Study Notes – English for Research Paper Writing (37010001) – ME – Year 18-19

Unit – 1

1 Planning and Preparation

After you start college, at one point or another, you’re going to have to write a research paper. No matter
how long your paper must be or how little time you have to complete it, there are some general guidelines
that will help you complete a first-rate research paper.

Plan your time

Plan backward from the day your paper is due and map out a schedule that allows you enough time to finish.

Choose your topic wisely

You may not be given a choice about topic of your paper, but if you’re fortunate enough to have the option,
then select a subject that interests you. Information is crucial; keep your topic broad enough that you can find
enough resources to cover it, but narrow enough that you can successfully develop and support your ideas.

Write a top-notch thesis statement

All research papers must contain a thesis statement, which reflects the main topic and the order in which
supporting ideas will develop. With any paper you write, feel free to fiddle with your thesis statement as you
go along to better reflect the results of your research.

Use excellent secondary resources

If at all possible, don’t rely heavily on one source when writing a paper at college. Search for and consult as
many varying sources as humanly possible. You want to provide a well thought out, persuasive argument.
Make sure you aren’t using outdated resources.

Build an outline
After you’ve gathered your most valuable resources, develop an outline of what you plan to cover. This will
help keep you from drifting into uncharted waters as you write. It helps keep you focused.

Create a first draft

Complete a first draft, then go back and check your facts. Did you forget an important argument or piece of
information? Does the content flow easily from section to section? Make sure you used your own words and
quoted all sources.

Proofread
Before you hand in your paper, go back through it again to catch any errors. This time, look specifically for
grammar and keyboard errors. If the thought of staring at your paper one more time makes your eyes glaze
over, ask a friend or relative to read it and provide constructive feedback.

Writing a research paper can be a daunting task, but breaking it down into small steps makes the work much
more manageable. It may not get any easier, but the more you write, the better your papers will become.

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2 Word Order

Many of the world’s languages display a preferred ordering of subject, object and very, known as that
language’s “basic word-order”. Word order is most often used to refer to the order of the elements in the
clause. There are six logically possible basic word orders, and while each occurs in at least one known
language, not all are found equally frequently. Some are extremely rare, while others are used by almost half
of the world’s languages. This highly non – uniform cross linguistic distribution of basic orders is a
fundamental explanatory target for linguistics.

Word order in English is SVO [Subject-Verb-Object] but it is not the only possible combination. English
word order has often been described as fixed. So while writing or speaking we have to use the order of the
words correctly so that sentence becomes effective and clear.

 Basic English word order is: (1) subject, (2) verb, (3) direct object, (4) indirect object. Keep these
four elements in this order and as close to each other as possible.

 If you have a choice of subjects, choose the one that is the most relevant and leads to the shortest
construction.

 Avoid delaying the subject. So don’t begin a sentence with the impersonal it.

 Avoid inserting parenthetical information between the subject and the verb. Most adverbs are located
just before the main verb, and before the second auxiliary verb when there are two auxiliaries.

 Put adjectives before the noun they describe, or use a relative clause. Do not insert an adjective
between two nouns or before the wrong noun.

 Do not indiscriminately put nouns in a string. Rules tend to have exceptions.

So if these points can be kept in mind while writing the research papers, one can write in better and improved
way and more practice will also bring favorable changes in the writing strategies of the researchers.

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3 Breaking up long sentences

Academic writing conveys clear and accurate information, and well-constructed, carefully thought-out
content. Long and complicated sentences affect comprehension and readability. Without careful draftling,
they can be really hard to understand. Then again, too short sentences make for choppy writing without flow
and cannot hold complex thoughts.

Following are some of the guidelines to wring the sentences at reasonable length

1. Appropriate Sentence Length

Most readability formulas use the number of words in a sentence to measure its difficulty. Try to keep the
average sentence length of your document around 20–25 words. This is a good rule of thumb to convey your
meaning in a balanced way and avoiding a marathon or choppy sentences. The number varies as per the
field, audience, or the nature of writing. For example, the average sentence length in abstracts of the
engineering is reported to be shorter than that found in social science and humanities abstracts.

2. Vary Your Sentence Length

Do not follow a strict length for each and every sentence. Your writing should have a mix of short, medium,
and long sentences. Incorporating variety in academic writing avoids monotony, creates emphasis where
needed, and helps the reader understand connections between different points.

If you find that your sentence is as long as a paragraph or around 40–50 words, break it down to smaller
sentences. Similarly, if your text has many back-to-back short sentences, join them.

3. Focus on Your Message

Do not cram two or three main ideas into one long sentence. Know your main points and present them with
pauses by breaking them down into smaller sentences. Losing focus of your message will lead to long
drawn-out sentences and disjointed writing. When conveying a series of facts, do not unnecessarily connect
all facts in one sentence but split them into smaller sentences.

4. Fixing Short Sentences

Combining sentences into a longer one is a simple way of fixing short & choppy sentences. Use coordinating
conjunctions (or, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to avoid strings of short, vaguely related sentences. Subordinating
conjunctions (after, since, whereas, because, etc.) are also used to connect sentences as well as ideas
effectively.

5. Fixing Long Sentences

Following the reverse of the above tip, remove excessive coordinating conjunctions and instead use a full
stop to start a fresh sentence. Avoid starting a sentence with qualifiers such as “although,” “because,” or
“since.” Avoid comma-plagued sentences and adding information in one long sentence using commas.

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6. Use Concise Expressions

Writing concisely and avoiding redundancy play a huge role in securing your text from marathon sentences.
You could avoid beginning sentences with there/it is, reduce wordy phrases and nonessential prepositional
phrases, and use the active voice.

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4 Structuring Paragraphs & Sentences

A paragraph which is made up of sentences develops ONE main idea through a series of related sentences.
This main idea is usually introduced in the first sentence of the paragraph, called the topic sentence. The idea
is then developed further through the sentences that follow.

A paragraph is usually around 250 words and consists of five or six sentences, although this can vary
depending on the purpose of the paragraph, and the length of the piece you are writing.  Paragraphs play an
important role in writing because they provide a framework for organising your ideas in a logical order.
Using a clear structure for your paragraphs helps guide the reader through your written work.

Paragraph Structure

A useful way of understanding paragraph structure is to think of it as a block that is divided into three
sections: the beginning, the middle, and the end.

A basic paragraph follows this structure:

Topic Sentence (TS) - the beginning

 Needs to state ONE idea clearly
 Useful Tip: Always put the most important information first!
Supporting Sentences (SS) - the middle
 Elaborates and explains the idea introduced in the topic sentence
 Provides evidence and examples
 Explains the evidence or example included - why is it relevant?
Concluding Sentence (CS) - the end
 Makes links: back to the main idea of the paragraph; back to research question or topic of the
assignment; to the next paragraph

When to start a new paragraph:

 Start new main points or new ideas in a new paragraph. If you have an extended idea across multiple
paragraphs, each new point within that idea should have its own paragraph.

 Use a new paragraph to introduce a contrasting or different position. Use a clear topic sentence to
identify the main idea.

 If the paragraph becomes too long or the material is overly complex, you will need to create a break
to make your writing more readable. Try splitting long paragraphs into two shorter paragraphs. This
means you will need to write a new topic sentence at the start of the new paragraph.

 Introductions and conclusions are usually written as separate paragraphs.

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5 Being Concise and Removing Redundancy (unnecessary)

Introduction

There will sometimes be a strong tendency for most of us to mess up our writing, with a host of unnecessary
words or phrases in the text. It doesn't change the negative impact that the confusion of redundant words and
phrases are likely to have on the quality of our writing.

Redundancy, defined in the dictionary as the "superfluous repetition or overlapping of words", is best
avoided in any line of communication between writer and reader, whatever the form of writing. Don't pay an
excessive amount of attention to unnecessary details. Focus on the substance of what you're trying to say
through writing, first and foremost of all.

Avoiding redundancy

Repetition, unnecessary words, use of meaningless jargon, and use of pompous or over-the-top sentences and
phrases are the main culprits behind redundancy in writing. Below are some examples, with clean versions
that "tighten" the writing and convey the same information more clearly and concisely:

 Redundant: There were three astronauts that went on each and every Apollo space mission to the moon.
 Clear and concise: There were three astronauts on every Apollo moon mission.
 Redundant: All things being equal, the leaders of the Students Union Association will consider the
argument, and make their final decision by vote on Wednesday next week at an open meeting.
 Clear and concise: The Students Union will announce the results of the vote at next Wednesday's open
meeting.

Clear and concise writing saves both the writer and his/her readers a great deal of time (and patience). It
makes the document more "palatable" and straight to the point.

There are commonly used phrases that do nothing but clutter up a sentence – and subsequently, the entire
text. Unless necessary, avoid phrases like:

 As I was trying to say...

 At this point in time...
 For the most part...
 For the purpose of...
 In a manner of speaking...
 In the final analysis...
 As far as I am concerned...
 Be that as it may...

Particularly in the area of academic or research paper writing, the above phrases are best avoided.
They complicate your sentences. They may be tempting, yes; they may sound fancy; but strive to achieve
concise writing by doing away with them. Always keep the writing simple.

Less is more
Always check & double-check to see if there is needless repetition, or if there are any redundant words/
phrases/expressions that can be removed. Less is more, & don't say in 03 sentences what you can say in 01.

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6 Avoiding Ambiguity and Vagueness
Good communication is the foundation of getting our task done. It must be simple and easy to understand.
Ambiguity (confusion) and vagueness (unclear) creates hurdles in the communication in writing and
speaking both. Let us understand how ambiguity and vagueness can be removes:
1. Write Explicit Requirements

You must be specific, detailed, and avoid assuming that the reader knows what you mean. Even if you think
that the reader must know what you are talking about, avoid assumption. Write down even what should be
assumed and don’t be afraid of being repetitive if this is needed.
2. Would and Should Must Be Avoided

Would and Should are two words prone to generate unclarity and do not define a specific task. They convey
the idea of being optional, and you do not want to give options you want a specific requirement. However, if
you say that the form will or must fill automatically, it is readily understood that the feature must be
implemented no matter what.

3. Be Careful With Adverbs

Adverbs are great at causing ambiguity (confusion). Adverbs like generally, reasonably, usually, normally
etc on are not specific & are open to interpretation. Make it very specific. So that it conveys correct meaning.
4. Use Pronouns Carefully

If not used correctly, pronouns can create ambiguity in your requirements. You must always make sure to
which noun, or antecedent, the pronoun is referring to.
For instance, think about this phrase: “When the user clicks on the main menu a drop-down list will appear.
This will allow the user to…” It is not clear if “this” refers to the main menu or the drop-down list. To add
clarity, you can rephrase the same sentence as follow: “When the user clicks on the main menu, a drop-down
list will appear which will allow the user to…
5. Avoid Abbreviation Altogether

Abbreviations are a useful shortcut to make your writing shorter and more comfortable for you. However,
sometimes abbreviations may not be adequately understood by your reader. To avoid any misunderstanding,
always use full English words and do not include any abbreviation in your requirements.

6. Short Sentences and a Clear Layout

Using short sentences is a good practice for most kind of writing. Short phrases that go straight to the point
make texts very easy to read and, most importantly, easier to understand. If you see that one of your
sentences is longer than two lines, break it down into multiple phrases.
9. Ask For Review
Before you submit your write up of research, ask somebody to review what you have written and ask for his
comments. As we mentioned previously, it is incredibly challenging to evaluate our writing. Therefore, a
second opinion can be entirely enlightening to expose possible faults and ambiguities.

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