English for
Academics and
professional purposes
Week 1:Language used in academic texts
ACADEMIC TEXT
✓defined as critical, objective, specialized texts
written by experts or professionals in a given field
using formal language.
✓ Academic writing is clear, concise, focused,
structured and backed up by evidence/s. Its
purpose is to aid the reader’s understanding.
✓ refers to a style of expression that writers use to
define the intellectual boundaries of their
disciplines and specific areas of expertise.
✓ a formal style of writing used in universities and
scholarly publications.
PURPOSE
✓ To inform
✓ To argue a specific point
✓ To persuade
AUDIENCE
✓ Teacher
✓ Peers
✓ Academic community
Academic writing is different from a personal
narrative or creative essay, or a legal document, in
which the knowledge of the writer is assumed to be
greater than that of the readers.
"The purpose of academic writing is to engage the
readers in a conversation by giving them clear
ideas and points to evaluate and question (i.e., to
react to an issue or an event, and to convince
readers to take your side)"
IMPORTANCE
The Big Picture
-It must be cohesive and possess a logically
organized flow of ideas.
Tone
-Throughout your paper, it is important that you
present the arguments of others fairly and with an
appropriate narrative tone.
Diction
-Use concrete words [not general] that convey a
specific meaning. If this cannot be done without
confusing the reader, then you need to explain what
you mean within the context of how that word or
phrase is used within a discipline.
Language
-It is important that you use unambiguous
language. Well-structured paragraphs and clear
topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line
of thinking without difficulty.
Punctuation
-In academic writing, punctuation marks are used
very deliberately.
Academic Conventions
-Citing sources in the body of your paper and
providing a list of references as either footnotes or
endnotes is a very important aspect of academic
writing.
Evidence-Based Reasoning
-Opinions are based on evidence-based reasoning.
-You need to support your opinion with evidence
from scholarly [i.e., academic or peer-reviewed]
sources.
Thesis-Driven -Academic writing is “thesis-driven,”
meaning that the starting point is a particular
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professional purposes
perspective, idea, or position applied to the chosen In formal texts
topic of investigation, such as, establishing, • The tone should not sound conversational or
proving, or disproving solutions to the research casual.
questions posed for the topic. • You should particularly avoid colloquial, idiomatic,
slang, or journalistic expressions in favor of precise
Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking -Academic vocabulary.
writing addresses complex issues that require
higher-order thinking skills applied to
understanding the research problem [e.g., critical,
reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed
to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking].

MORE
INFO:https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/acade
micwriting
Languages used in academic texts It refers to the
appropriateness of the vocabulary being used.
OBJECTIVE
Academic text is based on research and not on the
writer’s own opinion about a given topic.
• It is unbiased – based on facts and evidence and
is not influenced by personal feelings.
• When presenting an argument to the reader, try to
show both sides if you can and avoid making value
judgments.

A writer must avoid using words that are too

informal, too unsophisticated, and too vague.
• Jargons
• Clichés
• Slangs
• Abbreviations (if unnecessary)
• Not gender-neutral terms
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Lesson 3: Academic Writing Conventions

How important are these in Academic Writing?

Academic Writing
● Reading academic textbooks and journal
articles, attending lectures, and being part
of a student and professional community
have exposed you to a habit of writing

Scholarly writing
● follows certain academic conventions
● It includes distinctive features such as
formality, complexity, objectivity,
explicitness, and hedging

Six Academic Writing Conventions

IMPERSONAL
● Generally don’t refer to yourself as the
performer of actions.
● This involves avoiding the personal
pronouns ‘I’ and ‘we’. The second person,
‘you’, is also to be avoided.
● These are rules and principles of academic
writing that are generally acceptable among
scholars (IGI Global, 2021), and give
distinctive features to academic texts apart
from creative texts.
● Academic Writing Conventions are also
known as Features of Academic Writing.

1. Formality
- Academic writing style is formal, which
means that words and expressions are
chosen to suit the academic writing
setting.
- You should choose more complex
terminologies over simple
conversational expressions and words
(Lee, et al. 2014).

2. Complexity
- Which observes the use of more
●
noun-based phrases and more content
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or lexical words than function words in
contrast with spoken language.
- It makes use of more subordinate
clauses and complex words (Lee, et al.
2014).
3. Objectivity
- This feature will help you show the
reader that the emphasis is about what
you are writing and not about you, the
writer.
- Objective writing is impersonal rather
than personal (Lee, et al. 2014).
4. Explicitness
- It is your responsibility as a writer to
show how your ideas in the text are
connected.
- For example, if you want to tell the
reader that you are showing contrasting
ideas, examples, or cause and effect
relationships, then you will have to
show it explicitly.
- You can do this by using sign posting
strategies or transition words (Lee, et
al. 2014).
5. Hedging
- an indispensable feature of academic
writing.
- In any kind of academic writing that
you do, it is necessary to make
decisions about your stance on a
particular subject, or the strength of the
claims you are making.
- A technique common in academic
writing is the use of "hedge" (Lee, et al.
2014).
6. Common Sentence Errors
- is correctness in sentence structure.
- A sentence should be written with a
complete thought so that it is
understood by the reader.
- Common sentence errors are found in
sentence fragments, run-on sentences,
choppy sentences, and sprawl
sentences (Lee, et al 2014).
Academic Writing Convention #1: FORMALITY
Key Points of Formal Language
1. Contractions (it’ll, there’s)
- All contracted forms need to be in
full form.
2. Informal adjectives (hard, easy, big)
- Some adjectives are seen as
informal
3. Idioms
- These are often seen as informal
and personal
4. No personal pronouns (I, you, he, she, you,
they)
- Try to avoid personal forms
5. Use passive constructions
- Passive construction help to make
your writing less personal
6. Use Gerunds (-ing)
- Present participle or gerunds help to
create more complex forms
7. Use academic word list
- High-frequency academic words
taken from an academic literature
8. Colloquial/informal words expressions
- Beware of using slang and general
English terms
9. Phrasal verbs/two-word verb forms/
multi-word verbs
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- A verb + preposition are often
considered informal
Academic Writing Convention #2: COMPLEXITY
Complexity
● Written language is relatively more complex
than spoken language.
● Written language has longer words, it is
lexically denser and it has a more varied
vocabulary.
● It uses more noun-based phrases than
verb-based phrases.
● Written texts are shorter and the language
has more grammatical complexity, including
more subordinate clauses and more
passives.
Features of Complexity in Academic Writing
1. Noun-based phrases
Formal written English uses nouns and nominal
group (noun-based phrases) more than verbs.
One simple example is:
● Like all other forms of life, we human beings
are the product of evolution.
● Like all other forms of life, we human beings
are the product of how we have evolved.
The noun "evolution" is preferred to the verb
"evolve" and the "wh" clause.
Another example is:
● Premack used a set of plastic chips to teach
a chimpanzee named Sarah the meaning of
a set of symbols.
● Premack used a set of plastic chips to teach
a chimpanzee named Sarah what a set of
symbols mean.
"the meaning of the symbols" is preferred to "what
the symbols mean".
2. Subordinate Clauses
A subordinate clause is a clause that cannot stand
alone as a complete sentence; it complements a
sentence's main clause, thereby adding to the
whole unit of meaning. Because a subordinate
clause is dependent
upon a main clause to be meaningful, it is also
referred to as a dependent clause.
Some examples are as follow:
● There are several factors which help to
prolong this period to perhaps three or four
times that in the male.
● The other way in which the economic
aspects of military expenditure were
presented was in the form of the public
expenditure costs.
● The family establishes a variety of bases for
refuges which seem to be used at different
times of the year.
3. Sequences of Prepositional Phrases
- Are common in academic English. A
prepositional phrase is a preposition
followed by a nominal group
Examples are:
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● This article analyses the constitutional
aspects behind the formation of the first
and second National Governments,
examining in particular the role of the king
in the formation of the two governments.
● The information very properly reached the
files of the survey for antimalarial
compounds under the Survey Number
SN-183.
● Many of the suggested benefits of group
living have been concerned with avoiding
being eaten by predators.
4. Participles
- Formal written English uses verbs less than
spoken English. -ed and -ing participles
allow verbs to be used nominally or
adjectively.
See examples below:
● Similar temptations overcame philosophers
concerned with establishing a secure base
for individual responsibility.
● The Egyptians regarded time as a
succession of recurring phases.
● Doubts as to the proper division of property
at death, as well as rights between partners
living together, were resolved by having
legal rules prescribing a formula.
● It was only to be tolerated in a controlled
and formalized context.
5. Passive Verbs
- In spoken English we often use a subject
such as "people", "somebody", "they", "we",
or "you" even when we do not know who the
agent is. In formal English, particularly
writing, we often prefer to use a passive.
Compare:
● They're installing the new computer system
next month.
● The new computer system is being installed
next month. (more formal)
6. Lexical Density
- Written English generally has a much denser
pattern of words, thus, it is more lexically
dense. If we define lexical density as the
number of content words in a clause, then
written English has a higher lexical density
than spoken English (Halliday, 1996, p. 347).
● Lexical Density is a measure of the
proportion of content words in a sentence
or text.
● Content word is any noun, verb, adjective, or
adverb which has a stable and significant
meaning.
Lexical density Formula:
9/17 =0.52 x 100 = 52.94%
Ct / total # of words x 100 = N
Note:
- If we get 56% above it is a dense
- If it is not enough use subordinated clauses to
make it dense
For example, the written text:
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● Obviously (adv) the government (n) is
frightened (adj) of union reaction (n) to its
move (n) to impose (v) proper (adj) behavior
​ (n) on unions (n).
is more lexically dense than the spoken
version:
● Obviously the government is frightened how
the unions will react if it tries to make them
​ behave properly.
7. Nominalization
- Formal written English uses nouns more
than verbs. For example, "judgement" rather
than "judge", "development" rather than
"develop", "admiration" rather than "admire".
Changing a verb or other word into a noun is
called nominalization.
Instead of:
This information enables us to formulate
precise questions.
we would write:
This information enables the formulation of precise
questions.
More examples are:
● There appeared to be evidence of
differential treatment of children.
● This is reflected in our admiration for people
who have made something of their lives,
sometimes against great odds, and in our
somewhat disappointed judgment of those
who merely drift through life.
● All airfields in the country would be
nationalized, and the government would
continue with the development of new
aircraft as recommended by the Brabazon
Committee.
Academic Writing Convention #3: OBJECTIVITY
Written language is in general objective rather than
personal. It, therefore, has fewer words that refer to
the writer or the reader. This means that the main
emphasis should be on the information that you
want to give and the arguments that you want to
make, rather than you (Gillett, 2021).
“Objective statements are fact based.”
Academic writing presents and evaluates issues
and arrives at an objective position; a position that
focuses on and is informed by research and
reasoning rather than personal feelings and
opinions.
In a nutshell, Objectivity can be achieved by:
1. Avoiding the use of personal pronouns such
as you, I, me, we, and our;
2. Avoiding rhetorical questions as it marks
the "closeness" with the readers, and
constantly seeks their attention; and
3. Avoiding emotive language that shows
biases and lessens objectivity.
Academic Writing Convention #4: EXPLICITNESS
Explicitness
- is achieved when there is a smooth
transition in the presentation of ideas within
the text.
The ways to accomplish clarity and structure in
your text are by acknowledging the sources of
ideas through citation and by the use of signposts.
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Signposts - is one key issue; another of
- are words and phrases that you can use in equal/similar
your text in order to guide the reader along. - importance/significance is …
Signposting can be divided into two - Also of importance is the issue of …
different categories: major signposts and 5. Reintroducing a topic
transitional words. - As discussed/explained earlier, …
- The earlier discussion on …
1. Signposts to introduce something new - …can be developed further here, …
- One aspect which illustrates … - As stated previously, …
- can be identified as … - As noted above, …
- The current debate about … 6. Introducing an opposing/alternative view
- illustrates/identifies/highlights … - However, …
- With regard to… - Conversely, …
- with respect to… - In contrast, …
- Initially/secondly/finally, … - Alternatively, …
2. Continuing an argument with a related point - Nevertheless/Nonetheless, …
- Furthermore … - An alternative perspective is given
- To further understand the role of … by … who
- In addition … - suggests/argues that …
- Similarly … - Despite this, …
- Likewise … - This conflicts with the view held by …
- What is more … 7. Reasoning/summarizing the point
- Moreover …
- Another issue regarding … is …
- Another line of thought on … is …
3. Going into more detail on a point/rephrasing Transitional devices
- In particular … - These words/phrases create coherence and
- Specifically … give the reader directions by marking
- Concentrating on … transitions between sentences and
- By focusing on … paragraphs.
- In more detail,
- It is possible to … Being explicit in your writing also means that you
- To be more precise … are not vague but rather very specific in the
- In other words … presentation of ideas, numbers, and years. Being
- To put simply … specific helps add precision to your writing.
4. Linking to a different point
- Having established …, Academic Writing Convention #5: HEDGING
- it is possible to consider ……
Hedging
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- is needed to avoid sweeping
generalizations. ● When the subject consists of two or
more nouns or pronoun that are
Consider example below. The statement is not connected by “and”, the verb should be
completely true and the impact of the statement plural.
might be misleading. - The dog and the cat are fighting.

● If the subject is connected by

“or/either” or “nor/neither” the verb will
agree with the subject that is closest to
it.
- My aunt or my uncle has written the
letter.
- My aunt or my parents have sent me
the flowers.

● Be aware of noun phrases with

This statement can be improved through the use of post-modifiers. An example is phrases
different hedging devices (Valdez, 2016). that begin with the word “of”
- The box of donuts is on the table.
Four Reasons to Hedge: 2. Words that are easily confused
1. Reduce the risk of opposition - Manger daw pero manager naman,
2. Ways of being more precise in reporting gets?
results 3. Punctuation
3. Positive or negative politeness strategies 4. Sentence fragments
4. Establish writing style in English ● Incomplete sentence; cannot stand on its
own
Academic Writing Convention #6: COMMON 5. Dangling modifiers
SENTENCE ERRORS ● Is a word or phrase that does not connect
1. Subject-verb agreement properly to the main sentence
● Subjects and verbs must agree with - Having finished the experiments, the
one another in number (singular or results were analyzed = When the
plural) experiments were finished, the
results were analyzed.
● A singular subject takes a singular verb
while a plural subject takes a plural
Lesson 4: Thesis Statement & Critique paper
verb
- The child is dancing.
- The children are dancing. Thesis Statement
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● It is the central idea of a multiple-paragraph
● composition.
● It is a sentence that guides, controls, and
unifies ideas when writing. All other ideas
present in the essay revolve around the
thesis statement.
Characteristics of a good thesis statement
● It must be on the introduction and it must
be original.
● It makes a sound argument that can be
defended.
● It is focused and precise.
Example of Explanatory Thesis Statement:
The life of the typical college student is
characterized by time spent studying, attending
class, and socializing with peers.
Example of Argumentative Thesis Statement:
High school graduates should be required to take a
year off to pursue community service projects
before entering college in order to increase their
maturity and global awareness.
Thesis Statement Formulation Guide
1. Formulating a Thesis Statement might be
challenging depending on the topic and its scope.
2. This Thesis Generator below will guide you in
achieving a valid and debatable Thesis Statement.
qualification + stance+ rationale = THESIS
How to Write a critique paper
Before you start writing, it is important to have a
thorough understanding of the work that will be
critiqued.
• Study the work under discussion.
• Make notes on key parts of the work.
• Develop an understanding of the main argument
or purpose being expressed in the work.
• Consider how the work relates to a broader issue
or context (e.g societal, political, racial).
Like an essay, a critique uses a formal, academic
writing style and has a clear structure, that is, an
introduction, body, and conclusion. However, the
body of a critique includes a summary of the work
and a detailed evaluation.
The purpose of an evaluation is to gauge the
usefulness or impact of a work in a particular field
Introduction
Typically, the introduction is short (less than 10% of
the word length) and you should: A complete
citation of the article goes at the top of the page.
• Name the work being reviewed as well as the
name of the creator.
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• Describe the main argument or purpose of the
work.
• Explain the context in which the work was created.
• Have a concluding sentence that signposts what
your evaluation of the work will be. For instance, it
may indicate whether it is a positive, negative, or
mixed evaluation.
BODY: Summary
Briefly summarize the main points and objectively
describe how the creator portrays these by using
techniques, styles, media, characters or symbols.
This summary should not be the focus of the critique
and is usually shorter than the critical evaluation
Critical Evaluation
This section should give a systematic and detailed
assessment of the different elements of the work,
evaluating how well the creator was able to achieve
the purpose through these.
A critical evaluation does not simply highlight
negative impressions. It should deconstruct the
work and identify both strengths and weaknesses.
It should examine the work and evaluate its
success, in light of its purpose. DO NOT include
personal opinions.
Sample Questions
a. Who is the creator? Who are the target audience?
b. What are the aims of the work? Were the aims
achieved?
c. What techniques, styles, media were used in the
work? Are they effective in portraying the purpose?
d. What types of evidence or persuasion are used?
Has evidence been interpreted fairly?
e. How is the work structured? Does it favor a
particular interpretation or point of view? Is it
effective?
f. Does the work enhance understanding of a
certain context?
Conclusion
This is usually a very brief paragraph, which
includes:
• a statement indicating the overall evaluation of
the work
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• summary of the key reasons, identified during the However, the body of a critique includes a summary
critical evaluation, why this evaluation was formed. of the work and a detailed evaluation. The purpose
of an evaluation is to gauge the usefulness or
• in some circumstances, recommendations for
impact of a work in a particular field.
improvement on the work may be appropriate.
Lesson 5: Concept Paper

CONCEPT PAPERS
● are commonly written to propose
Research Topics prior to conducting
them. The purpose of this paper is to
present essential information that a
Reference List certain research topic has.
● is a document which gives an overview
Include all resources cited in your critique at the of a proposal, a project, or a research
last page of your paper. This includes the video output. This serves as a prelude to the
material used the output.
full paper. It is an embodiment of ideas
Guidelines: on a certain topic or item of interest.
● Writing a concept paper saves time and
✓ Review the given material
effort because there is a possibility that
✓ Be objective and realistic. the full paper is not worth pursuing.
✓Comment on strengths and weaknesses. Ideas for revisions can instantly be given
upon checking the concept paper
✓Give specific examples.
Common uses of concept paper according to
✓Suggest alternatives Grant (2012)
✓Use positive terms whenever possible and state
● To provide possible solutions to
the positive points first.
problems;
✓Be sensitive in handling negative comments ● To determine whether a project is
WRITING A CRITIQUE PAPER worthy of sponsorship or funding;
● To interest potential sponsors;
Always start your critique paper with a complete
● To serve as a foundation for a full
acknowledgment of the text. Like any essays, it
consists the ff. parts: ● proposal.

• Introduction – 10% of the paper only 5 common elements of a concept paper

• Body – 75 – 80% of the entire paper

INTRODUCTION
• Conclusion – 10 – 15% of the paper
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As the background of the study, this needs to
be concise and must describe the development
issue that the project intends to address.
• Spell out the capacity assets, needs and
priorities of the program relevant for the
project.
• Highlight which capacity gaps of the project
beneficiaries would be addressed by the
project.
• Explain how the project fits into the specific or
overall normative and analytical work of the
author’s entity.
PURPOSE OR RATIONALE
The objective is the overall intended goal of the
project. The project will contribute to achieving
the objective through the expected
accomplishments.
• A well-formulated objective should answer
the question, “What does the project intent to
achieve?”.
• It should be concise, not longer than one
sentence.
• It should include the beneficiaries and the
geographical scope and should not attempt to
explain how the implementing entity intends to
go about achieving the goal.
PROJECT DESCRIPTION
This includes the topics to be covered, target
groups/participants, venue, and plan of
activities.
BUDGET
The paper must liquidate all the expenses
needed for the program since this may also
reflect the feasibility of the project.
DOCUMENTATION
This includes the organizers contact
information, copy of the program, letter of
invitation and list of set of speakers for the
program if applicable.
Another structure of a concept paper
1. Cover Page
2. Introduction
3. Problem Statement
4. Research Questions, Objectives,
Hypotheses
5. Literature
6. Methodology
Ways to explain a concept
Defining - helpful when you are explaining an
unfamiliar vocabulary to a reader.
Classifying/Dividing - This allows
you to break down your concept to a particular
category so the reader can see how the
concept fits in the “big picture”.
Comparing/Contrasting - This lets your readers
see how different or same the concepts you
present from and with the concepts they are
familiar with.
Narrating a Process - This details how a
concept is used in practice. Illustrating - This is
done using examples, anecdotes and other
concepts which might enlighten your readers.
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Reporting Cause or Effect - allows your readers
to see how particular events lead to another
thus explaining the relationship of concepts
Direct quotation
EXAMPLES
Bhopal (2002) defines epidemiology
as “the science and craft that studies
the pattern of diseases … in
populations to help understand both
their causes and the burden they
impose” (p. xxii).
Sociological theorists, Jureidini and
Poole (2003, p. 33) define social
integration as “the extent to which
individuals have a sense of belonging
to the collective
Human communication is defined by
Pierce (2003, p. 10) as “a process
wherein one or more humans create
a message (or messages) allowing
meaning to be evoked and understood by one
or more other humans”.
KEY STEPS
1. Always use disciplinary experts
when defining concepts in
assignments. Remember the same
concept/ word can be defined
differently depending on the
discipline. Often this means using
unit sources.
2. Use a direct quotation to provide a
precise and exact statement about
the nature and limits of the concept.
3. Always accurately reference direct
quotations to acknowledge you are
using others’ words and ideas.
4. If using a quote to define a concept
try to introduce the quote (e.g. name
the author, use a reporting verb
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such as ‘defines’) and unpack the
quote (e.g. explain the definition in
your own words).
5. If there is more than one definition
for the concept, or disagreement
about the definition, note this, and
then offer the definition you will use
in the assignment. If you are
studying an advanced unit, you will
likely need to also identify
similarities/differences between the
different definitions, and justify the
definition you have chosen to use
(e.g. give reasons for why). Doing
this helps demonstrate your understanding to
the marker.
Lesson 6: Position Paper
WHAT IS A POSITION PAPER?
● Also known as point-of-view paper
● Presents one side of an arguable
opinion about an issue
● Based on facts that provides a solid
foundation for your argument
WHY DO WE WRITE A POSITION PAPER?
● To convince the audience that your
opinion is valid, worth listening to, and
defensible.
Guide questions to ensure the arguability of
your topic: • Is it real, with genuine controversy
and uncertainty?
• Can you identify at least two distinctive
positions?
• Are you personally interested in advocating
one of these positions?
• Is the scope of the issue narrow enough to be
manageable?
Do some research on the subject matter
✓ List down the pros and cons of the topic.
✓ Look for the supporting evidence for both
sides.
✓ Compare the information side by side.
✓ Choose the position you will take.
Parts of a Position Paper
INTRODUCTION
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● It has dual purpose: to indicate both the
topic and your approach to it and to
arouse your reader’s interest in what you
have to say.
● It should clearly identify the issue and
state the author’s position. It should be
written in a way that catches readers
attention.
BODY
● This is the main part of your paper. It
usually has three or more paragraphs.
● Each paragraph should present an idea
or main concept that clarifies a portion
of the position statement and is
supported by evidences or facts.
Supporting Evidences
● Summarizes the main concepts and
ideas and reinforce, without repeating,
the introduction or body of the paper.
● It could include suggested courses of
action and possible solutions.
POSITION PAPER HEADING
● Committee:The Affiliation of the writer
● Country: Setting of the issue’s context
● Delegate: author’s name
● Topic:The overall subject of the position
paper
I. Introduction
a. Introduce the topic
b. Provide Background on the topic
c. Assert the thesis (your view of the
issue)

Factual Knowledge Stating the Thesis

is Information that is verifiable and agreed • Thesis is a one-sentence statement about
upon by almost everyone. your topic.
• To make your topic into a thesis statement,
Statistical Inferences you need to make a claim about it, make it into
Interpretation and examples of an a sentence.
accumulation of facts. • Look back over your materials--brainstorms,
investigative notes, etc.
Informed Opinion • Think about what you believe to be true.
Opinion developed through research and/or • Then write a sentence, preferably at this point,
expertise of the claim. a simple one, stating what will be the central
idea of your paper.
Personal Testimony
Personal experience related by a II. Counter Argument (Introduction)
knowledgeable party. a. Summarize the counterclaims
b. Provide supporting information for
CONCLUSION counterclaims
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c. refute the counterclaims
d. give evidence for argument
III. Your Argument (Body)
a. Assert Point#1 of your claims
i. give your opinion
ii. Provide support
b. Assert point #2 of your claims
i. give your opinion
ii. provide support
c. Assert point #3 of your claims
i. give your opinion
ii. provide support
IV. Conclusion
a. restate your argument
b. provide a plan of action
DO’S AND DONT’S
When writing a position paper:
● be clear and explicit
● write in the present tense
● avoid first person pronoun
● avoid superlatives
NOTES FROM SCHOOLBOOK
a position paper is also considered to be an
argumentative essay, given its qualities to
persuade its readers to accept a certain
position or point. Although in any case, every
various media we collate is a product of an
argument. This is why before taking a side, you
should first establish the arguability of the
topic of interest. However, beyond ordinary
disagreements, the purpose of this paper is to
convince the readers in a logical, reasonable,
and appealing way. At the outset of any
argument process, you must recognize that
you have a problem to solve and decisions to
make, Problem solving is often the reason for
the arguments you raise in your paper; it is a
process in which situations, issues, and
questions are analyzed and debated or
decisions arrived at.
To help you further, here are the basic steps to
problem-solving and in the development of
your position paper:
1. Define and analyze the problem.
Examine all available information to
identify the problem precisely.
2. Interpret the facts and review alternative
approaches.
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3. Make a claim or decision-- that is, assert
the best course of action.
4. Implement the decision to persuade or
convince your audience that the
problem has been addressed and
solved.
5. Evaluate the outcome in follow-up
documents
Furthermore, opinions from this essay must be
distinguished from mere personal opinions
from opinions based on solid evidence. The
presentation of evidence must be examined
from the perspective of logic or sound
reasoning. Take note that the evidence is used
more to prove a point than to solve a mystery.
It is also important to determine if the evidence
and assumptions surrounding the evidence are
valid. Here are some guide questions about
evidence you may consider when writing your
position paper:
1. Is the evidence typical and
representative? Examples must fairly
represent the condition or situation if
your claim is to be valid.
2. Is the evidence relevant? The evidence
should speak directly to the claim.
3. Is the evidence specific and detailed?
Avoid trusting broad, odd statements
presented as "evidence".
4. Is the evidence accurate and reliable? A
claim is only valid as the data
supporting it.
5. Is the evidence sufficient? There must
be enough evidence to support claims
and reasons.
Any argumentative essay (in this case, position
paper), should provide a clear, logical link
between the writer's claim, assertion,
generalization, or conclusion and the evidence.
If an argumentative essay reveals false or
illogical reasoning, readers will not accept the
truth of the claim or the validity of the
evidence. On the other hand, delivering of
claims and presentation of evidence of the
writer must also consider if it appeals to
reason (encourages the use of logical
reasoning as the primary instrument of the
argument), appeals to emotion (arguments
should avoid the manipulation of emotion,
instead, provide a human context for rational
ideas and evidence-- ideas that might
otherwise be cold and uninteresting to the
readers), and appeals to ethics (presenting
yourself as a well-informed, fair-minded, and
honest person; creating an image of someone
trustworthy and sound).
*Take note that reasonings may either be
Deductive or Inductive.
Deductive reasoning follows the order of ideas
from general to specific. It involves a process
of critical thinking known as syllogism in which
you move from a major statement or premise,
through another minor premise, to a third
statement or conclusion.
Example:
Major premise: Medicinal drugs also contain
toxins that could be harmful and addictive and
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therefore should only be taken with strict # 2 Point of view can be known and learned
precautions following a doctor's prescription. to be accepted
Minor premise: Marijuana is considered a
medicinal drug legal in some countries.
#3 Decisions can be made to helpinfluence
Conclusion: Marijuana may be harmful if used people's choice
without control and therefore must be taken for
medical use as prescribed by a doctor.
#4 Alternative recommendations become
Inductive reasoning follows the reversed order
available in crucial decision-making
of deductive reasoning (specific to general).
Example:
Ten (10) Most Identifiable Sections in Reports:
"Marijuana could be harmful without proper
control. Its legality is still constricted in many 1. Title Page
countries and states as its toxic properties and
2. Contents List
harmful effects outweigh its medical
properties. That's why a doctor's prescription 3. Abstract
and supervision play a vital role in controlling
4. Introduction
the harmful effects of these medicinal drugs
that could lead to addiction. 5. Procedure and Results
6. Discussion
Lesson 7: Academic Reports 7. Conclusion
8. Summary
"A report is a statement of the
9. Recommendations
results of an investigation or of
10. Appendices
any matter on which definite
four types of Academic Repont:
information is required."
● Scientific Report
- Oxford English Dictionary ● Business Report
● TechnicalReport
● Field Report
Reports are used so that
Scientific Report
# 1 New ideas and options can be realized
● The main purpose of this report is to
communicate the results experiments
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gathered mostly by those in the field of b. A field report about a court session
sciences.
observed; and
● This follows the IMRaD format
-(Introduction, Methods, Results, c. A field report about a historical place.
Discussion).
Business Report
● This is the type of report required in
accounting, finance, management,
marketing and commerce. In this report,
it is important to be clear in identifying
and in presenting the overall purpose of
your report.
It may be one of the ff.:
● To inform
● To make a proposal
● To solve a problem
Technical Report
● This report is used to communicate
technical information. This information
assists in decision- making, for example,
in the purchase of equipment, or finding
solutions to technical problems. It is
usually used by engineering and applied
sciences such as medicine and nursing.
Field Report
● This report requires the writer to
combine theory and analysis with
observation and practice. It can also be
utilized by various kinds of disciplines.
Examples:
a. A field report about a practice teaching
session;