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DOI 10.1007/s11468-015-0135-8
Received: 12 August 2015 / Accepted: 28 October 2015 / Published online: 14 November 2015
© Springer Science+Business Media New York 2015
Transmittance monitor
Si
X Y Z X
Fig. 1 Schematic of the structural design for the front surface of the x − y plane and 100 nm away from the upper surface of Si, indicated
thin film silicon solar cell, with a silver nanoparticle array being on top in a dashed line in (a). The silver nanoparticles were evenly distributed
of a quarter wavelength layer of SiO2 /Si3 N4 : a cross section and b top in both dimensions in the x − y plane, and the particle separation is
view. In simulations, the light was normally incident from air. A plane labeled as
monitor that measured the light transmittance into Si was placed in the
eral studies have shown that blazed grating structures prove wavelength layers, utilizing the surface plasmon resonance
to be perfect reflectors as they can substantially enhance the effect of the metallic nanoparticles. At the rear surface,
OPL after tilting the angles of the diffraction beams away blazed grating arrays are used to enhance the light absorp-
from the normal [28–31]. tion by increasing the OPL of light within the cells. In
In this paper, we demonstrate a surface design of thin this work, the light transmittance and reflectance at both
film silicon solar cells with a combination of silver nanopar- surfaces have been studied in a wavelength range of 400–
ticle arrays and blazed grating arrays. At the front surface 1000 nm via the finite-difference time-domain (FDTD)
of the cells, an antireflection layer structure is achieved numerical simulation method, with a variety of structural
by placing the silver nanoparticle arrays on top of quarter parameters.
0.6
Transmittance
r=15nm
r=30nm
0.4
r=50nm
r=70nm
r=90nm
0.2
0.0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Wavelength(nm)
Plasmonics (2016) 11:1003–1010 1005
Numerical Simulation Method To study the effects of the silver nanoparticle array on
the light transmittance at the front surface, two structural
In this work, the FDTD method was used to perform the parameters were varied: the particle separation, , and the
calculations [32]. In all simulations, a plane-wave light with radius of the spherical silver particle, r. First, the particle
a wavelength range of 400–1000 nm was normally incident radius was changed from r = 15 to 90 nm, while the particle
(shown as the z-axis indicated in Fig. 1). Periodic boundary separation was fixed at = 100 nm, and the light transmit-
conditions were employed in the x − y plane in which sil- tance as a function of the incident light’s wavelength was
ver nanoparticle arrays or blazed grating arrays were placed. simulated and the results are shown in Fig. 2. It is clear from
In the z direction, perfect match layer boundary conditions Fig. 2 that the arrays with smaller individual nanoparticles
were used. The mesh size was always kept smaller than (i.e., r = 15 and 30 nm) cause a greater light transmittance
1/10 of the shortest wavelength studied in the region of at most wavelengths studied. This is due to the surface plas-
non plasmon-carrying media to avoid the artifacts induced mon resonance effect induced by the metallic nanoparticles;
by the simulation method. The optical constants for all similar results were shown in the literatures [20, 21]. Note
the media studied were from Palik’s experimental data, as that different from the case of individual silver nanoparti-
given in ref. [33] . cles wherein the light transmittance enhancement can only
occur at some particular wavelengths, the light transmit-
tance in this design is enhanced in a broad-band fashion; this
Front Surface: Silver Nanoparticle Arrays is due to the fact that the transmittance is not only effected
by the surface plasmon resonance induced by the metallic
In the design for the front surface of the thin film silicon nanoparticles but also by the grating properties associated
solar cells, we combined silver nanopaticle arrays with an with the silver nanoparticle arrays. Second, the particle sep-
optimized quarter wavelength layer, and the detailed struc- aration was varied from = 40 to 160 nm, while the particle
ture is shown in Fig. 1. As indicated in Fig. 1a, a silver radius was fixed at r = 50 nm, and the resulting transmit-
nanoparticle array was placed on top of a quarter wave- tance curves are given in Fig. 3. It is evident from Fig. 3
length layer of SiO2 /Si3 N4 , at the front surface of silicon. that the arrays with larger particle separations (i.e., = 140
The pre-optimized SiO2 /Si3 N4 layer was employed as an and 160 nm) give rise to a greater transmitting performance.
antireflection layer, which has already been demonstrated This is mainly because of the grating property of the array,
to be effective in reducing the light reflectance at front sur- that is, a larger separation allows a broader range of wave-
face of the cells, as shown in previous works [20, 21]. In the length to pass through. The similar phenomenon was also
x − y plane, the arrangement of the neighboring nanoparti- reported in previous works [20, 21]. Figures 2 and 3 show
cles is shown in Fig. 1b, with the particle separation being that at the front surface of the cells, the light transmittance
labeled .
Z
1.0
Incident Light
0.8
Si
0.6
Transmittance
0.4 SiO2
=40nm
=60nm
=80nm Transmittance monitor
0.2 =100nm
=140nm X Y
=160nm
0.0
Fig. 4 Cross section of the structural design for the rear surface of the
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 thin film silicon solar cells, with a blazed grating array being at the
Wavelength(nm) bottom of the Si layer. In simulations, the light was normally incident
from Si. A plane monitor that measured the light transmittance away
Fig. 3 Wavelength-dependent transmittance of light into Si for the from Si was placed in the x − y plane and 100 nm away from the
design shown in Fig. 1. The particle separation was varied from = 40 bottom surface of Si. The blazed grating is infinite in the x axis, and the
to 160 nm, with a fixed silver nanoparticle radius of r = 50 nm grating constant in the y axis is labeled d. The blaze angle is labeled α
1006 Plasmonics (2016) 11:1003–1010
Transmittance
0.3 o
α=45
0.2
0.1
0.0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Wavelength(nm)
may be increased by using silver nanoparticle arrays with shown in Fig. 4. In this work, the material that constituted
small r or large . the blazed grating arrays was SiO2 . As indicated in Fig. 4,
two structural parameters for the blazed grating were probed
in this work: the blaze angle (labeled α, varying from 15 to
Rear Surface: Blazed Grating Arrays 45◦ ) and the grating constant (labeled d, varying from 400
to 1000 nm). In the simulations, the light source was placed
Compared with their bulk counterparts, the thin film cells inside the silicon layer and a plane monitor that measured
have a major shortcoming, that is, the incident light can the light transmittance (in the x − y plane) was positioned
easily penetrate through the silicon thin film without being
utilized. To tackle this problem, a blazed grating array was
placed at the bottom of the silicon layer to reduce the light Reflection monitor
transmittance at the rear surface of the thin film cells, and
the schematic of the structural design for the rear surface is Incident Light
Z Ag
0.5
SiO2
=400nm Si3N4
=600nm
0.4 =800nm
=1000nm
Si
0.3
Transmittance
0.2 SiO2
Transmittance monitor
0.1
X Y
0.0
Fig. 7 Schematic of the structural design for the thin film silicon solar
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 cell, with a silver nanoparticle array being at front and a blazed grating
Wavelength(nm) array at rear. In simulations, the light was normally incident from air.
The silver nanoparticles were evenly distributed in both dimensions in
Fig. 6 Wavelength-dependent transmittance of light away from Si for the x − y plane, and the particle separation is labeled . The blazed
the design shown in Fig. 4. The grating constant was varied from grating is infinite in the x axis, and the grating constant in the y axis is
d = 400 to 1000 nm, with a fixed blaze angle of α = 30◦ labeled d
Plasmonics (2016) 11:1003–1010 1007
=45
After having separately studied the front and the rear sur-
0.4
face of the cells, we combined the structural designs at
both surfaces and characterized the light absorptance of
0.2 the thin film cells, and the combined scheme is illus-
trated in Fig. 7. In the simulations, the thickness of the
thin silicon layer was assumed 1 μm. As shown in Fig.
0.0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 7, a plane monitor that measured the light reflectance
Wavelength(nm) was placed 100 nm away from the top of the cell, and
another plane monitor that measured the light transmit-
Fig. 8 Wavelength-dependent light absorptance by Si for the design
shown in Fig. 7, determined from Eq. 1. At the front surface, the sil-
tance was put 100 nm away from the bottom of the cell.
ver particle radius was r = 15 nm and the particle separation was The reflectance of the incident light at the wavelength of
= 100 nm. At the rear surface, the grating constant was d = 600 nm, λ from the front surface of the cell (labeled R(λ)) and the
and the blaze angle was varied from α = 15 to 45◦ light transmittance at the rear surface (labeled T (λ)) were
first determined. The light absorptance by Si (labeled A(λ))
outside the silicon layer and 100 nm away from the rear was then calculated using Eq. 1, for a variety of structural
surface, as shown in Fig. 4. parameters.
For the rear surface, we first studied the effect of the
A(λ) = 1 − R(λ) − T (λ) (1)
blaze angle on the light transmittance, with a fixed grating
constant of d = 600 nm; the results are shown in Fig. 5. It An exemplary figure of A(λ) is given in Fig. 8 where
is observed from Fig. 5 that the blazed grating arrays with the blaze angle was varied from α = 15 to 45◦ , while the
blaze angles of α = 30 and 35◦ result in lower transmittance other structural parameters were fixed to be = 100 nm,
curves at most wavelength studied. Note that different from r = 15 nm, and d = 600 nm. By examining Fig. 8, it is
the front surface, small values of transmittance are pursued observed that the blaze angles of α = 30◦ and α = 35◦ are
at the rear surface. The observation in Fig. 5 demonstrates slightly better than the others at shorter wavelengths (e.g.,
that the blaze angle cannot be either too small or too large, <800 nm). While the absorptance curves become oscilla-
and that only certain angles can cause optimal transmitting tory at longer wavelengths (e.g., >800 nm) and it is difficult
performance. Furthermore, we also simulated the trans- to tell which one is better. Note that when changing the other
mittance curves with a variety of grating constants in the structural parameters (i.e., , r, or d), the corresponding
condition of a fixed blaze angle (i.e., α = 35◦ ), and the absorptance curves (not shown in this paper) also present
results are given in Fig. 6. It is clear from Fig. 6 that the similar oscillatory behaviours. Therefore, other than the
lowest transmittance curve appears when the grating con- light absorptance at each wavelength, it is more appropriate
stant is d = 600 nm. From Figs. 5 and 6, we have learnt that to use the weighted mean values of the photons absorbed
the structural parameters of the blazed grating arrays at the by Si over all the wavelengths, to quantify the light trapping
The radius of the silver nanoparticle was varied from r = 15 to 90 nm, and the blaze angle was varied from
α = 15 to 45◦
1008 Plasmonics (2016) 11:1003–1010
The particle separation was varied from = 40 to 160 nm, and the blaze angle was varied from
α = 15 to 45◦
efficiency of the cells. The weighted mean, ξAM1.5 , is given Table 1 represents the weighted mean values of the pho-
by tons absorbed by silicon when the silver particle separation
λ2 and the grating constant of the blazed grating were fixed
λ A(λ)N(λ)dλ
ξAM1.5 = 1 λ (2) (i.e., = 100 nm and d = 600 nm), while the radius of
2
λ1 N(λ)dλ the silver nanoparticle, r, and the blaze angle of the blazed
where λ is the wavelength of the incident light, and λ1 and grating, α were varied. It is apparent from Table 1 that the
λ2 are the wavelengths of the lower and upper boundaries, structure with the combination of a small silver particle size
respectively. In this work, λ1 = 400 nm and λ2 = 1000 nm. (i.e., r = 15 or 30 nm ) at top and a blaze angle of α = 30 or
N(λ) is the solar spectrum, which is the distribution of pho- 35◦ at bottom gives rise to a great light trapping efficiency
ton numbers as a function of wavelength, under the standard (i.e., ξAM1.5 > 0.72) for the solar cell. The maximum value
testing condition (AM1.5, 100 mW/cm2 and 25 ◦ C). N(λ) of ξAM1.5 appears to be 0.7467 when r = 15 nm and α =
is given by 30◦ . This result is the combination of the high transmittance
at the front surface with a small size of the silver nanoparti-
W (λ) W (λ)λ
N(λ) = = (3) cle (indicated in Fig. 2) and the low transmittance at the rear
E(λ) hc surface with the blaze angle of α = 30 or 35◦ (indicated in
where W (λ) is the corresponding solar spectral irradiance Fig. 5).
at the wavelength of λ, E(λ) is the photon energy at λ, Similarly, Table 2 shows the values of ξAM1.5 by respec-
h = 6.6261 × 10−34 Js and c =3×108 m/s. N(λ) was cal- tively changing the silver particle separation, , at front
culated from Eq. 3 by using the ASTM G173-03 reference and the blaze angle, α, at bottom, while maintaining the
solar spectral irradiance (global tilt), W (λ). other parameters (i.e., r = 50 nm and d = 600 nm).
As mentioned above, the light absorptance by Si, A(λ), It is evident from Table 2 that the optimal value of
was determined from Eq. 1 by the light reflectance at front, ξAM1.5 occurs when the particle separation is as large as
R(λ), and the transmittance at rear, T (λ), for a variety of = 140 nm or 160 nm as well as the blaze angle is
structural parameters. With the values of N(λ) and A(λ), we α = 30 or 35◦ . This is consistent with the previous find-
computed ξAM1.5 from Eq. 2 under various combinations of ings that the large particle separation causes a greater
the structural parameters for the silver nanoparticle arrays at light transmittance at the front surface, which was revealed
the front surface (i.e., and r) and the blazed grating arrays by Fig. 3.
at the rear surface (i.e., α and d). The corresponding results To further optimize the surface design of the cells, the
are respectively shown in Table 1 through Table 4. ξAM1.5 values under two other combinations of the four
The radius of the silver nanoparticle was varied from r = 15 to 90 nm, and the grating constant was varied
from d = 400 to 1000 nm
Plasmonics (2016) 11:1003–1010 1009
The particle separation was varied from = 40 to 160 nm, and the grating constant was varied from d = 400
to 1000 nm
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