1000 m3 of salt solution, with salt concentration of 10 kg/m3. At time
zero, salt-free water starts to flow into the tank at 10 m3/min. Simultaneously, salt
solution flows out of the tank at 10 m3/min, so that the volume of the solution in the tank
is always 1000 m3.
A mixer in the tank keeps the concentration of the salt in the entire tank uniform so that
the concentration in the effluent is the same as the concentration in the tank. What is the
concentration in the effluent as a function of time?

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 The Energy Balance

Energy balance equation

• To write any balance equation, we need well-defined system boundaries.
• Let’s use the tank below:
Volume-changing
piston

Flow of matter Heating or

into system cooling jacket
System boundary
Flow of matter
Rotating shaft out of system

Insulation

Note: the only kinds of energy we will be considering as contained in 1 kg of matter

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will be internal, kinetic and potential, u + ke + pe.

 The Energy Balance

Energy balance equation

• Let’s look back at the general balance equation:

• Our observations from nature have led us to conclude that energy can be neither
be created nor destroyed;

• So for energy, the balance equation is:

• Accumulation is the differential of the energy contained within the system

boundary which refers to the energy associated with the matter within the
boundary.
• If the matter is uniform then accumulation is
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 The Energy Balance

Energy balance equation

Energy can enter in three ways:
1. Matter flowing in the inlet pipe, The
amount of energy that flows in with it
is:

2. Matter flowing out, The amount of

energy that flows out with it is:

3. The other ways energy can flow in or out are via heat through
• the heating and cooling jacket, which we call, dQ.
• and via mechanical work in various forms, which we call, dW
• These are inexact differentials meaning the value of or depends
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on the initial and final states of the system.
 The Energy Balance

Energy balance equation

• Substituting the terms obtained into our energy balance equation:

• Lets allow dQ and dW to be the algebraic sum of the work flows in and out,

• Note: In the modern sign convention for work, we consider all flows into a
system as positive be it work or heat flow (some textbooks may say otherwise).
• Therefore, dQ = -dW
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 The Energy Balance

Potential Energies
• Let’s choose the 1 kg steel ball as our system.

• We will lift it slowly by a distance dz.

• We will also insulate it while lifting so heat is not transferred to or from the
surroundings: dQ=0

• Also, no matter flows into or out of the system:

• Since no matter flows we also have:

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 The Energy Balance

Potential Energies
• Substituting the terms obtained into the energy balance equation:

• If we proceed without friction heating, the final temperature is the same as the
initial temperature:

• The final and initial velocities are also equal:

• Since we previously defined: dW = Fdz

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 The Energy Balance

Potential Energies
• The force needed to lift the ball is the same as the weight of the ball, i.e. F=mg
• So,

• For a constant mass, the equation for the change in potential energy:

• Since acceleration due to gravity is constant on earth, we integrate both sides of

the equation to obtain:

• Since our elevation is above some arbitrary datum (such as sea level or ground
level) is zero. If z is measured above this datum, then the constant is zero.
• Therefore:
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The Energy Balance

Potential Energies
Example 9.
Determine the change in potential energy of a 10 kg bag of feathers that is raised a
vertical distance of 23 m.
Solution:
Since we are dealing with a change in potential energy, we would need to apply our
equation to the initial and final states:

This is the change in potential energy per unit mass. To calculate the total change in
potential energy:

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 The Energy Balance

Kinetic Energies
• Let’s choose the 1 kg steel ball as our system and throw it horizontally.

• We will also insulate it so there is no heat flow in or out: dQ=0

• Also, no matter flows into or out of the system:

• If we proceed without friction heating, the final temperature is the same as the
initial temperature:

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 The Energy Balance

Kinetic Energies
• Since we previously defined: dW = Fdz

• Substituting all these into the energy balance equation

• We obtain:

• We can replace F with to get

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 The Energy Balance

Kinetic Energies
• But a=dv/dt, where v is the velocity; so a dx= dv dx/dt. Furthermore dx/dt=v; so
a dx=vdv.

• We can now integrate both sides to obtain:

• We may choose any value to be the constant, conveniently we choose zero,

which makes the kinetic energy for a body at rest to be:

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The Energy Balance

Kinetic Energies
Example 10.
What is the kinetic energy of a 0.01 lb bullet travelling 2000 ft/s relative to the barrel of
the gun it has just left.
Solution:
Since we have constant datum of reference:

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 The Energy Balance

Internal Energy
• Let’s rewrite the energy balance equation with the numerical forms of the kinetic energy
per unit and potential energy per unit mass as:

• For the system shown in the figure we

can transfer 100 Btu of energy from
the heating jacket and modify a few
conditions to obtain:

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 The Energy Balance

Internal Energy
• Also, the elevation and velocity of the material in the tank did not change, so:

• Since mass in the system is also constant, the equation becomes:

• Suppose we cool our system to its initial state by removing energy via the cooling jacket.

• We also start the stirrer and measure the work done. The equation becomes:

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 The Energy Balance

Internal Energy
• If we restrict ourselves to a closed system of constant mass, with no changes in kinetic or
potential energy.

• The equation simplifies to:

• Which integrates to:

• In solving problems we can conveniently choose the constant.

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 The Momentum Balance
• Newton’s second law of motion (Newton’s equation of motion) is commonly
written as:
F = ma

• In this form it can easily be applied to the motion of rigid bodies and fluids
moving in rigid motion.

• However, for fluids that are moving in more complicated motions, e.g. in
pipes or around airplanes, it is difficult to use the equation in the form
shown.

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 The Momentum Balance

• So we will rewrite the equation in the form of a momentum balance.

• This is referred to as equations of motion in engineering.

• It will give us some information about complicated flows through a

system without knowing in detail what goes on inside the system.

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 The Momentum Balance

Momentum
• Momentum like energy is an abstract quantity. Unlike energy, it is defined in
terms of simpler quantities, mass and velocity.

• It is defined as:

• Only bodies such as solid, liquid or gas have mass, so momentum is referenced
against them only.

• Momentum is a vector however energy and

mass are scalar, so we will apply the balance
equation to a vector to get similar results.

• Rewriting Newton’s equation of motion in a 60

vector form: F = ma
 The Momentum Balance

Momentum
• However any vector can be resolved into the vector sum of three scalar
components multiplied by unit vectors, in three perpendicular directions.
• Lets take Force (F):

• Similarly we can resolve the acceleration vector a and rewrite Newton's equation
as:

• This equation gives as the equation of a new vector, the (F – ma) vector, which is
seen to be zero.
• With momentum balance we need to pay attention to the algebraic signs of the
momentum terms.
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 The Momentum Balance

Momentum balance equation

• Let’s look back at the general balance equation:

• Let’s account for all the terms in the equation!

• The momentum contained within the system

boundaries of the figure is:

• We simplify by assuming all mass inside the

system has the same velocity, so that this integral
simplifies to .

• The momentum-accumulation term becomes: 62

 The Momentum Balance

Momentum balance equation

For one flow in and one flow out:

• We will replace the real flow in pipes, channels and jets, which has some non-uniform
velocity distribution, with a flow with uniform velocity distribution, .

For the creation and destruction of momentum,

• Let’s return back to the simple equation but rewrite it as:

𝑽

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 The Momentum Balance

Momentum balance equation

• For a constant-mass system we can rearrange as:

• Typically, we expect multiple forces to act on a system so we replace the force term with a
sum of forces,

• Let’s write all the terms so far obtained into one equation:

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 The Momentum Balance

Momentum balance equation

• Note we have not included a destruction term, because the in the equation vector sum
of all forces acting on the system.

• If this sum is in the opposite direction of the velocities, then the term is a momentum
destruction term (indicated with a minus sign).

• Let’s find the rate form of the momentum balance equation:

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 The Momentum Balance

Momentum balance equation

• Remember that the equation above is a vector equation, which means it can be represented
by three scalar equations, showing the components of the vectors in the x, y and z
directions of the r, , and z for a spherical system.

• Therefore the x-component scalar equation equivalent is

, ,

• A similar form can be written for the y and z equations by replacing the x subscript with y
or z subscripts.

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The Momentum Balance

Momentum balance equation

Example 11.
A baseball is thrown in a horizontal direction. What terms of the momentum balance
apply?
Solution:
Taking the ball as our system and using the x component of the momentum balance, we
see that there is no flow of matter in or out; therefore,

We have simply restated F = ma for a constant-mass system.

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 The Momentum Balance

Momentum balance equation

Example 12 (Give it a try).
A duck has a mass of 3 lbm and is flying due west at 15 ft/s. The duck is struck by a bullet
with a mass of 0.05 lbm, which is moving due east at 1000 ft/s. The bullet comes to rest in the
duck’s gizzard. What is the final velocity of the duck-bullet system.

Note: our momentum balance equation in the x-direction:

, ,

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 The Momentum Balance

Momentum balance equation

Solution:
Here the problem is one dimensional, so we work with the x-directed scalar component
equation and choose east as the positive x direction. We work the problem by taking as our
system the combined bullet.

So our momentum balance equation in the x-direction:

, , becomes: ;

, , ,

When we solve for , , we find:

, ,
,
,
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