Bus rapid transit

Bus rapid transit (BRT), also called a busway or transitway, is a

bus-based public transport system designed to have better capacity
and reliability than a conventional bus system.[2] Typically, a BRT
system includes roadways that are dedicated to buses, and gives
priority to buses at intersections where buses may interact with
other traffic; alongside design features to reduce delays caused by
passengers boarding or leaving buses, or paying fares. BRT aims to
combine the capacity and speed of a metro with the claimed
flexibility, lower cost and simplicity of a bus system.
TransJakarta in Jakarta, Indonesia.
The world's first BRT system was the Busway in Runcorn New With a length of 251.2 km (2019), it
Town, England, which entered service in 1971.[3][4] As of is the longest BRT system in the
March  2018, a total of 166 cities in six continents have world.[1]
implemented BRT systems, accounting for 4,906 km (3,048 mi) of
BRT lanes[5] and about 32.2  million passengers every day, of
which about 19.6  million passengers ride daily in Latin America,
which has the most cities with BRT systems, with 54, led by Brazil
with 21 cities.[5] The Latin American countries with the most daily
ridership are Brazil (10.7M), Colombia (3.06M), and Mexico
(2.5M). In the other regions, China (4.3M) and Iran (2.1M) also
stand out.[5] Currently, TransJakarta is the largest BRT network in
the world with approximately 251.2 kilometres (156.1  mi) of
corridors connecting the Indonesian capital city.[1]

30 meter long Transmetro in

Guatemala City
Contents
Terminology
Reasons for use
History
Main features
Dedicated lanes and alignment
Off-board fare collection
Intersection treatment
Platform-level boarding
Additional features
High capacity vehicles
Quality stations
Prominent brand or identity
In tunnels or subterranean structures
Performance
Comparison with light rail
 Comparison with conventional bus services
Cost
Criticism
Environmental issues
Overcrowding and poor quality service
Failures and reversals
Replacing BRT with higher capacity modes
Impact
See also
References
Further reading
External links
General information
Country-specific information
Databases

Terminology
Bus rapid transit takes its name from rail rapid transit, which describes a high-capacity urban public-transit
system with its own right of way, multiple-car vehicles at short headways, and longer stop spacing than
traditional streetcars and buses. BRT uses buses on a wide variety of rights-of-way, including mixed traffic,
dedicated lanes on surface streets, and busways separated from traffic.

The expression "BRT" is mainly used in the Americas and China; in India, it is called "BRTS" (BRT
System); in Europe it is often called a "busway" or a "BHLS" (stands for Bus with a High Level of
Service);[6] while in the British Isles, it may be called a "quality bus". The term transitway was originated in
1981 with the opening of the OC Transpo transitway in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.

Critics have charged that the term "bus rapid transit" has sometimes been misapplied to systems that lack
most or all the essential features which differentiate it from conventional bus services. The term "bus rapid
transit creep" has been used to describe severely degraded levels of bus service which fall far short of the
BRT Standard promoted by the Institute for Transportation and Development Policy and other
organizations.

Reasons for use

Compared to other common transit modes such as light rail transit (LRT) or mass rapid transit (MRT), bus
rapid transit (BRT) bus service is attractive to transit authorities because it does not cost as much to establish
and operate: no track needs to be laid, bus drivers typically require less training and a lower stipend as
compared to rail operators, and bus maintenance is less complex than rail maintenance. Moreover, buses are
more flexible than rail vehicles; a bus route can be altered, either temporarily or permanently, to meet
changing demand or contend with adverse road conditions with comparatively little investment of
resources. However, the infrastructure of "proper" BRT such as grade separated busways is similarly costly
and cumbersome to build as comparable rail infrastructure. Furthermore, during the Belle Epoque railway
troops were capable of constructing makeshift rail infrastructure within days or hours, similar to what it
takes to establish even the most rudimentary road infrastructure where none previously exists.
However, conventional buses nearly always take longer to traverse any given route as compared to a car
traversing the same route, due to a combination of factors:

Unless a bus-only lane is present, a bus cannot go faster than other road traffic. This may
become especially apparent during rush hour or other periods of substantial congestion.
With the exception of stops that employ bus bulbs, when a bus stops to pick up or discharge
passengers, it exits the flow of traffic and so cannot resume travel until it is safe to merge
back in.
Because bus routes often have request stops, a bus driver must take time to scan
approaching stops for passengers waiting to board, and drive slowly enough to stop safely
should passengers be present.
Fares that must be paid in cash, rather than by a card or similar rapid system, slow boarding.

This can make travel by bus less appealing to those who have the choice to use private transport or a hired
vehicle instead of transit - either due to a simple desire to spend less time, or else due to uncomfortable
crowding during periods of demand.

Bus rapid transit is therefore advocated to act as a bridge for such routes, where rail is deemed "not worth
it" and "conventional" buses do not meet the criteria and demands set forth by planners and the using
public. A frequently cited argument is the alleged cost benefit of "BRT" over rail, which is however
difficult to credibly establish due to the number of confounding variables.

History
The first use of a protected busway was the East Side Trolley
Tunnel in Providence, Rhode Island. It was converted from trolley
to bus use in 1948.[7][8] However, the first BRT system in the
world was the Busway in Runcorn, England.[3] First conceived in
the Runcorn New Town Masterplan in 1966, it opened for services
in October 1971 and all 22 kilometres (14 mi) were operational by
1980.[4] The central station is at Runcorn Shopping City where
buses arrive on dedicated raised busways to two enclosed
stations.[9] Arthur Ling, Runcorn Development Corporation's
Elevated busway at Runcorn
Master Planner, said that he had invented the concept while
Shopping City
sketching on the back of an envelope.[10] The town was designed
around the transport system, with most residents no more than five
minutes walking distance, or 500 yards (460 m), from the Busway.[11]

The second BRT system in the world was the Rede Integrada de
Transporte (RIT, integrated transportation network), implemented
in Curitiba, Brazil, in 1974. The Rede Integrada de Transporte was
inspired by the previous transport system of the National Urban
Transport Company of Peru (In Spanish: ENATRU), which only
had quick access on Lima downtown, but it would not be
considered BRT itself.[5] Many of the elements that have become The Rede Integrada de Transporte in
associated with BRT were innovations first suggested by Carlos Curitiba, Brazil, was opened in 1974.
Ceneviva, within the team of Curitiba Mayor Jaime Lerner.[12][13] The RIT was inspired by the National
Initially just dedicated bus lanes in the center of major arterial Urban Transport Company of Peru.
roads, in 1980 the Curitiba system added a feeder bus network and
inter-zone connections, and in 1992 introduced off-board fare
collection, enclosed stations, and platform-level boarding. Other systems made further innovations,
including platooning (three buses entering and leaving bus stops and traffic signals at once) in Porto Alegre,
and passing lanes and express service in São Paulo.[14]

In the United States, BRT began in 1977, with Pittsburgh's South Busway,[15] operating on 4.3 miles
(6.9  km) of exclusive lanes. Its success led to the Martin Luther King Jr. East Busway in 1983, a fuller
BRT deployment including a dedicated busway of 9.1 miles (14.6 km), traffic signal preemption, and peak
service headway as low as two minutes. After the opening of the West Busway, 5.1 miles (8.2  km) in
length in 2000, Pittsburgh's Busway system is today over 18.5 miles long.

The OC Transpo BRT system in Ottawa, Canada, was introduced in 1983.[16] The first element of its BRT
system was dedicated bus lanes through the city centre, with platformed stops. The introduction of
exclusive separate busways (termed 'Transitway') occurred in 1983. By 1996, all of the originally
envisioned 31 km Transitway system was in operation; further expansions were opened in 2009, 2011, and
2014. As of 2019, the central part of the Transitway has been converted to light rail transit, due to the
downtown section being operated beyond its designed capacity.[17]

In 1995, Quito, Ecuador, opened trolleybus BRT. The TransMilenio in Bogotá, Colombia, opening in
2000, was the first BRT system to combine the best elements of Curitiba's BRT with other BRT advances,
and achieved the highest capacity and highest speed BRT system in the world.

In January 2004 the first BRT in Southeast Asia, TransJakarta, opened in Jakarta, Indonesia. As of 2015, at
210 kilometres (130 mi), it is the longest BRT system in the world.[18]

Africa's first BRT system was opened in Lagos, Nigeria, in March

2008 but is considered a light BRT system by many people.[19]
Johannesburg's BRT, Rea Vaya, was the first true BRT in Africa, in
August 2009, carrying 16,000 daily passengers.[20] Rea Vaya and
MIO (BRT in Cali, Colombia, opened 2009) were the first two
systems to combine full BRT with some services that also operated
in mixed traffic, then joined the BRT trunk infrastructure.[21]

In October 2020, Montgomery County FLASH, the first BRT Mercedes-Benz O305 buses
system in Maryland, began service.[22] travelling on O-bahn in Adelaide,
Australia

Main features
BRT systems normally include most of the following features:

Dedicated lanes and alignment

Bus-only lanes make for faster travel and ensure that buses are not delayed by mixed traffic congestion. A
median alignment bus-only keeps buses away from busy curb-side side conflicts, where cars and trucks are
parking, standing and turning. Separate rights of way may be used such as the completely elevated Xiamen
BRT. Transit malls or 'bus streets' may also be created in city centers.

Off-board fare collection

Fare prepayment at the station, instead of on board the bus, eliminates the delay caused by passengers
paying on board. Use of a payment card which must be touched briefly to a card-reader is also fast.
Intersection treatment

Prohibiting turns for traffic across the bus lane significantly reduces
delays to the buses. Bus priority will often be provided at signalized
intersections to reduce delays by extending the green phase or
reducing the red phase in the required direction compared to the
normal sequence. Prohibiting turns may be the most important
measure for moving buses through intersections.
TransJakarta buses use separate
lanes to avoid congested roads.
Platform-level boarding

Station platforms should be level with the bus floor for quick and
easy boarding, making it fully accessible for wheelchairs, disabled
passengers and baby strollers, with minimal delays.

High-level platforms for high-floored buses makes it difficult to

have stops outside dedicated platforms, or to have conventional
buses stop at high-level platforms, so these BRT stops are distinct
from street-level bus stops. Similar to rail vehicles, there is a risk of
a dangerous gap between bus and platform, and is even greater due
to the nature of bus operations. Kassel curbs or other methods may Elevated BRT system in Xiamen
be used to ease quick and safe alignment of the BRT vehicle with a
platform.

A popular compromise is low-floor buses with a low step at the

door, which can allow easy boarding at low-platform stops
compatible with other buses. This intermediate design may be used
with some low- or medium-capacity BRT systems.

The MIO system in Cali pioneered in 2009 the use of dual buses,
A viva bus in York Region, North of
with doors on the left side of the bus that are located at the height of
Toronto, Canada demonstrates many
high-level platforms, and doors on the right side that are located at
features of BRT; elaborate stations,
curb height. These buses can use the main line with its exclusive
comfortable express buses, unique
lanes and high level platforms, located on the center of the street
branding, and coloured 'lines' rather
and thus, boarding and leaving passengers on the left side. These
than route numbers.
buses can exit the main line and use normal lanes that share with
other vehicles and stop at regular stations located on sidewalks on
the right side of the street. For the system to work, users can receive
"credit" on the electronic cards: in this manner, passengers who
have no money left on the cards can take the bus at sidewalk stops
where there is no possibility to recharge these cards. This means
that the balance in the card can be negative, up to two ticket fares,
so passengers can take the bus in the street and recharge the card
once they reach a main line station. As the card itself costs more
than the maximum negative balance, the passenger has no incentive
to default on negative credit.[23] Transmilenio in Bogotá followed
suit in 2014 also creating routes that can use main line stations and Cultural Centre busway station in
regular sidewalk stations,[24] but instead of giving credit to Brisbane, Australia
passengers to allow boarding the bus on sidewalks, published a
map readable in smart phones giving the location of a dense[25]
network of 4,000 recharging points, located in internet cafes and other business, that use a swipe-card
terminal for recharging. This system has the additional benefit of diminishing queues on main line
stations.[26]

Additional features

High capacity vehicles

High-capacity vehicles such as articulated or even bi-articulated

buses may be used, typically with multiple doors for fast entry and
exit. Double-decker buses or guided buses may also be used.
Advanced powertrain control may be used for a smoother ride.

ART level-boarding station in the

Quality stations center of a public roadway with
guideways on either side and a
BRT systems typically feature significant investment in enclosed dedicated traffic signal in
stations which may incorporate attractive sliding glass doors, Albuquerque, New Mexico, United
staffed ticket booths, information booths, and other more standard States
features listed above. They will often include level boarding, using
either low-floor buses or higher boarding platforms level, and
multiple doors to speed passenger boardings and enhance
accessibility to disabled passengers. Fare validation upon entry to
the station in a similar manner to that used on entry to a subway
system is also common, particularly at busy stations. An example of
high-quality stations include those used on TransMilenio in Bogotá
since December 2000,[27] the MIO in Cali since November
2008,[28] Metrolinea in Bucaramanga since December 2009,[29]
Megabús in Pereira since May 2009.[30] This design is also used in
Double decker bus at Mexico City
Johannesburg's Rea Vaya.[31] The term "station" is more flexibly
with capacity for 130 passengers
applied in North America and ranges from enclosed waiting areas
(Ottawa and Cleveland) to large open-sided shelters (Los Angeles
and San Bernardino).

Prominent brand or identity

A unique and distinctive identity can contribute to BRT's

attractiveness as an alternative to driving cars,[32] (such as Viva,
Max, TransMilenio, Metropolitano, Metronit, Select) marking stops
and stations as well as the buses.[33] TransMilenio vehicles carry up to
270 people.
Large cities usually have big bus networks. A map showing all bus
lines might be incomprehensible, and cause people to wait for low-
frequency buses that may not even be running at the time they are needed. By identifying the main bus
lines having high-frequency service, with a special brand and separate maps, it is easier to understand the
entire network.

Public transit apps are more convenient than a static map, featuring services like trip planning, live arrival
and departure times, up-to-date line schedules, local station maps, service alerts, and advisories that may
affect one's current trip. Transit and Moovit are examples of apps that are available in many cities around
the world. Some operators of bus rapid transit systems have
developed their own apps, like Transmilenio.[34] These apps even
include all the schedules and live arrival times and stations for
buses that feed the BRT, like the SITP (Sistema Integrado de
Transporte Público or Public Transit Integrated System) in Bogotá.

In tunnels or subterranean structures

A special issue arises in the use of buses in metro transit structures. Ticket barriers at the entrance to a
Since the areas where the demand for an exclusive bus right-of- TransMilenio station in Bogotá
way are apt to be in dense downtown areas where an above-ground
structure may be unacceptable on historic, logistic, or
environmental grounds, use of BRT in tunnels may not be
avoidable.

Since buses are usually powered by internal combustion engines,

bus metros raise ventilation issues similar to those of motor vehicle
tunnels. Powerful fans typically exchange air through ventilation
shafts to the surface; these are usually as remote as possible from
occupied areas, to minimize the effects of noise and concentrated
pollution.
Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel in
A straightforward way to reduce air quality problems is to use Seattle, Washington – bus routes
internal combustion engines with lower emissions. The 2008 Euro were rerouted to the surface,
V European emission standards set a limit on carbon monoxide replaced by full light rail service in
from heavy-duty diesel engines of 1.5 g/kWh, one third of the 1992 March 2019
Euro I standard. As a result, less forced ventilation will be required
in tunnels to achieve the same air quality.

Another alternative is to use electric propulsion, which Seattle's

Metro Bus Tunnel and Boston's Silver Line Phase II implemented.
In Seattle, dual-mode (electric/diesel electric) buses manufactured
by Breda were used until 2004, with the center axle driven by
electric motors obtaining power from trolley wires through trolley
poles in the subway, and with the rear axle driven by a
conventional diesel powertrain on freeways and streets. Boston is
using a similar approach, after initially using trolleybuses pending
delivery of the dual-mode vehicles in 2005.[35] An outbound Silver Line bus at
Courthouse station in Boston,
In 2004, Seattle replaced its "Transit Tunnel" fleet with diesel- Massachusetts
electric hybrid buses, which operate similarly to hybrid cars outside
the tunnel and in a low-noise, low-emissions "hush mode" (in
which the diesel engine operates but does not exceed idle speed) when underground.[36] The need to
provide electric power in underground environments brings the capital and maintenance costs of such
routes closer to those of light rail, and raises the question of building or eventually converting to light rail.
In Seattle, the downtown transit tunnel was retrofitted for conversion to a shared hybrid-bus and light-rail
facility in preparation for Seattle's Central Link Light Rail line, which opened in July 2009. In March 2019,
expansion of the light rail in the tunnel moved busses back to surface streets.[37]

Performance
A BRT system can be measured by a number of factors. The BRT Standard was developed by the Institute
for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP) to score BRT corridors, producing a list of rated BRT
corridors meeting the minimum definition of BRT. The highest rated systems received a "gold" ranking.
The latest edition of the standard was published in 2016.[38]

Other metrics used to evaluate BRT performance include:

The vehicle headway is the average time interval between vehicles on the same line. Buses
can operate at headways of 10 seconds or less, but average headways on TransMilenio at
busy intersections are 13 seconds,[39] 14 seconds for the busiest section of the Metrobus
(Istanbul).
Vehicle capacity, which can range from 50 for a conventional bus up to some 200 for an
articulated vehicle arranged for standing passengers. Merobus Istanbul operates both
Mercedes-Benz Citaro with a capacity of 150 and Mercedes CapaCity with a capacity of
193.
The effectiveness of the stations to handle passenger demand. High volumes of passengers
on vehicles required large bus stations at busy interchange points.
The effectiveness of the feeder system — can these deliver people to stations at the required
speed.
Local passenger demand. Without a local demand for travel, the capacity will not be used.

Based on this data, the minimum headway and maximum current vehicle capacities, the theoretical
maximum throughput measured in passengers per hour per direction (PPHPD) for a single traffic lane is
some 90,000 passengers per hour (250 passengers per vehicle, one vehicles every 10 seconds). In real
world conditions TransMilenio holds the record, with 35,000 – 40,000 PPHPD with most other busy
systems operating in the 15,000 to 25,000 range.

Peak passengers per hour Length

Location System Passengers per day
per direction (km)
Dar es Salaam bus [40]
Tanzania 180,000
rapid transit

Bogotá TransMilenio 35,000 – 40,000[41] 2,154,961[42] 113[43]

Janmarg
Ahmedabad 450,000[44] 125[44]
(Ahmedabad BRT)
Guangzhou Bus
Guangzhou 26,900[45] 1,000,000 22
Rapid Transit

Curitiba, Rede Integrada de 508,000[46] (2,260,000 inc.

13,900 – 24,100 81
Brazil Transporte feeder lines[47])
Mexico City, Mexico City
18,500 1,800,000[48] 140[49][50]
Mexico Metrobus
Belo
Horizonte, Sistema MOVE 15,800 – 20,300[51] 1,100,000 24
Brazil

Istanbul Metrobus (Istanbul) 7,300 – 19,500[51] 906,000[52] 52

62,000 (4-hour morning peak

New Jersey Lincoln Tunnel XBL 15,500[53]
only)

Brisbane South East Busway 15,000[54] 191,800[55] 23

Jakarta Transjakarta 3,600[56] 1,006,000[57] 251.2

New York Select Bus Service 30,195

Comparison with light rail

After the first BRT system opened in 1971, cities were slow to adopt BRT because they believed that the
capacity of BRT was limited to about 12,000 passengers per hour traveling in a given direction during peak
demand. While this is a capacity rarely needed in the US (12,000 is more typical as a total daily ridership),
in the developing world this capacity constraint was a significant argument in favor of heavy rail metro
investments in some venues.

When TransMilenio opened in 2000, it changed the paradigm by giving buses a passing lane at each station
stop and introducing express services within the BRT infrastructure. These innovations increased the
maximum achieved capacity of a BRT system to 35,000 passengers per hour.[58] Light rail, by comparison,
has reported passenger capacities between 3,500pph (mainly street running) to 19,000pph (fully Grade-
separated). "From these findings … there is little evidence to support the view that [light rail] can carry
more than busways.".[59] There are conditions that favor light over BRT, but they are fairly narrow. To
meet these conditions you would need a corridor with only one available lane in each direction, more than
16,000 passengers per direction per hour but less than 20,000, and a long block length, because the train
cannot block intersections. These conditions are rare, but in that specific instance, light rail would have a
significant operational advantage.

Comparison with conventional bus services

Conventional scheduled bus services use general traffic lanes,

which can be slow due to traffic congestion, and the speed of bus
services is further reduced by long dwell times.

In 2013, the New York City authorities noted that buses on 34th
Street, which carried 33,000 bus riders a day on local and express
routes, traveled at 4.5 miles per hour (7.2 km/h), only slightly faster
than walking pace. Even despite the implementation of Select Bus
Service (New York City's version of a bus rapid transit system),
Conventional bus services being
dedicated bus lanes, and traffic cameras on the 34th Street corridor,
delayed by traffic congestion on
buses on the corridor were still found to travel at an average of
Chang'an Avenue in Beijing
4.5 mph.[60]

In the 1960s, Reuben Smeed predicted that the average speed of

traffic in central London would be 9 miles per hour (14  km/h) without other disincentives such as road
pricing, based on the theory that this was the minimum speed that people will tolerate. When the London
congestion charge was introduced in 2003, the average traffic speed was indeed 14 kilometres per hour
(8.7  mph) which was the highest speed since the 1970s.[61] By way of contrast, typical speeds of BRT
systems range from 17 to 30 miles per hour (27 to 48 km/h).[62]

Cost
The capital costs of implementing BRT are lower than for light rail. A study by the United States
Government Accountability Office from 2000 found that the average capital cost per mile for busways was
$13.5  million while light rail average costs were $34.8  million.[63] However, the total investment varies
considerably due to factors such as cost of the roadway, amount of grade separation, station structures,
traffic signal systems and vehicles.
Operational costs of running a BRT system are generally lower
than light rail, though the exact comparison varies, and labor costs
depend heavily on the wages which vary between countries. For
the same level of ridership and demand, higher labor costs in the
developed world relative to developing countries will tend to
encourage developed world transit operators to prefer operate
services with larger but less frequent vehicles. This will allow the
service to achieve the same capacity while minimizing the number Kesennuma Line in Japan damaged
of drivers. This may come as a hidden cost to passengers in lower in 2011 tsunami. JR converted
demand routes who experience a significantly lower frequencies sections of the line into a dedicated
and longer waiting times. In the developing world the operating bus rapid transit (BRT) route due to
cost advantages of BRT over light rail or streetcar are much greater the cost of reconstructing the
due to lower wages.[64] In the study done by the GAO, BRT railway.
systems usually had lower costs based on "operating cost per
vehicle hour", "operating cost per revenue mile", and "operating
cost per passenger trip", mainly because of lower vehicle cost and lower infrastructure cost. The initial
capital costs of diesel BRT are also much less lower than a trolleybus system.[63]

Proponents of light rail argue that the operating costs of BRT are not necessarily lower than light rail. The
typically larger light rail vehicles enjoy reduced labor costs per passenger, and the unit capital cost per
passenger can be lower than BRT.[64] Furthermore, light rail vehicles have proven useful lifespans of forty
years or more, as opposed to buses that often have to be replaced after less than twenty years.

An ambitious light rail system runs partly underground, which gives free right-of-way and much faster
traffic compared to passing the traffic signals needed in a surface level system. Underground BRT,
suggested as early as 1954,[65] is rare and expensive. As most buses run on diesel, air quality can become a
significant concern in tunnels, but the Downtown Seattle Transit Tunnel is an example of using hybrid
buses, which switch to overhead electric propulsion while they are underground, eliminating diesel
emissions and reducing fuel usage. An alternative is an elevated busway, which is also costly. A desire for
grade separation indicates that a rail alternative may be better.

Criticism
BRT systems have been widely promoted by non-governmental
organizations such as the Shell-funded EMBARQ program,
Rockefeller Foundation[67] and Institute for Transportation and
Development Policy (ITDP), whose consultant pool includes the
former mayor of Bogota (Colombia), Enrique Penalosa (former
president of ITDP).
Prominent articulated "tram-like" Van
Supported by contributions of bus-producing companies such as
Hool vehicles are used in Metz,
Volvo,[68] the ITDP not only established a proposed "standard" for
France.[66]
BRT system implementation, but developed intensive lobby
activities around the world to convince local governments to select
BRT systems over rail-based transportation models (subways, light trains, etc.).[69]

Environmental issues
Unlike electric-powered trains commonly used in rapid transit and light rail systems, bus rapid transit often
uses diesel- or gasoline-fueled engines. The typical bus diesel engine causes noticeable levels of air
pollution, noise and vibration.[70] It is noted however that BRT can still provide significant environmental
benefits over private cars. In addition, BRT systems can replace an inefficient conventional bus network for
more efficient, faster and less polluting BRT buses. For example, Bogotá previously used 2,700
conventional buses providing transportation to 1.6 million passengers daily,[71] while in 2013 TransMilenio
transported 1.9 million passengers using only 630 BRT buses,[72] a fleet less than a quarter in size of the
old fleet, that circulates at twice the speed, with a huge reduction in air pollution.

To reduce direct emissions some systems use alternative forms of traction such as electric or hybrid engines.
BRT systems can use trolleybuses to lower air pollution and noise emissions such as those in Beijing and
Quito.[73] The price penalty of installing overhead lines could be offset by the environmental benefits and
potential for savings from centrally generated electricity, especially in cities where electricity is less
expensive than other fuel sources. Trolleybus electrical systems can be potentially reused for future light rail
conversion. TransJakarta buses use cleaner compressed natural gas-fueled engines, while Bogotá started to
use hybrid buses in 2012; these hybrid systems use regenerative braking to charge batteries when the bus
stops and then use electric motors to propel the bus up to 40  km/h, then automatically switching to the
diesel engine for higher speeds, which allows for considerable savings in fuel consumption and pollutant
dispersion.[74] Furthermore, the lifetime of individual buses is generally shorter than their rail-based
counterparts, potentially making the BRT system more expensive to operate in the long term.

Overcrowding and poor quality service

Many BRT systems suffer from overcrowding in buses and stations as well
as long wait times for buses. In Santiago de Chile, the average of the
system is six passengers per square meter (5/sq yd) inside vehicles. Users
have reported days where the buses take too long to arrive, and are too
overcrowded to accept new passengers.[75] As of June 2017, the system
has an approval rating of 15% among commuters, and it has lost 27% of its
passengers, who have turned mostly to cars.[76]

In Bogotá the overcrowding is even worse; the average of TransMilenio is

eight passengers per square meter (7/sq  yd).[77] Only 29% feel satisfied
with the system. The data also show that 23% of the citizens agree with
building more TransMilenio lines, in contrast of the 42% who consider that
Traffic jam at TransMilenio's
a rapid transit system should be built.[78] Several cases of sexual assault
dedicated line
have been reported by female users in TransMilenio. According to a 2012
survey made by the secretary of the woman of Bogota, 64% of women said
they had been victims of sexual assault in the system.[79] The system has
even been ranked as the most dangerous transport for women.[80] The poor quality of the system has
occasioned an increment in the number of cars and motorcycles in the city; citizens prefer these transport
means over TransMilenio. According to official data, the number of cars increased from approximately
666,000 in 2005 to 1,586,700 in 2016. The number of motorcycles is also growing, with 660,000 sold in
Bogota in 2013, two times the number of cars sold.[81]

The system in Jakarta has also been experiencing issues, with complaints of overcrowding in buses and
stations and low frequency of the routes.[82] There are extensive safety concerns as well; rampant sexual
harassment has been reported,[83] and the fire safety of the buses has been under scrutiny after one of the
buses, a Zhongtong imported from China, suddenly and spontaneously caught on fire.[84] The quality of
the service was so bad that the then-governor of Jakarta, Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, publicly apologized for
the poor performance of the system.[85]
Failures and reversals

A principal criticism of BRT systems is that they may not accomplish their
promise of an efficient, rapid flow of passengers along their dedicated bus
lanes. The unpopularity of Delhi's BRT[86] and the increasing riots and
spontaneous user demonstrations in Bogotá[87] raise doubts about the
ability of BRTs to tackle issues such as the traffic jams induced by
dedicated lanes. Overcrowded stations and BRT vehicles may fail to keep
pace with increased ridership, and may eventually need to be replaced with
high-capacity rail systems.

The lack of permanence of BRT has also been criticized, with some
arguing that BRT systems can be used as an excuse to build roads that
others later try to convert for use by non-BRT vehicles. Examples of this
Protests in TransMilenio at
can be found in Delhi, where a BRT system was scrapped,[88] and in
the Terreros station, 12
Aspen, Colorado, where drivers are lobbying the government to allow
February 2016
mixed-use traffic in former BRT lanes as of 2017.[89] Similarly, the Belfast
Chamber of Trade and Commerce has called for bus lanes to be scrapped in
certain areas of the city "as an experiment."[90] Bangkok was also making plans to scrap a set of bus-only
lanes, as of early 2017.[91] New Orleans ran buses on Canal Street in a dedicated right of way beginning in
the 1960s. This style of service was maintained until 2004 when streetcar service was restored on this 4-
mile (6.4 km) route segment.[92] This perceived lack of permanence has made BRT lines significantly less
attractive to real estate developers than rail lines.

Experts also attribute the failure of BRT to land use structure.[93][94] Cities that are sprawled and have no
mixed use have poor ridership to make BRT economically viable.[95] In Africa, the African Urban Institute
criticized the viability of ongoing BRTs across the continent.[96]

Replacing BRT with higher capacity modes

While the Los Angeles Metro G Line is sometimes cited as an example of a successful North American
BRT line, its very success has led to overcrowding and long-term plans to replace it with a rail line. The
problem in replacing an existing BRT corridor with a rail line is that service disruptions are unavoidable
during construction and this lack of reliability may hurt ridership.

Impact
A 2018 study found that the introduction of a BRT network in Mexico City reduced air pollution
(emissions of CO, NOX, and PM10).[97]

See also
Autonomous Rail Rapid Transit Queue jump
Bus lane Sustainable transport
Park and Ride Traffic engineering (transportation)
List of bus rapid transit systems Transit bus
Quality Bus Corridor Transit Elevated Bus
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re-in-gauteng/). Retrieved 7 September 2018.
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em/). African Urban Institute. Archived from the original (https://www.africaurban.org/harare-r
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on air pollution in Mexico City". Transport Policy. 63: 209–220.
doi:10.1016/j.tranpol.2018.01.001 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tranpol.2018.01.001).
hdl:2445/119530 (https://hdl.handle.net/2445%2F119530). ISSN 0967-070X (https://www.w
orldcat.org/issn/0967-070X).

Further reading
Ghadirifaraz, B., Vaziri, M., Safa, A., & Barikrou, N. (2017). A Statistical Appraisal of Bus
Rapid Transit Based on Passengers Satisfaction and Priority Case Study: Isfahan City (http
s://www.researchgate.net/publication/316273459_A_Statistical_Appraisal_of_Bus_Rapid_T
ransit_Based_on_Passengers_Satisfaction_and_Priority_Case_Study_Isfahan_City_Iran),
Iran (No. 17-05108).
Poku-Boansi, M and Marsden, G (2018) Bus Rapid Transit Systems as a Governance
Reform Project (http://eprints.whiterose.ac.uk/132443/). Journal of Transport Geography, 70.
pp. 193–202. ISSN 0966-6923 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2018.06.005

External links

General information
The BRT Standard 2014 Edition (https://go.itdp.org/display/live/The+BRT+Standard)
Institute for Transportation and Development Policy
Bus Rapid Transit Planning Guide (2007) (https://web.archive.org/web/20130703043300/htt
p://www.itdp.org/microsites/bus-rapid-transit-planning-guide/brt-planning-guide-in-english/)
A very comprehensive 800 guide to creating a successful BRT system by the Institute for
Transportation and Development Policy (available in English, Spanish and Portuguese)
Bus Rapid Transit, Volume 1: Case Studies in Bus Rapid Transit (http://www.trb.org/news/bl
urb_detail.asp?ID=1698) Transportation Research Board
Bus Rapid Transit, Volume 2: Implementation Guidelines (http://trb.org/news/blurb_detail.as
p?id=2264) Transportation Research Board
Cervero, Robert (2013). "Bus Rapid Transit: An Efficient and Competitive Mode of Public
Transport" (http://www.acea.be/uploads/publications/20th_SAG_HR.pdf) (PDF). European
Automobile Manufacturers Association.
"Characteristics of Bus Rapid Transit" (https://web.archive.org/web/20100218073738/http://
www.nbrti.org/CBRT.html). National Bus Rapid Transit Association. 2009. Archived from the
original (http://www.nbrti.org/CBRT.html) on 18 February 2010. Retrieved 3 March 2010.
Levinson, Herbert S. (2002). "Bus Rapid Transit: An Overview" (https://doi.org/10.5038%2F2
375-0901.5.2.1). Journal of Public Transportation. 5 (2): 1–30. doi:10.5038/2375-0901.5.2.1
(https://doi.org/10.5038%2F2375-0901.5.2.1).
Across Latitudes and Cultures Bus Rapid Transit (http://www.brt.cl/) An international Centre
of Excellence for BRT development
Transit Capacity and Quality of Service Manual (http://www.trb.org/news/blurb_detail.asp?id
=2326) Transportation Research Board
BRT Technologies: Assisting Drivers Operating Buses on Road Shoulders (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20120208051942/http://www.its.umn.edu/Research/ProjectDetail.html?id=20010
46). University of Minnesota Center for Transportation Studies, Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Country-specific information
Recapturing Global Leadership in Bus Rapid Transit – A Survey of Select U.S. Cities (http
s://www.itdp.org/recapturing-global-leadership-in-bus-rapid-transit-a-survey-of-select-u-s-citi
es/) (available for download in pdf) Institute for Transportation & Development Policy (May
2011)
Wang Fengwu and James Wang (April 2004). "BRT in China" (https://web.archive.org/web/2
0090924203956/http://www.motorworld.com.cn/buses/brt/pdf/China-en.pdf) (PDF). Public
Transport International. Archived from the original (http://www.motorworld.com.cn/buses/brt/p
df/China-en.pdf) (PDF) on 24 September 2009. Retrieved 10 March 2010.
Vincent, William; Lisa Callaghan Jerram (April 2008). "Bus Rapid Transit and Transit
Oriented Development: Case Studies on Transit Oriented Development Around Bus Rapid
Transit Systems in North America and Australia" (http://www.crcog.org/publications/Transpor
tationDocs/NBHBusway/2010/BRT-TOD-Report.pdf) (PDF). Washington, DC: Breakthrough
Technologies Institute.
Bus Rapid Transit Shows Promise (http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d01984.pdf) Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20150430210939/http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d01984.pdf) 30
April 2015 at the Wayback Machine U.S. General Accounting Office
The National BRT Institute (http://www.nbrti.org/) (USA)

Databases
Global BRT Data (http://brtdata.org/) Database of Bus Rapid Transit systems around the
world

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