Physical Quantities ,Units and Measurements

Quantities

We quantify physical phenomena (events) in physics. Here, we use physical quantities and relate them
using mathematical equations. A physical quantity is something that is measurable. So, first let’s get an
understanding about physical quantities.

A physical quantity has a magnitude (a numerical value).It has a unit and some times, a direction also.

Eg. Mass = 10 kg (10 is the magnitude, kg is the unit)

Weight = 10 N Vertically Down (10 is the magnitude, N is the unit, vertically down is the direction)

Strain = 0.02 (0.02 is the magnitude, it has no Unit and no direction)

We can categorize quantities as vectors and scalars.

a. Vectors : They are physical quantities that have a magnitude and direction both.

Eg. Displacement, velocity, acceleration\ deceleration, any force including resultant force, extension,
momentum, moment, current, gravitational field strength (g), electric field strength

b. Scalars: They are physical quantities that have only magnitude and they do not have a direction. Eg.
Distance, speed, mass, temperature etc.,

Some Background Maths Knowledge Required

a) Writing in standard form

This is a useful way of writing numbers, especially if they are large or small. The example below shows how it
works.
4000 4x10 3

400 4x10 2

40 4 x10 1

4 4x100

0.4 4 x10-1

0.04 4 x10 2

0.004 4 x10 3

b) Non SI Units
Note: Remember to reverse the sign of the Multiplier if you convert to the opposite direction of above
arrows.

Eg (1) Convert the following to their SI units.

(a) 10 km (b) 0.2 MHz (c) 6 pF (d) 10μg (e) 2 mm2 (f) 4 dm 3

(g) 10 km/ h
Eg (2) convert the following

(a) 2 m how many nm? (b) 2 W how many MW? (c) 10 eV how many GeV?
Significant figures
Scientists try to make sure a measurement is accurate (close to the true value). However, the
apparatus and the experimental procedure may have sources of error. The number of digits, called
significant figures, given for a measurement indicates how accurate we think it is. You should
not give more digits in a calculated answer than are justified by the apparatus and how it was used.
For example, a value of 4.5 for a measurement has two significant figures; 0.0385 has three
significant figures, 3 being the most significant and 5 the least, i.e. it is the one we are least sure about since it
might be 4 or it might be 6. Perhaps it had to be estimated by the experimenter because the reading was
between two marks on a scale. When doing a calculation your answer should have the same number of
significant figures as the measurements used in the calculation. For example,
if your calculator gave an answer of 3.4185062, this would be written as 3.4 if the measurements
had two significant figures. It would be written as 3.42 for three significant figures. Note that in
deciding the least significant figure, you look at the following digit. If it is less than 5, you round down
(so 3.41 becomes 3.4), but if it is 5 or above you round up (so 3.418 becomes 3.42).
If a number is expressed in standard notation, the number of significant figures is the number of
digits before the power of ten. For example, 2.73 x103 has three significant figures.
 Measurements
Errors/ Uncertainitiesin measurements
Errors
  Correct zero error or replace the instrument with no zero error [or other systematic
error]
 Practice the correct techniques of taking measurement

Precision and accuracy

•Precision is the degree of exactness to which a measurement can be reproduced.
•The precision of an instrument is limited by the smallest division on the measurement scale.
•It also means, how close the readings are to each other.

•The accuracy of a measurement describes how well the result agrees with an accepted value.
•It is taken as the difference between the measured value and accepted value.
Some Important Measurements
Measuring Length

The metre rule

•Simplest length-measuring instrument is the metre or half metre rule (i.e 100 cm or 50 cm)
•Smallest division (resolution) /precision= 1 mm [some times 0.5mm]
• Uncertainty = +-1 mm
Range: 1 mm up to maximum 1m

•possible errors
▫End of the rule is worn out, giving an zero error leading to a systematic error
▫
▫ Errors in calibration of the metre rule i.e. markings are not accurate
▫Parallax error
Position eye perpendicularly at the mark on the scale to avoids parallax errors and object has to be aligned

Precautions for accuracy:

Keep the metre rule as close close as possible and parallel to the length to be measured.

If you can’t keep it close then use set squares, calipers.

Check zero error (eg: edge worn off) and select a metre rule with out zero error.

Keep the eye perpendicular to the reading to avoid parallax error.

We can use a spirit level to keep metre rule horizontal or vertical. Set square can also be used to make it vertical.

Vernier Calipers
Precision: 0.1 mm

Range : Generally Maximum to about 10 cm

Can measure internal diameter, external’ diameter (thickness), depth

Precautions: check the zero error and correct it. Avoid parallax error. Don’t squash the object too much. (you can’t
use this for a squashable material eg: sponge

If you measure diameter of a ball etc. take measurements from many orientations an get the mean value. If it is a
wire then do the above for various locations in the wire and get the overall mean.

Digital Caliper

Digital caliper is like Vernier caliper except that it has a digital display and it is more precision with a
resolution of 0.01 mm.

Digital Caliper same features as vernier caliper but more precise i.e. Precision = 0.01 mm

Precautions : Like vernier caliper (parallax errors not there in digital caliper )

Micrometer Screw Gauge

Precautions
1. Never tighten thimble too much
2. Clean the ends of the anvil and spindle before a measurement to remove any dirt
3. Check for zero error by closing the micrometer. Here, the reading should be zero, but if

Measuring tape

Resolution: Generally 1mm or 1cm

Range: Generally up to 10m

Precautions for accurate measurements

Can make it vertical using a plumb line. Other precautious are like in metre rule.

Click wheel.

Used for long distances

You walk along the length and the counter gives number of rotations (n). circumference (c) is known. Length (l)
can be calculated using l=cn

Measurement of Mass

Top-pan balance

▫ensure unloaded reading is zero

▫there is a control for adjusting the zero reading, balance may have a tare facility i.e. mass of material
added to the container is obtained directly
▫uncertainty will be quoted by manufacturer, usually as a percentage
The spring balance
▫based on Hooke’s Law which states that extension is proportional to the load; measurement is made
directly by a moving over a circular scale
▫measurement is made directly by a moving over a circular scale
▫should be careful of zero error, usually has a zero error adjustment screw
▫parallax error
•Spring balance measures directly both in force units i.e. Newton and also in kilograms
Lever/Beam balances

▫based on principle of moments where unknown mass is balanced by a slider, calibrated in mass units
. ▫should be aware of zero error, parallax error, keep on level (horizontal) surface, wait until the reading
comes to a balance.
Advantage of beam balance is it is not affected by ‘g’.
If the calibrated masses arc corroded or worn off then the stated mass is not there. Precision depends
on the weight Interval that you put.

Common precautious for all mass (weight) measuring instruments

Check zero error correct it, parallax error (if then is a manual scale), keep on level (horizontal) surface, wait until
the reading comes to a balance.

Both top pan and spring balance use normal reaction and tension respective and instrument divide that value by g
taken as earth surface g [10 or 9.81] and convert to kg. So if it is done in a place with different g vale the reading is
wrong. But in the beam balance there is no such issue as it compares masses [weights].
But in beam balance if the weights are corroded or worn off it gives a systematic error.
 Measuring Time

Stopwatch

• Measure short intervals of time

• Two types: digital stopwatch, analogue stopwatch

• Digital stopwatch is more accurate as it can measure time in

intervals of 0.01 seconds.

• Analogue stopwatch measures time in intervals of 0.1 seconds.

Errors that occur in measuring time

• If digital stopwatch is used to time a race, should not record time to the nearest 0.01 s.

• reaction time in starting and stopping the watch will be more than a few hundredths of a second.

•Add or subtract the zero error from the reading shown on the scale to obtain accurate readings.

Precautions ; Keep it in front of your eye. Press the zero button before starting.

When the time measurement is too small, %error is high. You can reduce it by;
A] have a larger measurement
eg. period of a pendulum, have time for 20 cycles and calculate mean by dividing the total time by no.
of cycles. Use a fiducial marker (timing marker) and keep it in front of equilibrium position keep the eye
in line with it when you make time measurements. Wait until you get use to the pattern before starting
timing. Repeat above procedure and get an average value for the period.

B] use a more precise method [eg. electronic methods]

Eg. respective sensor connected to electronic timer

 motion sensor/light gate/timing gate connected to electronic timer
temperature sensor connected to electronic timer
voltage sensor connected to electronic timer
current sensor connected to electronic timer etc
Advantages of these methods are;
-no human reaction time error
-can take large number of simultaneous readings in a short period and if it is connected to a computer
the graphs are also drawn automatically

Density (d or ƿ )

(a) what is density?

Density is defined as “mass per unit volume “.

d= m/V

m- mass (kg)

V- volume (m 3)

d- density (kg/ m3 )

Density Simply means how packed (compact) the material is. More compact materials
have higher density. Eg: iron has a higher density than water and water has a higher
density than air.

(b) Factors affecting density

Density depends on the material. Eg. Iron is more dense than water. It also depends on the temperature.
Usually when temperature is increased the density will decrease because materials usually expand
(volume Increases ) with temperature while their mass is not affected.

Furthermore, in a solution density depends on the solutes. i.e. If concentration Increases due to more
solutes dissolving in them, then the density will be more. Eg. Sea water is more dense than fresh water.

(c) density and sinking and floating

* If the Density of the object is greater compared to the density of the fluid (medium)
then the object will sink (go down)

Eg: Stone sinks in water because stone has a greater density than that of water
Eg: An apple will fall down (sink) in air since the apple has a greater density than that of
air.

* If the Density of the object is smaller compared to the density of the fluid (medium)
then the object will float (go up)

Eg: Air bubble goes up (floats) in water because air bubble has a smaller density than that
of water

Eg: A hydrogen filled balloon goes up (floats) in air since it has a smaller density than that
of air.

(d) Practically Determining the Density

Concept: Apply the equation d = m /V after finding the m and V values.

(1) Determining the density of a regular shaped solid object such as a box.

Mass (m) of the solid object can be measured using an electronic balance.

We can measure the height (h), with (w) and length (L) using a Metre rule. Then we can
calculate the volume (V) using V =hxWx L

Then we can Calculate the density (d) using

d = m/V

(2) Determining the density of an irregular shaped solid eg: stone

As usual we can measure the mass using electronic balance.

We can measure the volume using displacement method as below;

You can measure a volume of water (V1) using a measuring cylinder. Then measure the
new volume (V2) after fully immersing the solid in the in water . Then calculate the
displaced volume (V)using,V = V2 –V 1

The displaced volume is equal to the volume of the solid.

Then we can Calculate the density (d) using

d = m/V

Some times the object can be too large for the measuring cylinder. In that can we can use
an Archimedes jar as follows;
Some times a Spring balance and the displacement method together can be used to
determine the density of an irregular shape solid as below;

Measure the mass, m, using the spring balance and measure volume using the
displacement method. Calculate density, d using, d = m/V

(3) Determining the density of a liquid

Volume, V of the liquid can be measured directly using a measuring cylinder. Mass, m of
the liquid can be calculated using the below equation. m = m2- m 1 where m 1 mass of
the empty cylinder and m2 is mass of the cylinder with the liquid, both measured using
an electronic balance.
Then we can calculate the density, d using;

d = m/V

We call also measure directly the density of a liquid using an instrument called
hydrometer.

Finding the Resultant (Total) Vector (Eg. Resultant force , Resultant Velocity etc)

A solar quantity has only magnitude (numerical value) and it has no direction. Eg: mass,
volume, pressure, work, energy, density, distance, Speed, temperature etc.

A vector has a magnitude and a direction also. Eg: displacement, velocity, acceleration,
any force, current, gravitational field strength or gravitational acceleration (g), electric
field strength, momentum , moment etc. Resultant vector means the total value of the
vectors (sum of the vectors). Let’s see some examples where you can get the resultant
vector.
Situation 1:When vectors are parallel or collinear (same line) : If they are on same direction we can just add
them and if they are on opposite directions we can subtract them.

Eg: Find out the resultant vector for the following

i. 5N

10N Resultant force? Answer=15N to right

ii. 6m 8m Resultant displacement? Answer=2m to right

iii. 5m/s 6m/s

8m/s Resultant velocity?Answer= 9ms-1 to right

Situation 2: When vectors are perpendicular: Here we can use Pythagoras theorem to get the magnitude and
trigonometry to get the direction (angle).
An important idea!

When you have two vectors , the resultant vector value varies as follows depending on
their positions.