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11 The Respiratory System
11 The Respiratory System
The Respiratory
System
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
▪ Nose
▪ Pharynx
▪ Larynx
▪ Trachea
▪ Bronchi
▪ Lungs—alveoli
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Nostril Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Left main
Right main
(primary)
(primary)
bronchus
bronchus
Left lung
Right lung
Diaphragm
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Sphenoidal sinus Frontal sinus
Posterior nasal
Nasal cavity
aperture • Nasal conchae (superior,
Nasopharynx middle, and inferior)
• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,
• Opening of middle, and inferior)
pharyngotympanic • Nasal vestibule
tube • Nostril
• Uvula
Hard palate
Oropharynx
• Palatine tonsil Soft palate
Larynx
Esophagus • Epiglottis
• Thyroid cartilage
Trachea • Vocal fold
• Cricoid cartilage
(b) Detailed anatomy of the upper respiratory tract
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
The Nose
▪ Paranasal sinuses
▪ Cavities within the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and
maxillary bones surrounding the nasal cavity
▪ Sinuses:
▪ Lighten the skull
▪ Act as resonance chambers for speech
▪ Produce mucus
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Sphenoidal sinus Frontal sinus
Posterior nasal
Nasal cavity
aperture • Nasal conchae (superior,
Nasopharynx middle, and inferior)
• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,
• Opening of middle, and inferior)
pharyngotympanic • Nasal vestibule
tube • Nostril
• Uvula
Hard palate
Oropharynx
• Palatine tonsil Soft palate
Larynx
Esophagus • Epiglottis
• Thyroid cartilage
Trachea • Vocal fold
• Cricoid cartilage
(b) Detailed anatomy of the upper respiratory tract
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
The Pharynx
Pharynx
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Sphenoidal sinus Frontal sinus
Posterior nasal
Nasal cavity
aperture • Nasal conchae (superior,
Nasopharynx middle, and inferior)
• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,
• Opening of middle, and inferior)
pharyngotympanic • Nasal vestibule
tube • Nostril
• Uvula
Hard palate
Oropharynx
• Palatine tonsil Soft palate
Larynx
Esophagus • Epiglottis
• Thyroid cartilage
Trachea • Vocal fold
• Cricoid cartilage
(b) Detailed anatomy of the upper respiratory tract
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
The Larynx
▪ Epiglottis
▪ Spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
▪ Protects the superior opening of the larynx
▪ Routes food to the posteriorly situated esophagus and
routes air toward the trachea
▪ During swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid
over the opening of the larynx
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Sphenoidal sinus Frontal sinus
Posterior nasal
Nasal cavity
aperture • Nasal conchae (superior,
Nasopharynx middle, and inferior)
• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,
• Opening of middle, and inferior)
pharyngotympanic • Nasal vestibule
tube • Nostril
• Uvula
Hard palate
Oropharynx
• Palatine tonsil Soft palate
Larynx
Esophagus • Epiglottis
• Thyroid cartilage
Trachea • Vocal fold
• Cricoid cartilage
(b) Detailed anatomy of the upper respiratory tract
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
The Trachea
Posterior
Mucosa
Esophagus
Submucosa
Trachealis Lumen of
Seromucous
muscle trachea
gland in
Hyaline
submucosa
cartilage
Adventitia
(a) Anterior
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Figure 13.3b Anatomy of the trachea and esophagus.
(b)
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The Main Bronchi
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Nostril Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Left main
Right main
(primary)
(primary)
bronchus
bronchus
Left lung
Right lung
Diaphragm
Intercostal muscle
Rib
Parietal pleura
Lung
Trachea Pleural cavity
Visceral
Thymus pleura
Apex of lung
Left
superior
Right superior lobe lobe
Obliqu
Horizontal fissure e
Right middle lobe fissure
Left inferior
Oblique fissure lobe
Right inferior lobe
Heart
(in pericardial cavity
of mediastinum)
Diaphragm
Base of lung
(a) Anterior view. The lungs flank mediastinal structures laterally.
Posterior
Vertebr
a Esophagus
(in posterior mediastinum)
Root of lung
at hilum
Right lung •Left main
bronchus
•Left pulmonary artery
Parietal pleura
•Left pulmonary vein
Visceral pleura
Left lung
Pleural cavity
Thoracic wall
Pulmonary trunk
Terminal
bronchiole Alveolar sac
Alveolar
duct Alveolar
pores
Alveolus
Red blood
cell
Endothelial
cell nucleus Capillary
Alveolar
pores
Capillary O2
CO2
Macrophage
Alveolus
Nucleus of
squamous
epithelial cell
Respiratory Alveolar epithelium
membrane
Fused basement
membranes
Capillary endothelium
Alveoli Red blood Surfactant- Squamous
(gas-filled cell in secreting epithelial cell
air spaces) capillary cell of alveolar wall
▪ Pulmonary ventilation
▪ Mechanical process that depends on volume changes
in the thoracic cavity
▪ Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead
to the flow of gases to equalize pressure
▪ Inspiration (inhalation)
▪ Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
▪ Intrapulmonary volume increases
▪ Gas pressure decreases
▪ Air flows into the lungs until intrapulmonary pressure
equals atmospheric pressure
Diaphragm moves
inferiorly during
contraction
(a) Inspiration: Air (gases) ows into
the lungs
Inspiration Expiration
+2
to atmospheric pressure
Intrapulmonary
Pressure relative
+1 pressure
–1
–2
(a)
▪ Expiration (exhalation)
▪ Largely a passive process that depends on natural
lung elasticity
▪ Intrapulmonary volume decreases
▪ Gas pressure increases
▪ Gases passively flow out to equalize the pressure
▪ Forced expiration can occur mostly by contraction of
internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage
▪ Intrapleural pressure
▪ The pressure within the pleural space) is always
negative
▪ Major factor preventing lung collapse
▪ If intrapleural pressure equals atmospheric pressure,
the lungs recoil and collapse
Ribs are
depressed
as external
intercostals
relax
Expiration
Extern
al (External
interco intercostals
stal relax)
muscle
s
Diaphragm
moves
superiorly as
it ows
(b) Expiration: Air (gases) relaxesout of
the lungs
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Figure 13.8 Changes in (a) intrapulmonary pressure and (b) air flow during inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration Expiration
to atmospheric pressure
+2
Pressure relative
+1 Intrapulmonary
pressure
0
–1
–2
(a)
Volume of
breath
0.5
Volume (L)
–0.5
(b)
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
▪ Residual volume
▪ Air remaining in lung after expiration
▪ Cannot be voluntarily exhaled
▪ Allows gas exchange to go on continuously, even
between breaths, and helps keep alveoli open
(inflated)
▪ About 1,200 ml
▪ Vital capacity
▪ The total amount of exchangeable air
▪ Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
▪ 4,800 ml in men; 3,100 ml in women
▪ Dead space volume
▪ Air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches
alveoli
▪ About 150 ml
▪ Functional volume
▪ Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
▪ Usually about 350 ml
▪ Respiratory capacities are measured with a
spirometer
6,000
5,000 Inspiratory
reserve volume
Milliliters (ml)
4,000 3,100 ml
Vital
capacity
3,000 Total lung
Tidal volume 500 ml 4,800 ml
capacity
Expiratory 6,000 ml
2,000
reserve volume
1,200 ml
1,000
Residual volume
1,200 ml
0
CO2 O2
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
External
respiration
Pulmonary Pulmonary
Alveolar
arteries veins
capillaries
Blood Blood
leaving leaving
tissues and lungs and
entering entering
lungs: tissue
capillaries:
Heart
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
Tissue
capillaries
Systemic Systemic
veins arteries
Internal
respiration CO2 O2
Tissue cells:
O2 CO2
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External Respiration
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2
Pulmonary capillary
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Gas Transport in the Blood
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2
Pulmonary capillary
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Gas Transport in the Blood
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2
Pulmonary capillary
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Internal Respiration
Tissue cells
CO2
O2
Loading
Unloading
of CO2
of O2
Systemic capillary
O2 sensor
in aortic body
of aortic arch
▪ Chronic bronchitis
▪ Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages becomes
severely inflamed
▪ Excessive mucus production impairs ventilation and
gas exchange
▪ Patients become cyanotic and are sometimes called
“blue bloaters” as a result of chronic hypoxia and
carbon dioxide retention
▪ Emphysema
▪ Alveoli walls are destroyed; remaining alveoli enlarge
▪ Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis, and lungs
lose elasticity
▪ Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale; some
air remains in the lungs
▪ Sufferers are often called “pink puffers” because
oxygen exchange is efficient
▪ Overinflation of the lungs leads to a permanently
expanded barrel chest
▪ Cyanosis appears late in the disease
• Tobacco smoke
• Air pollution
• Airway obstruction
or air trapping
• Dyspnea
• Frequent infections
Respiratory
failure
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Respiratory Disorders
▪ Lung cancer
▪ Leading cause of cancer death for men and women
▪ Nearly 90 percent of cases result from smoking
▪ Aggressive cancer that metastasizes rapidly
▪ Three common types
1. Adenocarcinoma
2. Squamous cell carcinoma
3. Small cell carcinoma