Chapter 6

Fungal and protozoal infections

6.1 Fungal infection

6.1.1 Ringworm

Other name
Dermatomycosis; favus; teigne (French)
Prevalence
Low prevalence in most developing countries. In an animal population which
has never been in contact with the fungus the disease will spread rapidly and appear
on almost all animals.
Cause
In the group of fungi known as dermatophytes there are 2 genera responsible
for most ringworm in animals. They are the Tricophyton and the Microsporum. Both
types grow well when the skin is slightly alkaline in reaction.

Transmission
Ringworm is usually seasonal, the season coinciding with the period when the
skin remains wet for a long time or when humidity is high. Transmission is favored
by high temperature. The fungus may be carried on harness, brushes, or halters or
ropes used in restraining animals. There is evidence that it can be carried by bird or
wind. The fungus can remain viable for a long period in protected places.

Symptoms
In the beginning lesions consist of microscopic abscesses at the base of the
hairs involving the adjacent superficial layer of the skin as well as the hair itself.
Infected hairs break off at the base or split at the tip. Exudation from the lesion
together with the mycelial growth of the fungus, combine to form a crust which
enlarges in area and thickness until it becomes roughly circular and up to 3 cm across.
At this stage the skin underlying the crust is moist. Later, adjacent circular lesions
coalesce to form irregular mosaics with the crust developing in thickness to as much
as 1 cm. Often these older lesions detach from the skin surface, which then becomes
dry. Sometimes secondary bacterial invaders will penetrate the skin surface when it is
moist. In cattle, the period from deposit of spores on the skin to first appearance of
lesions may be up to 1 month. Lesions appear mostly on the nose, ears, above the
eyes but generalized cases involving large areas of the body may occur. Recovered
animals are immune to re-infection with the same fungus, sometimes for long periods.

Diagnosis
The lesions should be rubbed with 70% ethanol before scraping to obtain
samples for laboratory analyses Accurate diagnosis is based on identification of
mycelia or spores using microscope.

Treatment
For individual treatment gentle brushing and washing of lesions with 0.5-1%
cetrimide or equivalent solution will loosen away scales or crusts with contained
spores and mycelia. A 10% solution of etisazole (‘Netrosylla’) which is diluted 1:10
for topical use is useful. It is applied with a brush for 3-5 days. It is combined with
topical application of corticosteroids in severe cases. Other very effective treatment
in cattle are ‘Netamycine-S’ applied at 200 ppm in water; or ‘Fulcin’ as a feed
additive. Also thiabendazole at 3.75% in glycerin applied at 3 day intervals for 4
applications. The last has been 90% effective.

Control
The most effective method of control is through fungicidal hygiene in
premises and isolation and treatment of infected animals. Where practical pens,
sheds, enclosures should be scrubbed and sprayed with 2-5% phenol or with a 2%
methanal - 1% sodium hydroxide mixture. Under range conditions spraying with a
0.4% methanal - 0.5% sodium hydroxide mixture twice a week has been used with
success. Animals in poor condition are more susceptible and improvement of diet
helps in lowering the incidence.
An interesting recent development is a vaccine being tried out in Russia,
Bulgaria and Poland and reported as quite effective.
6.2 Protozoal infections

6.2.1 Babesiasis
Babesiasis is the name given to a group of diseases of cattle, sheep, pigs,
horses and dogs, caused by numerous species of Babesia which are transmitted by
blood sucking ticks.
Other names
Redwater, tick fever, la tristeza, piroplasmose bovine (French).

Prevalence
The disease is widespread throughout the warm and temperate countries where
ticks are in existance. It is of great economic importance where movement of animals
from free areas to enzootic areas results in high morbidity and mortality rates in
animals which have never been in contact (e.g. imported animals) with the causative
protozoan or have not been in contact for at least a year and have thereby lost their
immunity. The disease is therefore most commonly encountered in animals in transit
to slaughter or to another region and rarely appears in animals born and raised in one
place where natural immunity is continuously reactivated. European breeds are much
more suceptible to the disease than Zebu cattle probably because of the ticks
resistance of the later breeds.

Cause
The incidence of the disease probably parallels the vector tick. When tick
incidence is low animals loose their immunity and become more susceptible to the
disease.
The disease is caused by Babesia which are inhabitants of the erythrocytes.
They vary in shape and size. There are several species in different regions of the
world. Babesia bigemina, B. bovis and B. berbera are most common infectant of
cattle. In sheep and goats B. motasi and B. ovis are most common.

Transmission
The vector ticks are numerous and may be:
 1- one-host-ticks: These are the ticks in which the egg hatchs, the larval tick
attaches to the host animal and proceeds through the nymph and adult stage
before dropping off as engorged adult to lay eggs. Example of such ticks are
Boophilus annulatus, Boophilus calcaratus, Boophilus decoloratus and
Boophilus microplus.
2- Two host-ticks: The egg hatches, the larva attaches to the host, proceeds to
the nymph stage drop off and re-attach to another animal and complete the
cycle. Examples of such tick are Rhipicephalus evertsi, Rhipicephalus bursa.
3-Three host-ticks: They are those where the larva attach to another host, engorge
and drop off and develop to the nymph stage and attach to the second host, engorges,
drop off and develops to an adult and reattach to the third host. Examples are
Haemaphysialis punctata and Rhicephalus appendiculatus.
The period required for a tick to complete its cycle varies from a feew weeks
to many months and larva, nymph and nodes may survive for long periods (12
months) without a blood meal. Some species may take up to 3 years to complete their
life cycle.
Multiplication of the protozoan can take place in the tick. It is unlikely that
mechanical transmission by flies is an important factor in babesiasis. It is obvious
that the presence of a large number of ticks is conductive to rapid and wide spread
dissemination of the protozoan, and there is ample confirmation that control of ticks
will drastically reduce the incidence of babesiasis.

Symptoms
Protozoan appear in the blood from 7-35 days after tick bite. At the time the
parasite appears in blood or soon after, the temperature rises and in milking animals
there is a drop in milk production. This is followed by anorexia, weakness and a
staring coat. In hyper acute cases death may occur at this stage. At the third day
haemoglobinia is observed, the urine becoming dark brown in color. Increased heart
beat and rate of respiration become evident. The heart beat may be so strong that it
may be herd short distance from the animal. In protracted or less sever cases jaundice
and constipation follows. Pregnant animals abort. Acute cases terminate in death 4-8
days.

Necropsy
 The blood is thin and watery. In less acute cases jaundice is present throughout
the body. There is oedema of the subcutaneous and intramuscular connective tissue.
The muscle are pale, the spleen and liver are enlarged and often orange-yellow in
color. The bladder contains dark (red-brown) colored urine. The kidneys are enlarge
and dark.

Diagnosis
The characteristic symptoms and post-mortal appearance are suffucient
evidence to distinguish babesiasis in areas where the disease is known to exist.
Further confirmation can be obtained by identification of the protozoan in blood
slides.
There might be some difficulty in distinguishing between Anaplasmosis
(reckettsial disease treated with oxytetracycline, but difficult to eliminate completely)
and babesia because the 2 diseases has many similar symptoms. Confirmation can be
carried out with blood smears.

Treatment
In the treatment of babesiasis it is necessary to decide before commencing
whether a state of premunity or complete sterilisation of the blood is the aim. In
enzootic areas, premunity is generally preferable as premune animals can withstand
repeated infection. Therefore, and because of the narrow range between therapeutic
and toxic and between sterilization and premunition doses, the dose and the dilution
of the drug for injection needs to be very carefully controlled. The recommendation
of manufacturer should be followed carefully.
Numerous drugs are now available. Example of the common drugs are
Diminazine aceturate (trade name Berenil), Phenamidine isethionate, Amicarbalide
isethionate, Quinuronium sulphate (Ludobal, Acaprin, Pirevan), Imidocarb
propionate (Imzol). B. bigemina responds to drugs very clearly whereas with other
smaller species the response is reported to be variable.
Animal with pronounced aneamia may succumb in spite of treatment.
Treatment to increase production of red blood cells is helpful.

Control
Control of babesiasis is based on 3 factors:
a) Elimination of the tick vector
b) Complete elimination of the protozoan (i.e. sterilisation). Sterilisation is practiced
when infected animals are introduced to free areas.
c) Control of the protozoan by premunition. Premunity is required for cattle in
enzootic areas. It can also be achieved by vaccination of susceptible animals with
blood from donor animals which are themselves carrying babesiae. Ususally 10 ml of
whole blood is used and the inoculation is given subcutaneously. Blood is withdrawn
from the jagular vain of donor animals and injected directly into recipients.
Premunition with one specy of babesia does not protect against the other species.

6.2.2 Coccidiosis
Coccidiosis is a protozoan disease of all domestic mamals and poultry. It is of
minor economic importance in adult animals but can cause great economic losseses in
young animals.

Prevalance
Almost all domestic mammals carry the causative protozoan. In some
countries where animals are kept under intensive systems the losses occur after the
build up of infection and being transmitted from adults without showing symptoms of
the disease to young animals which can be seriously affected.
The disease is rarely reported under extensive system of production unless the
animals are gathered for a short time (e.g. vaccination, water points, evening). The
disease is favored by moist conditions and it is more likely to appear in rainy season.

Cause
Although a number of genera of the order Coccidia are being able to infect
mammal, the only one of sufficient importance to be considered here is Eimeria.
Eimeria is an intracellular protozoan, parasitic in the epithelial cells of the intestine.

Transmission
Moist conditions favour the formation of sporocysts within the oocysts (stages
of life cycle). Dry conditions and high temperatures are conductive to their
development. Under favorable conditions they can survive for at least 2 years.
Oocysts are ingested from contaminated pasture or water but very large number
require to be ingested before clinical infection takes place.

Symptoms
The first signs are anorexia and a moderate rise in temperature followed by a
bloody diarrhoea which soon results in profound anaemia. Dehydration and weakness
are marked death may occur in 7 days but is exceptional. Most animal with good
body conditions are able to throw out the infection and recover.
Secondary infections is a common complication and may include pneumonia.

Necropsy
The carcass shows emaciation (thin), dehydration and anemia.

Diagnosis
Blood stained diarrhoea is sufficient to susspect coccidiosis. A specimen of the
feces and of material from the intestine, both small and large can be analyzed in
laboratory for further confirmation by finding large number of oocysts. It must be
stressed that it is necessary to find a large number and that the type of Eimeria must
be identified as many animals may carry a large number of non-pathogenic oocysts.

Treatment
A clear distinction should be made between use of drugs for treatment and for
control. In treatment the intention is to completely clear the protozoan from the
animal. In control the idea is to use the appropriate drug as a coccidiostat, i.e. to
prevent it multiplying but not to clear it completely from the animal body.
Animals showing clinical signs should be isolated and treated with one of the
following drugs:
1- Sulphadimidine 140 mg per kg daily for 3 days.
2- Nitrofurazone 15 mg per kg daily for 7 days.
3- Amprolium 20 mg per kg daily for 5 days.
In each case treatment can be repeated twice more at 10 days intervals.

Control
 Good hygiene and avoidance of over crowding are the best possible ways of
controlling this disease. The objective is to prevent re-infection as much as possible.
As the life cycle is approximately 3-4 days, animals should be rotated round the
pasture at 2-3 days intervals. They should be kept away from wet areas, and should
be given dry, well-drained standing. Concrete enclosures should be thoroughly
cleaned and drained. The above coccidiostats can be used in feed or water as control
measures.
1- Sulphadimidine 30 mg per kg feed for 10 days.
2- Nitrofurazone in drinking water at 0.01 %.
3- Amprolium for calves at 10 mg; lambs 40 mg per kg for 20 days.