Keysight Technologies

Characterizing Radar Components and

Subassemblies

Application Note
Part 5
02 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

As derived in Part 1 of this series, the radar range equation captures the essential
variables that define the maximum distance at which a given radar system can detect The radar series
objects of interest. Because those variables relate directly to the major sections of the
system block diagram, they provide a powerful framework for the essential process of This application note is the fifth in a
understanding, characterizing and verifying the actual performance of any radar system.1 series that delves into radar systems
and the associated measurement
Parts 2 and 3 of the series defined the pulsed radar signal, described ways to measure challenges and solutions. Across the
the power in those signals, and presented readily available ways to measure the series, our goal is to provide a mix of
essential characteristics of pulsed signals: frequency, timing, power and spectrum. Part timeless fundamentals and emerging
4 examined the use of vector signal analysis (VSA) and wideband instruments—signal ideas.
analyzers and oscilloscopes—to measure frequency, phase, and more, in today’s
increasingly complex radar signals. In each note, many of the sidebars
highlight solutions—hardware and
In our ongoing discussion of practical test methods, we’ll now take a closer look at the software—that include future-ready
testing of components and subassemblies. The ability to maximize radar performance capabilities that can track along with
depends on thorough analysis and careful optimization of each component and the continuing evolution of radar
subassembly in a radar system. Two types of instruments simplify these measurements: systems.
power meters and vector network analyzers (VNAs). We’ll take a closer look at both,
but the emphasis is on the range of VNA capabilities that enable characterization of Whether you read one, some or all of
components and subsystems that carry pulse-modulated signals. the notes in the series, we hope you
find material—timeless or timely—that
is useful in your day-to-day work, be it
on new designs or system upgrades.

1.  The appendix at the end of this application

note presents the range equation and the
system block diagram.
03 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

Accounting for the Effects of Losses in Components

Putting this discussion in context requires a return to the radar range equation. The appendix
at the end of this note provides a detailed review. As a quick refresher, here is the simplified
version of the equation expressed in log or decibel form:

40 log(Rmax) = P t + 2G + 20 logλ + σ + Ei(n) + 204 dBW/Hz – 10 log(Bn) – Fn – (S/N) – Lt – Lr – 33 dB

Where:
–– Rmax = maximum distance in meters
–– P t = transmit power in dBW
–– G = antenna gain in dB
–– λ = wavelength of the radar signal in meters
–– σ = RCS of target measured in dBsm or dB relative to a square meter
–– Fn = noise figure (noise factor converted to dB)
–– S/N = minimum signal-to-noise ratio required by receiver processing functions to detect
the signal in dB

In the equation, the Lt and Lr terms directly characterize the effects of signal losses caused by
system components in the transmit path. These losses typically occur in the filters, duplexers
and circulators located after the transmit power amplifier and before the low-noise amplifier
(LNA) in the receiver. A loss of 1 dB along this path has the same impact as a 1 dB reduction in
output power. When transmitting at 1 MW, adding 1 dB of additional power to compensate for
the loss can be quite expensive.

Though not shown directly in the radar range equation, the phase flatness, amplitude flatness
and group delay of a component all affect radar performance. These impairments have an
indirect impact on range because they limit the radar’s ability to optimally compress the signal
with a matched filter. In addition, these impairments may limit the system’s ability to extract
information such as Doppler shifts from radar returns.

S-parameter measurements are a common way to characterize component effects such as

loss, flatness and group delay. S-parameters describe the incident and reflected responses
of a component in complete terms and provide a comprehensive picture of the linear effects
the component has on the signal. The measurements are typically made with a vector network
analyzer (VNA) using a continuous-wave (CW) stimulus produced by the analyzer.

Of course, conventional measurements that use CW signals are often not sufficient when
characterizing radar components and subsystems. There are two main reasons for this. First,
the performance of components may differ when tested with a CW stimulus rather than under
pulsed conditions. With a pulsed stimulus, possible issues include differences in bias conditions
and ringing effects caused by fast-rising edges. The second reason: the device may not be
designed to handle the amount of power dissipation required for a CW input.
04 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

Exploring Measurement Methods

Two types of instruments simplify these measurements: power meters and vector network
analyzers. This section begins with a brief look at direct measurements of power loss using a
power meter. The remainder of the note will explore the range of measurement capabilities a
VNA provides: S-parameters including insertion loss and group delay; pulse measurements
with wideband or narrowband detection; and X-parameters.

Measuring power loss directly with a power meter

A power meter provides a simple way to measure loss. The Keysight P-Series, EPM-P and EPM
Series offer models with two ports (optional), enabling simultaneous measurements if test ports
are accessible before and after the element being tested. Comparing the input and output
readings provides the necessary power difference.

This method has one key advantage: it can be made under normal operating conditions. This may
be important when making measurements along the transmit path because power levels may
be much higher than those produced by a signal generator or network analyzer in a stimulus/
response test setup.

The minor disadvantage is a level of accuracy that is typically less than that obtained with
methods such as a calibrated vector network analyzer. In addition, measurement results from a
power meter may not directly correlate with those from a network analyzer because the meter is
a broadband device that measures fundamental and harmonic power simultaneously. A network
analyzer makes tuned-receiver measurements that isolate the signal’s fundamental frequency
component.

Measuring with a VNA

Network analyzers can measure pulsed RF signals using either wideband or narrowband
detection modes (these are also called synchronous and asynchronous detection). The following
overviews outline the advantages and disadvantages of each mode.1

Wideband detection mode

Wideband detection is effective when the majority of the pulsed-RF spectrum occurs within the
bandwidth of the VNA receiver (Figure 1). It may have the best dynamic range for signals with low
duty cycle; however, its bandwidth constraints will limit the range of measurable pulse widths.

Receiver BW

Time domain

Frequency domain
Pulse trigger

Figure 1. Wideband detection mode requires that the majority of the pulse power occur within the receive bandwidth of
the network analyzer.

In this case, the pulsed-RF signal will be demodulated in the instrument, producing baseband 1.  A detailed discussion is available
in Keysight Application Note
pulses (as in a spectrum analyzer’s zero-span measurement). This detection may be accom-
1408-12, Pulsed-RF S-Parameter
plished through analog circuitry or with digital signal processing (DSP) techniques. Measurements using Wideband
and Narrowband Detection,
publication 5989-4839EN.
05 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

With wideband detection, and consistent with the “synchronized detection” description, the
analyzer is synchronized with the pulse stream and data acquisition occurs only when the pulse
is in the “on” state. This means that a pulse trigger synchronized with the pulse-repetition
frequency (PRF) must be available.

The advantage of the wideband mode: there is no loss in dynamic range when the pulses have
a low duty cycle (i.e., long time intervals between pulses). Measurements may take longer;
however, because the analyzer is always sampling when the pulse is on, the signal-to-noise
ratio (SNR) is essentially constant versus duty cycle.

The disadvantage of this technique is a limit on the minimum size of measurable pulse widths.
As pulse width becomes smaller, the spectral energy spreads out and, once enough energy
is outside the bandwidth of the receiver, the VNA cannot properly detect the pulses. Viewed
in the time domain, the analyzer cannot detect pulses that are shorter than its own rise time.
In the case of the Keysight PNA-X network analyzer, the bandwidth limit is 15 MHz and the
minimum pulse width for a wideband point-in-pulse measurement is 100 ns.1

Narrowband detection mode

In the narrowband mode, the receiver bandwidth of the network analyzer is set to filter out all
of the signal power except that of the central spectral component (Figure 2). This component
represents the center frequency of the RF carrier. After filtering, the pulsed-RF signal appears
as a CW signal. With narrowband detection, a pulse trigger is not needed because the analyzer
samples are not synchronized with the incoming pulses, thus the alternative “asynchronous”
designation.

IF filter

Time domain
D/R degradation = 20*log[duty cycle]
IF filter
Frequency domain

Figure 2. Narrowband detection mode, which uses a narrow filter to extract only the central spectral component, has no
bandwidth limitations.

Keysight has developed a novel way to achieve narrowband detection. It utilizes wider IF
bandwidths than are normally used, and it employs a unique spectral-nulling technique. This
approach lets you trade dynamic range for speed, almost always yielding faster measurements
than can be obtained otherwise.

1.  These values are for a PNA-X running

DSP version 5 and equipped with a
100 MSa/s ADC. The process requires
10 samples and each takes 10 ns.
06 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

The advantage to narrowband detection is that there is no lower limit on pulse width. No
matter how broad the pulse spectrum may be, this technique filters away virtually everything
except the central spectral component.

The disadvantage: measurement dynamic range is a function of pulse duty cycle. As the duty
cycle gets smaller (i.e., “on” time is much shorter than “off” time), the average power of the
pulses also decreases and this results in a lower SNR. This phenomenon is often called pulse
desensitization.
Keysight VNAs: Gain deeper
confidence
The degradation in dynamic range in decibels can be calculated as 20 log (duty cycle) with
duty cycle expressed in percent. Some of this degradation can be overcome with sophisticat- Whether you’re testing active or
ed signal processing. As an example, the PNA-X has a 40 dB improvement in dynamic range passive components, the right mix
compared to a PNA when using a stimulus with a 0.0001 percent duty cycle. This is due to the of speed and performance gives
advanced processing techniques implemented in the PNA-X. you an edge. Every Keysight VNA
is the ultimate expression of our
expertise in linear and nonlinear
device characterization. On the
bench, in a rack or in the field,
we can help you gain deeper
confidence.

–– PNA-X Series:
Our most advanced and
flexible VNA
–– PNA Series:
High-performance
microwave VNA
–– ENA Series:
High-performance RF VNA
–– PXI VNA:
Full two-port VNA that
fits in just one slot
–– FieldFox:
Bench-level precision
in a handheld VNA or
combination analyzer

www.keysight.com/find/pna
www.keysight.com/find/ena
www.keysight.com/find/pxivna
www.keysight.com/find/fieldfox
07 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

Applying VNA Measurements and Displays

Network analyzers offer a variety of measurements and display functions that describe the
behavior of a component or subassembly. Examples include insertion loss, group delay,
S-parameters, X-parameters, and variations of these parameters over time. Another consider-
ation is the type of measurement to be made, especially when working with pulse-modulated
signals. In a network analyzer, examples include average-pulse measurements, point-in-pulse
measurements, pulse-profile measurements, and pulse-to-pulse measurements.

Choosing the best detection mode

Figure 3 shows a pair of insertion-loss measurements made using the narrowband (blue) and
wideband (red) detection modes of the PNA-X. For a pulsed RF signal with pulse width of 1 µs
and PRI of 100 µs, the wideband mode made the measurement 17 times faster than the narrow-
band mode; however, the narrowband mode achieved higher dynamic range.

Figure 3. In this comparison of PNA-X measurements, the wideband measurement (red) was faster but the narrowband
measurement (blue) had higher dynamic range.

Ultimately, the best choice of mode depends on the duty cycle of the signal under test. As
shown in Figure 4, narrowband detection mode in the PNA-X provides exceptional performance
in dynamic range.

100

Narrowband
Wideband detection detection PNA-X
80

Narrowband detection
Dynamic range (dB)

60 Wideband
detection
8510 & PNA
Narrowband Narrowband
detection 8510 detection PNA
40

20

0
100 10.0 1.0 0.1 0.01
Duty cycle (%)

Figure 4. This comparison shows the effects of duty cycle on dynamic range for the PNA-X, PNA and 8510 network
analyzers using wideband or narrowband detection.
08 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

Applying pulse-response measurement types

Pulsed-RF measurements
There are four basic ways in which pulsed-RF stimuli can be used in conjunction with a
VNA. The first two types are pulsed S-parameter measurements in which a single complex-
valued data point is acquired for each carrier frequency and data is displayed in the
frequency domain as magnitude or phase of transmission or reflection. The third and fourth
types are performed with a fixed RF carrier and data is displayed in the time domain.

Average-pulse and point-in-pulse measurements

Average-pulse measurements are made without receiver triggering or gating, meaning
there is no attempt at positioning the trace point at a specific point on the pulse (upper left
of Figure 5). For each carrier frequency, the displayed S-parameter represents the average
value of the pulse. As an example, this occurs when using narrowband detection without
receiver gating. Point-in-pulse and pulse-profile mea-
surements are optional capabilities for
trace point the PNA-X and PNA network analyzers.
Magnitude and phase data PNA-X Option 025 adds four internal
averaged over entire pulse width VNA data display
pulse generators to control internal or
Average pulse external pulse modulators and IF gates
for pulsed RF measurements; they can
also be used to set device conditions.
Magnitude and phase data Option 008 adds narrowband pulse
averaged over specified acquisition detection, point-in-pulse measurements
width and position within pulse with pulse widths as narrow as 30 ns,
Point-in-pulse and pulse-profile measurements with
gate widths as narrow as 20 ns.
Frequency domain

When equipped with Options 025, 008

and 021/022, internal pulse modulators,
Figure 5. The average-pulse and point-in-pulse measurements plot S-parameter results versus frequency. the PNA-X becomes a fast, accurate
and fully integrated pulse-measurement
system that provides a full set of
Point-in-pulse measurements take data only during a specified acquisition window within a capabilities including pulse average and
pulse. This window is specified in terms of time duration and position (i.e., width and delay) pulse profiling.
within the pulse (lower left of Figure 5). With wideband detection, the window is generally
set by a specified delay and the data-sampling period, which is determined by the IF
bandwidth of the instrument. With narrowband detection, the acquisition window is set www.keysight.com/find/pna-x
with a hardware switch or “gate” that allows measurements of only a slice of each pulse.
09 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

Pulse-profile measurements
Essentially a variation on point-in-pulse, a pulse-profiling measurement is a series of uniformly
spaced point-in-pulse measurements taken along the width of the pulse and displayed in the
time domain (Figure 6). This is achieved by varying the delay of the measurement with respect
to the pulse while the carrier is held at a specific frequency.

VNA data display

dB

Data acquired at uniformly spaced

time positions across pulse Magnitude
(requires a repetitive pulse stream)

Pulse profile deg

Phase

Time domain

Figure 6. The pulse-profile measurement presents variations in magnitude and phase versus time.

In this technique, there may not be a one-to-one correlation between trace points and the
actual number of pulses that occur during the course of the entire measurements. When using
narrowband detection, many pulses can occur before enough data is collected for each trace
point. With wideband detection, the analyzer may not be able to completely process a trace
point during the time between pulses, resulting in skipped pulses between trace points. For a
more detailed description of the acquisition process, please see page 7 of the application note
Pulsed-RF S-Parameter Measurements with and PNA Microwave Network Analyzers Using
Wideband and Narrowband Detection (publication 5989-4839EN).

Pulse-to-pulse measurements
These are used to characterize changes in a pulse stream versus time due to variations in
DUT performance. For example, thermal effects in an amplifier can cause phase shifts and
gain reduction. Measurements are made with a fixed RF carrier and the data is displayed as
magnitude or phase versus time. NumberThe measurement
of pulses per trace point remains fixed in time with respect to a
point varies from one to many Pulsed-RF
pulse trigger, even for a pulse train with decreasing amplitude
Carrier freq
Freq 6 . . .
(Figure 7).
Point-in-pulse Freq 5
Freq 4
One trace point for each successive
Freq 3
Freq 2
pulse, with no pulses skipped
Freq 1

t
... Trace
point 1
Trace
point 2
Trace
point 3
Trace
point 4
Trace
point 5
Trace .
point 6
..
Gate delay Data
CW pulses ...
Pulse profile P1 P2Delay 5
Delay 6
P3 P4
acquisition window
P5 P6 ..
Delay 4
Delay 3
Delay 2
Delay 1
VNA data display
t
Trace Trace Trace Trace Trace Trace . ..
point 1 point 2 point 3 point 4 point 5 point 6

Time domain

Figure 7. In this example, the pulse-to-pulse measurement captures the decline in amplitude versus time.

Pulse-to-pulse measurements require wideband detection, and the data-processing engine

in the analyzer must be fast enough to keep up with the pulse train. There must be one trace
point per RF pulse, and no pulses can be skipped. Because pulse-to-pulse measurements
can capture information from a non-repetitive pulse stream, the measurement falls under the
general category of single-shot measurements rather than repetitive measurements.
10 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

Conclusion
The testing of components and subsystems brought us back to the radar range equation.
Components in the signal path—filters, duplexers, circulators—can cause losses that
have major implications for system output power. In addition, impairments such as phase
flatness, amplitude flatness and group delay also affect radar performance.

A two-port power meter provides a simple way to measure loss under normal operating
conditions. A vector network analyzer offers a wide range of measurements for CW and
pulsed signals, enabling detailed characterization of components and subsystems along the
signal path inside the radar system.

The remaining application notes in this series will continue to focus on measurements that
are relevant to the major sections of the block diagram: transmitter, receiver, duplexer and
antenna. As appropriate, we will continue to associate the parameters of the range equation
with each block or component.

Related Information
–– Application Note: Radar Measurements, publication 5989-7575EN
–– Application Note: Pulsed RF S-Parameter Measurements with the PNA Microwave
Network Analyzers Using Wideband and Narrowband Detection, publication
5989-4839EN
–– Application Note: Active-Device Characterization in Pulsed Operation Using the PNA-X,
publication 5990-7781EN
–– Selection Guide: Power Meters and Sensors, publication 5989-7837EN
–– Selection Guide: Network Analyzer Selection Guide, publication 5989-7603EN
–– Brochure: PNA-X Series Microwave Network Analyzers, publication 5990-4592EN
–– Brochure: Nonlinear Vector Network Analysis (NVNA), publication 5989-8575EN
–– Brochure: PNA and PNA-L Series Microwave Network Analyzers, publication
5990-8290EN
11 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

Appendix: The Radar Range Equation

Part 1 of this series presented a derivation of the radar range equation.1 As a refresher,
here is the simplified version of the equation expressed in log form (dB):

40 log(Rmax) = P t + 2G + 20 logλ + σ + Ei(n) + 204 dBW/Hz – 10 log(Bn) – Fn – (S/N) – Lt – Lr – 33 dB

Where:
–– Rmax = maximum distance in meters
–– P t = transmit power in dBW
–– G = antenna gain in dB
–– λ = wavelength of the radar signal in meters
–– σ = RCS of target measured in dBsm or dB relative to a square meter
–– Fn = noise figure (noise factor converted to dB)
–– S/N = minimum signal-to-noise ratio required by receiver processing functions to
detect the signal in dB

The 33 dB term comes from 10 log(4π)1, which can also be written as 30 log(4π), and the
204 dBW/Hz is from Johnson noise at room temperature. The decibel term for RCS (σ) is
expressed in dBsm or decibels relative to a one-meter section of a sphere (e.g., one with
cross section of a square meter), which is the standard target for RCS measurements.
For multiple-antenna radars, the maximum range grows in proportion to the number of
elements, assuming equal performance from each one.

Figure A1 shows an expanded view of the transmitter and receiver sections of a typical
block diagram. It shows a hybrid analog/digital design that enables many of the latest
techniques. The callouts indicate the location of key variables within the simplified radar
equation.

PT LT

Radar display & Transmitter

other systems
Waveform
DAC PA
exciter

Radar processor G
λ

COHO STALO
E i(n)
Antenna
I
Synchronous I/Q
ADC IF LNA
detector σ
Q
Receiver

S/N Bn Fn LR

Figure A1. The variables in the radar range equation relate directly to key elements of this expanded block diagram.

1.  A Framework for Understanding: Deriving the Radar Range Equation, Keysight publication 5992-1386EN
12 | Keysight | Characterizing Radar Components and Subassemblies - Application Note

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Published in USA, August 30, 2016
5992-1712EN
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