FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year EXPERIMENT NO. 1 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE OBJECTIVE: To study the I-V characteristic of LED and determine Knee voltage and dynamic resistance of LED. APPARATUS: Circuit board comprises 0-10 V D.C. at 10 mA, continuously variable regulat ‘gulated power supply, integral current limiting resistor, Digital voltmeter, digital current meter, LED, Patch chords, ‘THEORY: Light Emitting Diodes Light Emitting Diodes or LED’s are among the most widely used of all the different types of semiconductor diodes available today. They are the most visible type of diode that emit a fairly narrow bandwidth of either visible light at different coloured wavelengths, invisible infra-red light for remote controls or laser type light when a forward current is passed. through them. A "Light Emitting Diode" or LED as it is more commonly called, is basically just a specialized type of PN junction diode, made from a very thin layer of fairly heavily doped semiconductor material. When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce photons which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light. Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction and radiate away producing a coloured light output. Then we can say that when operated in a forward biased direction Light Emitting Diodes are semiconductor devices that convert electrical energy into light energy. LED ConstructionFACUL** ENGINI —_ - ENGINEERING PHYsic, NOy\ 5 oa Da) =e univers! diode is very differe of a light emitting truction 0 D is surrounded by # transparent, hard plastic «, & LED from both vibration ey 2d hog S ‘The cons jt if an The PN junction o f erica shaped shell or body which protects the isp nt from that of a norma] i hem! semiconductor, metal and gas compounds the ¢ : Olly By mixing together # variety of list of ‘LEDs can Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) - infra-red ide (GaAs P)- red to be produced infra-red, orange « Gallium Arsenide Phosphi «Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (Al Ga As P) ~ high-brightness red, omen orange, and yellow + Gallium Phosphide (Ga P)-red, yellow and green «aluminium Gallium Phosphide (Al G2 P)- green « Galium Nitride (Ga N)- green, emerald green «Gallium Indium Nitride (Ga In N) ~ near’ ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue + Silicon Carbide (Si C) - blue as a substrate + Zine Selenide (Zn Se) - blue + Aluminium Gallium Nitride (Al Ga N) — ultraviolet SIMPLE Dione: A simple diode ig g from ge ani : "™ (Ger silicon ($i) le device consisting of p —n j : ~n junction, formed ei b either Semicond ‘on Seeing OD ONAL The circuit inFig, symbol of a p — n juncti 1n junction diode or tw ‘0 terminal electrod;FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech, 1* year anode. cathode, LIGHT EMITTING DIODE: The operation of ij itt ee ee fate diode (LED) is based on the phenomenon of a usin ‘mission of light from a semiconductor material under the fly nao banda or vue, = the best known optoelectronic devices which emit a a ible lah usually red, orange, yellow, blue or green. A light Saas a " Jumetion diode. I is usually made from semiconductor gallium arsenide (Al Ga As) or gallium arsenide phosphide (Ga FORWARD BIASING: When the positive end of the battery is connected to the anode of the diode and negative to cathode of the diode, the connection is called forward biasing. When the p — n junction diode is forward biased and if the applied voltage is gradually increased in steps, at some forward voltage, 0.3 V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si, the potential barrier is altogether eliminated and current starts flowing. This voltage is known as threshold voltage (Va) or knee voltage or cut in voltage. The mill ammeter readings are noted at various steps of applied voltage and a graph is plotted between voltage and current, as shown in Fig(ti). From the graph it is seen that practically no current flows until the barrier voltage (Vr) is overcome. When the external voltage exceeds the barrier potential or the threshold value, the current increases exponentially. This portion is known as linear operating region of the diode. If the forward voltage is increased beyond a safe limit, damage is likely to occur to the diode due to overheating. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:NGINEERING AND TECHNG pacuLTy OF HINGINEERING PHYSICS (13394 B.Tech, 1a. oy Yeap PROCEDURE: up the ciruit as shown in figure. eg. 100 mA for # Set- Set the current limiter suitably, and small signal diodes. «Vary the voltage in small steps the resistance, The current in mA is obtained by dividing it by the value of resistance. Also, the actual voltage across the diode should be corrected for by taking into account the drop across the current measuring resistance, ie., Vo= Vii ~ Vx where Vo is the voltage across diode; Vac is the measured voltage; Ve is the voltage across current measuring resistance. rectifiers and 20 mA for LED, Zener diode and measures the current in terms of the voltage drop across ‘Tabulate the readings. ‘+ Sketch the V ~ I characteristics with voltage on X-axis and current on Y-axis and the linear portic 1 — linear portion of the curve downward to obtain the cut-in voltage Ve. The sl es The slo linear portion gives the dynamic resistance rq of the diode. ane2101) ING PHYSICS (0319: Mats, ENGINEERI B. Tech. 1" year en Views — IOLOGY pana euiae FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHN OBSERATION TABLE: (Value of series resistance R= { ohm) Applied Resistive Voltage a : Voltage across Diode Vie Vir (Ve*10") Current (mA) T=Va/R Voltage Vin(volt)(OF ENGINEERING AND TECH FACULTY OF" NGINEERING PHYSICS Qeel FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) Be Her Be Vem. B. Tech. 1" year CALCULATION: Slope = AL BC = (4-6) x10 dp (het = axis 003= ae emai stm ENGINEERING PHYSICS @3hOQ\ PRECAUTIONS: Set the current limit switch properly. An incorrect setting may damage the devicg test. Nd e To sketch the characteristics accurately near the sharp bends (around the cuts I breakdown points) a larger number of readings may be necessary. Choose migg ! resistances, as suggested, for current measurements in these portions RESULT: The forward biased characteristics curve is plotted in the graph. The knee voltage of given LED is found as_| . 3 by volt. The dynamic resistance of LED is found as BG ohm. QUESTIONS: - 1] What do u mean by knee voltage?FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY oa ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B, Tech. 1" year EXPERIMENT NO.2 ZENER DIODE OBJECTIVE: To study the reverse bias characteristics of a ZENER diode and determine its Break down voltage and dynamic resistance. APPARATUS: Circuit board comprises 0-10 V D.C. at 10 mA, continuously variable regulated power supply, integral current limiting resistor, Digital voltmeter, digital current meter ZENER diode, Patch chords. THEORY: The circuit diagram to plot the 7 characteristics of a Zener diode is shown. Zener diode is a special diode with increased amounts of doping. This is to compensate for the damage that occurs in the case of a p-n junction diode when the reverse bias exceeds the breakdown voltage and thereby current increases at a rapid rate. Applying a positive potential to the anode and a negative potential to the cathode of the Zener diode establishes a forward bias condition. The forward characteristic of the Zener diode is same as that of a p-n junction diode i.e. as the applied potential increases the current increases exponentially. Applying a negative potential to the anode and positive potential to the cathode reverse biases the Zener diode. ‘As the reverse bias increases, the current increases rapidly in a direction opposite to that of the positive voltage region. Thus under reverse bias condition breakdown occurs. It occurs because there is a strong electric filed in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and generate carriers. The breakdown voltage depends upon the amount of doping. For @ heavily doped diode depletion layer will be thin and breakdown occurs at low reverse voltage and the breakdown voltage is sharp where as a lightly doped diode has ahigher breakdown voltage. This explains the Zener diode characteristics in the reverse bias region. The maximum reverse bias potential that can be applied before entering the Zener region is called the Peak Inverse Voltage referred to as PIV rating or the Peak Reverse Voltage Rating (PRV rating). REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIODE.ited | El ‘\. —— bias of Zener diode as shown in the figure Fig, & sncrease the 0-10 V supply and note down the tage across the diode. *eading, a ) graph paper by taking voltage on the nega will look like the mee iy dings on a axis axis. The plot characteristics shown in Fig. igh the Zener diode till the till the Zener vo} j igible current flows throu; lied voltage there is almost . NO Variatig au 4, We observe that negli app! 6V is reached. Thereafter on increasing the across the Zener diode. the voltage OBSERVATION TABLE: Value of series resistance R= oS obm Resistive Voltage (VR) Voltage across Diode Va=Vin- (VR*10°) Current (mA)FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" yearTRING AND TECHN; enn atvsies sng FacuLTy OF toy, yey aS . ) Pynemic dopdone > sto pe: { a es ri0>i ce ocr FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ‘TECHNOLOGY i. Parul University ENGINEERING PHYSICS stn B. Tech. 1" y¢ RESULT: The revere biased characteristics of Zener diode has been plotted in the graph. The breakdown voltage of Zener diode is found as_4 4 _ volt The dynamic resistance of Zener diode is found as .6x1p° ohm. — , QUESTIONS: - te 1] What is meant by biasifg a PN junction? : ; ; 2] What is Reverse saturation current? Ans: -G \ ‘ v: 3] What is avalanche break down?pg Sag ae By, {3,90 I Ky o= ‘ EXPERIMENT NO. 3 ULTRASONIC INTERFERROMETER CTIVE: To measure the velocity of ultrasonic waves in water and determi « OBJE! o Compressibility of water © the ’ PARATUS: Frequency Generator 1 & 3 MHz, Co-axial cable, Ultrasonic inert AP! with micrometer screw and Measuring Cell, Base to hold the Cel] g the given liquid. THEORY: An ultrasonic interferometer is a simple and direct device to determine the ultrasonic velocity in liquids with a high degree of accuracy. The principle employed in the measurement of velocity (v) is based on the accurat determination of the wavelength (1) in the medium. Ultrasonic waves of known frequency ( are produced by a quartz crystal fixed at the bottom of the cell. These waves are reflected by: movable metallic plate kept parallel to the quartz crystal, If the separation between these tw Plates is exactly a whole acoustic resonance gives rise to an electrical reaction on the generat driving the quartz crystal and the anode current of the generator becomes a maximum, If: the distance is now increased or decreased and the Variation is exactly half the wavelength (1/2) or ‘multiple of it, anode current becomes maximum. Using the value of A, the velocity (v) can be obtained by the relation Velocity = wavelength x frequency Veit ‘Where, Vis the velocity ofthe ultrasonic waves, ‘is the wavelength ofthe ultrasonic waves @ fis the frequency of the ultrasonic ‘Waves, Compressibility is given as,NEERING AND TECHNOLOGY 3INEERING PHYSICS (03192101) 1B. Tech. 1" year Compressibitity (B) = 55 where, pis compressibility of the liquid, pis the density of the liquid & is the velocity of the liquid, EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:RING AND TECHNO} OLogp TY OF ENGIN ENGL NETRING PHYSICS Tet i PROCEDURE: way from double walled construction of j, © Unscrew the knurled cap of the cell and lift i oe nd re kre cell. In the middle portion of it pour experimental the cell in the socket and clamp ; Wipe out excess liquid overflowing from the cell. with the help ofa screw provided on its side. re © High frequency generator is connected to the cell using CO" aan direction till the anog * Move the micrometer slowly in either clockwise oF anticlockwise curent on the ammeter on the high frequency generator shows a maximum or @ minimum Note the readings of micrometer. Take readings of a few consecutive maximum or minimum. ‘* The difference between two consecutive readings will give 1/2. Take the average of all th differences. * Once the wavelength (A) is known the velocity of ultrasonic wave in the liquid can bi calculated, * From the value of velocity, we can calculate the compressibility of liquid.’ FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY oi Roe ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) ‘eho Seen B. Tech. 1" year OBSERVATION TABLE: \ Le east count of Micro meter screw = Pitch/Total no. of divisions on circular scale 2 07 gS 0-0 sO Micro meter Reading(in mm Difference Coinciding between mark on ‘Vernier [+ [isecf sous | es [oe] L* [wo | 3 | a6 ws Tox [| VES0 Fig feos Faas Poe q \Ofaoo[ 8 [oak Tig ig [033 [| ‘CALCULATIONS: Density of the given liquid (water) = 996.458 ke/m?. pace 122PRECAUTIONS: * Do not switch on the generator without filling the experimental liquid in the cell. Do not tilt the cell after filling the liquid to avoid flow of liquid towards micrometer which may rust/jam the threads of the micrometer heads, ~ Remove experimental liquid out of cell after use. Keep it clean and dry. Keep micrometer open at 25mm after use, Avoid sudden rise or fall in temperature of citculat ed liquid to prevent thermal shock toa quartz crystal. * While cleaning the cell, care should > be taken not to spoil thi quartz crystal Spoil or scratch the gold plating on tht| ee FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY == "ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) ee B. Tech. 1* year RESULT: ‘The velocity of ultrasonic waves in the given liquid is found as .....-) 5-2: Que.sesu mh i 7 coms. 5 ‘The compressibility of the liquid is méasured as ...42. 34%.)8. ‘SN. a .meiN. QUESTIONS: - a 1] Explain the term ultrasonic waves? 3] Write methods for production of ultrasonic ‘waves? Ans: ~, eRe TCLee OING Fe wo ae ING BRING B. Tech. I*y_! - it with in- Brass plates te defined 25 the rato of te - vectric material ca” ofa dielectric mal $ dielectric constant “ dielectric ina capacitor to the capacitance using y, material e ° | ‘Typical values of € for dielectrics are ‘THEORY: ‘The capacitance vacuum asthe dieleetne ‘Vacuum Dry Ai Barium Titanate Glass Quartz Mica Water distilled Soil dry Titanium dioxide If C=capacitance using the material as the dielectric in the capacitor, Co= capacitance using vacuum as the dielectric 0 Permitivity of free space (8.85 x 10" F/m) = Area of the plate/ sample cross section area {= Thickness ofthe sample ‘Then, Dielectric constant is given byFACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. I" year -o—, two conductors separated by a dielectric > schematic symbol EXPERIMENTAL SET UP: PROCEDURE: 1) Connect the dielectric cell assembly to the main unit and insert the sample in between plates(SS PLATES) Page |27ye unit : : b switch ON the uni (vith the help of the switeh $2) SCs for the matey i wrd capacitor standat 3) Choose the stant a ; ietectrie constants (Vike Baki 7 nt (like PZT sample) glass, plywood) and SC2 for the mateyigy Jon etrie consta high dielectric const ; sa TOWARDS DC to measure the voltage i ne ss stand: pacitor, say Vsc. Calculate capacitang, —”%y e act lard capacitor, SC to measure voltage across stan " across dielectric eell say Vine ayy the formula C= (Vsc/Voe)*Cse is i ing the thickness of air '5) Calculate the capacitance of an air capacitor considering Between tg plates exactly equal to the thickness of dielectric sample using the formula given, 6) Take the ratio of capacitance of capacitor with dielectric to the capacitance of Capacitor without dielectric, Al NOTE: a ‘ y A\o38 For sample, other than provided with the kit, measure the capacitance of the sample place in Y Alors between the SS dise with the help of any capacitance meter available. If measured capacitang, C=O values not comparable to either of SC or SCo, connect the capacitor having value near to tat 2 measured value between the plugs provided at SC3 and shift Sz to SC3 and repeat the step 4, 7 OBSERVATIONS: 1, Radius of brass plates (for PZT) = 12.5x107 m 2. Radius of brass plates (for Glass, Plywood, Bakelite) = 3. Thickness of PZT sample = 1.0810"! m 15x10? m 4. Thickness of Glass sample = 4.66%107 m : ce 5. Thickness of Bakelite sample = 4.66107 m ; 6. Thickness of Plywood sample = 2.8x107 m SEXO" OBSERVATION TABLE;a eeeeeeeeSSSSC“#EEN’' mrrrerenaans FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ii ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) en tee B, Tech, 1" year Voltage across Standard | DiclesuT) Capacitance | Capacitance | Dielectric r- | Dielectric | Standard 5 Capacitor | cee | Withdielectric | without | constant Sample | Capacitor C=(VsclVoc)*Csc | dielectric | s=C/CO v, sc ‘se Voc , (volt) | (vot wu Corse @w OAS | su.ogrio’® |0-0083 xq | GSI BAT | S466 vig" vot Gs Plywood | 48pf | 1.99 O41 | IG y gr! | O08 ass ton MT [| Bat | os® [oceh | soune’ aa +56 7 Guass | a8pF | gt Bakelite | 48pf | jig CALCULATION: dies ® : ot (845 xU cael) . 7 BbxN bbe IoD oes F Meowigt gig bys j 254.063 xo TE / BG ewbb k oo¥d #1071 E=%o = 541063 e112 Toned xie Y. Bancbker (Ok Wood # Ge ae F a KUG KIO” F = Guts pot) 8 Shy bby 03 364 W664 v0 r 254.06 x0" F . = 0-003 ¥lo 7 E=%o = Glx06 ¥ 10% = $4r06 x10" p.dodvio"4 Page |29FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND eae oes ENGINEERING pay! ao Ea SO == a sf = Co = "i oth ote 3y- Polywsooet 30d i Co Cus rod els : 2-45 1072) i 22a. usr o2e WAVES 3 oe Ag SON x07 x13 = 63224 x0" F €=%o = O-OBY KG I F = 6399 ero Hsieh (E GSSE 23 w10" 2 y. 02Te Cora ceeacel 36 C2 Ue /voc) x fe = ODS 1103) 2109 NZ ime Uae aN ABE yas marr BE 1.08 x10 710 = jou) ioe coe = WOlBxto F ~ Ko = 30u) xied GBB x1 9% (> 456-54 \ RESULT: The dielectric constants measured from this experiment For Glass =__6 » : For Bakelite =__( 6S . For Plywood =__2, . 5 . For PZT = BES 6 : QUESTION 1} Define Ans: ade AasFACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY aim Part eee. ol ots 1 ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) a B. Tech. 1" year QUESTIONS: - 1] Define dielectric constant? ans:- Qk cova be ohiohared an Me eats “ 5 < capoddene vamg at vaccum ad Ye ickedoe 2] Define capacitor? ans:-_A_dewit@ ured. —den_ajrera tom _eleehic | > che mm: —teg pet ere Ns. a . 7 fan “ams, 3] Write full form of PZT? SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WI2 TY OF ENGINELKUNG AND TE FACUL ENGINEERING PHYSICS B. Tey ay EXPERIMENT NO. 5-6 GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR BAND —pJECTIVE: To determine material constant and energy band B8P of a semiconducto,, piotted i 8 ‘ ‘thei APPARATUS: P-N junction set up, oven, diodes (IN 5402 and IN 5408), connecting et transistor (BC 109) Now ‘THEORY: The current I in the P-N junction is given by we =I, e™? -1 Where, [y= leakage current e= charge of electron= 1.6x10"” coulomb V= junction voltage ‘= material constant = 1 for Ge =2 for Si K= Boltzmann constant= 138x103 J/K T= temperature in Kelvin a For 67 551, “Ind =InJ, err nKTLOGY FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND. ‘TECHNO! PHYSICS (03! 2101) B. Tech. 1" year (ee Poni ENGINEERING above equati PA The equation represents a straight line obtained when InJ is plotted on Y-axis & Vis tted on X-axis whi © which gi plo jose slope is which gives value of7. intercept of this graph on Y-axis ‘The i i! axis gives the value of reverse saturation current. the reverse saturation current is also written as vmral a For Si: m=1.5, 9=2 Now, For Ge: m=2, 7=1 vIn, = InK +mInT + V—Voo nKT At constant, differentiating w.r.t T, | md [ales 4+ +— 4 oT af KT } oe av VV) T \nkT ) aT mK TT? gen 1 ‘i aT e alue of & hence Vey can be calculated which gives The slope of the graph V vs T gives v: the band gap at temperature T=300 K.PROCEDURE: _ Connect P-N junetion set up.to the AC mains. Insert the oven knob to the oven socket provided on set up. ‘unction transistor lead to the terminals provided on set up as polarity indicated . Connect the jt Bere on it. |. Switch on the set up Vary the voltage & measure the current. we Pilot the graph of lal vs V & find out the slope = from which can be calculated. 1 The intercept ofthis graph on Y-axis gives the value of reverse saturation current. . Now insert the transistor in oven and set the forward current to a low value I , =2mA Switch the display to TEMP mode & vary the oven temperature from ambient to about 360 K & measure the junction Voltage, 10. Plot the graph of V vs T. 11. The si slope ofthe graph V vs T gives value of ee hence Voy can be calculated which ives the band gap at temperature T=300 KCNOLOGY FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ao (03392100) B, Tech ENGINEERING Lr Se 1" year opsERVATION TABLE: Room Temperature, T=__16 _k \ Perse v een Ve Sr. | Applied Voltage Forward current a No. (¥) volt 1A) (e061) be 0530 _ oO) = 2.3025 3, oust ot = 1.6094 | Be 0»600 Od = 1.2034 ae 0G 14 oy = D-4162 Ss 01626 os = 92603) be 0-635 0:6 = 0.8 10% | 4 6.364) od 663566 4 [e. 02646 oO =, 2281 a. 06S) o4 =+1083 \o, o.6sh ne s \e 6.6%0 Aso 0.643 ve] 060s. 0. g 0dkh | Ibe “4.40 G0 fl 1.3% 62 al 0K 520 166094 IS, AIG 6.0 {AC Me 0-494 4.0 Wwaus He 9.124 %0 2. O844, a 0 433, 4.0 Ze IAte ia] 0 36 10.0 4025 20. : pace 135."AND TECHNO, FACULTY OF ENGINEER IN RING “PHYSICS (Sy ENG B.Tech, pelt) : YeaRory FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY = ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) 7 B.Tech. 1" year ©. Gsa xian | @ 6:655 310 oO QCALCULATION: ¢ \ 1 slope (for graph Inl vs 1 SIRF xr. ” 2 eh’, 1 i Srwpe: ; Me! 3? = 0.633 + 93 4(e 18x03) - [B60 ¥ 19316 1079 xT XS) Te x 107 4 = 06802 7 St Us K 107%a STOINEEAING PrygiCt —— BK! RESULT: . 1.2%4 (1) Material constant 9 =___-——-—— Vi. (2) Energy band gap=_\ 100% © QUESTIONS: - « 1] Define band-gap? a oo 3] wis rae two-semicgnductor material: temperature? Why? Ans:-Je bis a s Si or Ge has larger conductivity at room t : Sicnar OF RE, AC °MTY WITH DATEY (CHNOLOG' FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TEC (03192101) S ENGINEERING ea 1 year EXPERIMENT NO. 7 HALL EFFECT OBJECTIVE: To determine the Hall coetticie Semiconductor crystal APPARATUS: Electromagnet, Electromagnet con: stant power supply, Hall probe, Gauss mounted on PCB, multi meter, Meter, Semiconductor crystal developed is known as Hall voltage, Suppose an electric current (Ix) flows in the x direction and the magnetic field (B,) is applied normal to this electric field in the z direction. Each electron is then subjected to a force called Lorentz force perpendicular to the direction of flow of electron as well as Perpendicular to the magnetic field. It causes the accumulation of electrons on one side of theie.g Ex= 4 WB: electrons in x direction En=v,Bz ity of where vis the WelOCITY The maga unit volume. ide of current density Jx= Nn q Vz, where n is the number of charge ¢, itude 0} Here Ry = a is known as hall coefficient. Ey=J.RiB, but Ey="#, and J, = Substitute the value of Ey and Jx Vb Ry = 1B, "Here t is the dimension of the crystal in y direction and ‘b’ j direction. The number of charge carriers per unit volume i. by 1 is the dimension of the crystal in z €., charge carrier density is given If the conduction is primarily due to one "ype of charge carriers, then conductivity is related to mobility as Um = oR, 'H EXPERIMENTAL Ser vp; i W) ther side. Thus an electric field is develope in , iq is dete cien Go a the equilibrium the Lorentz force on i 7 mw fiel balance each other, a — a ihe electron due to all field) balan \ une forceFACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year Hall Probe current sourc 0-20 mA DC PROCEDURE: Mount PCB (with erystal) and hall probe on pillars and complete all the connections: . Switch on the Gauss meter and place hall probe away from the electromagnet. Adjust the ctromagnet power supply at reading of the Gauss meter as zero (do not switch on the ele this moment). 4 Switch on the constant current source and set the current, say 5 mA. Keep the magnetic field at zero as recorded by Gauss meter (do not switch on the electromagnet Power supply at this moment). at 0-200 mV. When a current of SmA is passed through the crystal without application of magnetic field the ball voltage recorded by the multi meter should be zero (do not switch on the electromagnet power supply at this . Set the voltage range of the multi meter moment). 5. Bring the current reading of the constant current source to zero by adjusting the knob of the constant current source.oy d ge magnet and select the range of the Gauss met \ n the electro! as flux density at the center between the pole Pieces, The 4S © sensi ‘ould be placed between the centers of the Pole ee the magnetic flux density should be maximum, mt pe and the crystal sh i out the experiment }0 Gauss. 900 to 350 1, Vary the current through the constant current source in small increments, Note of current passing through the sample and the Hall voltage as recorded by the ama E Yay (donot change the current in the electromagnet). tg, 8, Reverse the direction of magnetic field by interchanging the ‘+’ and ‘connection, ot coils and repeat the step 1 to 7. 9, PRECAUTIONS: 1 The Hall probe should be placed between the pole pieces such that maximum Ba voltage is generated. 2 Current through the Hall probe should be strictly within the limits, 3 Hall voltage developed should be measured very accurately, OBSERVATIONS: Thickness of the specimen, b= ..© ¢ Magnetic flux density, B,~ mm = Q.Sx1073mFACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year OBSERVATION TABLE: SR. | CURRENT | VOLTAGE Hall coefficient NO 1 (mA) Vy (volt) ee Tah '. | o.s5 3. onl Q.| 1d 5A o-01sk ot 1,60 Ji0 00153 4+ | 304 lor 2 0.0150 S| oS4t | aso 0-043 6 | 31o | 1k b.01%4 qo | 9950 |} isd 060135" & IS | 1466 0:013% qo Hass 14.4 0:013) lo. Ue 06 Q4 00130CALCULATION: 1. Draw a graph between VH and Ix and Find the slope of the curve wa Al, = & Now Ry = slopex 3 <3 = ¥ OoS¥i0 =o. ‘Mines TO Ye 2. Calculate the value of Hall coefficient using the formula AV, \ b (She Ay Ru < Geto 0155 40,0153+ O0015 0 F 0.0143 00184 6 OHSS A O+ OFS + O- O13)-4O-0130 3. Calculate the Ry =) ge We Rare Page 14720 — (yok h) os x1? apn q ane (obiud atin), pong! — gap a hwo or ost ig cle LC calrat, v Ne RESULT: condul! sient forte sv" eee, ri Ll 7 Legh tusecoo ‘The value of| Hall coefli The obtained value of ‘carrier ¢ QUESTIONS: 1] Define ball-effet? Ans: ~ F eck i he ye goes 27] What does the vaie ofhal-ceffcent oust u ult uah ogc oe jell + i drm e ORI, SIGNa’ Ag TURE OF FACULTY WITH DATEFACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TEC ENGINEERING PHYS! 2 Tech r EXPERIMENT NO. 8 PLANCK'S CONSTANT OBJECTIVE: To determine Planck's constant using LED. APPARATUS: Planck’s constant kit with inbuilt voltage source (0-2 V DO), current meter (0-2000 pA), temperature controlled oven (ambient to 60 °C), LED (red & yellow). ‘THEORY: : The basic idea in this experiment is measurement of energy corresponding to potential barrier which electrons have to overcome to go from N-type region to P-type region of the diode when no external voltage V is applied to the diode. This can be related to the bandgap energy of the material from the relation, E,=eVo... a> In case of LED, when electrons from N-region combine with holes of P-region within junction area, electromagnetic radiation with wavelength 2 is emitted in such a way that 2 Q) | | | From (1) & (2), Mev Med c In present method, height of potential barrier (V,) is obtained by directly .) measuring the dependence of diode current on the temperature, keeping the applied voltage fixed at a value lower than the barrier so that the disturbance to the barrier potential is minimum. The equation for diode current is Page 149om University ne Niet a KT Where, V: applied volge Vo: barrier potential 11: Material constant YF : | K: Boltzmann constant \. Ts temperature of diode oe ) ve equation represent biained when In/ is plotted on ya, spresents a straight line ot : The above equation —*_ which gives value of 7. X-axis whose slope is which gives plotted on From equation (5), ‘Where, V is applied voltage below. bandgap of LED (1.8 V for yellow/red) a canbe calculated asa slope ofthe sreph plotted as In ys 1 T Now, from equation ), Planck's Constant can be calculated as naa ¢ Here, His he wavelength of LED, EXPERIMENTAL ser yp,FACULT Yor ANGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY NGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B, Tech. 1" year ne sas PROCEDURE: (A)Determination of material constant (17): 1. Connect LED in socket on setup & switch on power. 2. Switch the two way switch to V-I position. In this position, first DPM would read voltage across LED & second DPM would read current passing through LED. 3. Increase the voltage gradually & record the readings of voltage & current. Applied voltage should not exceed 1.8 V. S . Plot the graph of In/ vs V whose slope is -— which gives value of). (B) Determination of Planck’s constant (b): Page 151ran matte of Yesnaiooy Paves ENGINEERING Py, FIM ———— Bi. et . Keep the mode switch to V-I position and adjust the voltage across the Ley a D for both yellow and red LED and 1.95 V for green LED). to ly . Change the mode of two-way switch to T-I position. Insert LED in the oven & connect the other end of LED in the socket rovideg Before connecting the oven check that oven switch is in OFF position & SET tg % *, knob is at minimum position. Now first DPM would read ambient temperature, > Set the different temperatures with the help of SET temperature knob, jj, minutes on each setting for the temperature to stabilize ‘and take the "ding 3 temperature and current. ey 5. Plot the graph of In we and find out the slope. _PRSERVATION TABLE: (A) Determination of majérial constant (17): Room Temperature, T=_2 42. kFACULTY oF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS 03192101) B. Tech. 1 year 4 vw / Oe en No. (V) volt T(nay i \ 1.5 49 O41 | 5-3 | 2 Es A8) Psu] 3 6 GK los | sol 4 [60 I53 a1:358 € Lag 463 ode i bae9 so} | = 6.649 4 Lets 9) sf —_| = patuaa s 1444 Loo hal 4 LAG Ws” ees ‘ Be iagq O.31Wo 1) \ 48% lato Osea 19 vaas 160% =e Bl oee ra 6446F ENGINEERING AND TG FACULTY OF ¥GINEERING PHYSTG NO B Tee my (B) Determination of Planck’s constant (h): Voltage, v=_|+&\__ volt / PAS | Sr. | Temperature Temperature Current No. “oO (oxy) | (mA) ; {4 \ 4o 38 Bit 9d x Slo 3043 3 au Jot 354 4 3) 304 9.45 S as 3ol 3:33 6 as a4 ye20 [3.35 | 1163 a a2 M4 3508 1104 % 19 dot | D4 [9 42 | 1-088 a | ue | Breee FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ena ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) — B. Tech, 1" yearGe oe ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) "B. Tech. 1 year (CALCULATION: (ApDetermination of material constant (17): yt 1 xe alas) * (app RTO | [0.04 ay 1g \ yeas x Oe 2 = 9.03.84 Rtor Bs n m7 es (B) Determination of Planck’s constant (h): =v-|(stope(™)) = ora foal RLSRET “ad [ns | hex (ot E18 + 0.000226 a 1, ev 02236 Vi = 81 volt °parutn of Vereen a a ea ( od Ouca R os a ya LEXI KIMONO Now hems enee ee ~S gf G49 XIe 3H = 6.44 AI0 _ joule-sec. RESULT: From this experiment, the value of Planck’s constant is found to be ot n= 6. 44X10" joule-sec. QUESTIONS: - 1] What is planck’s law? Ans:~Plactty lus durrute gue sperbod —loasidy of —2ltebassemph, achat. —ocittect ty & Gwen Siobtten TT 2] What is the relation between energy and wave-length? Ansi-__ Sn eray Yo soageleg ath tad “awenly —Propitdiies| ts Uoach o fh& 7 3]What is energy of quanta?B, Tech. 1" year | BAC - PNCipe. ie (es ULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ay ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) EXPERIMENT No.9 WAVELENGTH OF LASER "TIVE: i OBJECTIVE: To determine the wavelength of LASER using diffraction of light. APPARATUS: Diode Laser Source, Screen, Scale, Holders and Bases, Diffraction Grating (100/ 300/600-Lines/meter) THEORY: When waves pass through apertures or around obstacles, they spread out into regions which would be in shadow if they travelled in straight lines. This property is called diffraction and can be described in terms of Huygens Principle. Huygens proposed that every point on a wave front may be regarded as a source of secondary spherical wavelets. Where these waves cross, they constructively and destructively add (fig i). Diffraction is regarded as being due to the addition (superposition) of Huygens’ secondary wavelets. Imagine that slit consists of strips of equal width, parallel to the length of the slit. The total effect in @ particular direction is then found by adding the wavelets emitted in that direction by all the strips. © 2006 Enoyclopadia Brianne, heetter at cin PING == wony, [Parul University | 219 et cess B, Tex 1) CET ars ch, jn) 4 by avery small object Le SA CdR wig interfere, resulting in a pater, When parallel waves of light are obstructe ; the edges of the obstruction an ; dge of an object, it creates a pate, ight fri light diffracts off of the ¢ 7 of dark and light fringes. When light v trom ight sure, SUCh 85 Taser, of light referred to as a diffraction pattern. Ifa mon gaa used to observe diffraction, a diffraction pattern is created by as! \. etc.) the waves spread around Diffraction is the tendency of a wave emitted from a finite source or passing through a finite aperture’ to spread out as it propagates. Diffraction results from the interference of an infinite number of waves emitted by a continuous distribution of source points. According to Huygens’s Principle every point on a wave front of light can be considered to be a secondary source of spherical wavelets. These wavelets propagate outward with the characteristic speed of the wave. The wavelets emitted by all points on the wave front interfere with each other to produce the traveling wave, Huygens “Principle also holds for electromagnetic waves. When studying the propagation of light, we can replace any wave front by a collection of sources distributed uniformly over the wave front, ndiating in phase. a , ‘When light passes through a small opening, light, in an otherwise opaque obstacle, the comparable in size to the wavelength 4 of the ‘wave front o1 i i resembles the wave front shown on the right ee aespypFRACTION GRATING: its. When led a diffraction webave seen that diffraction pattems can be produced by a single slit or by two 5! sight encounters an entire array of identical, equally-spaced slits, call tings som differ ut the patte various numbers of all slits is 150 micro meters. The location of the maxima for two slits is als the maxima for multiple slits, The single slit pattern acts as an envelope for the multiple slit patt apooses. They produce interference maxima at angles 0 given by the bright fringes, which come from constructive interference of the light waves ent slits, are found at the same angles they are found if there are only two slits. cn is much sharper. The figure on the right shows the interference pattem for f slits. The width of all slits is 50 micro meters and the spacing between iso the location of ems. Diffraction gratings contain a large number of parallel, closely spaced slits or mA =dsin@. acing between the slits is generally very small, the angles 6 are generally Because the spi relating wavelength and the quite large. We cannot use the small angle approximation for position of the maxima on a screen for gratings, but have to use Sin 0=2/ (L? +2)". Incoming plane Meare of igh Pg Fincorderpp ENTAL SE ne E PROCEDURE: lace the LASER source on holder and mount on the heavy base. Hold the grating and screen in their respective holders and bases. Place the grating between LASER source and screen as shown is Fig.l. The LASER beam after passing through the grating will split into zero order, first order, and second order beam as shown in fig.2. * Mark zero order, first order and second order spots on screen and measure the distance between first order spot & zeroth order spot & half of this distance. i.e me jeezy 2 sin Bp, Put sin By in formula mA = d sind,(cena ‘** U8 ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLU™ ~ ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) 'B. Tech. 1* year qu 2m =— nm __ nee oF where, m = Order of spots, A= Wavelength of LASER beam (am) d= Resolution of a grating (= 1/grating element)‘ ie. 1 X 107/100 i ( or 1 x 107/300 or 1 x 10/600) meter/lines Xin = Distance bs cm. etween zero order spot & first/second order spot (meter) f = Distance between screen & grating element (meter) OBSERVATION TABLE: Distance Resolution Order Grating between of grating | comple element and screen CALCULATION: — dkm eee ees om Yon TF? Distance between pattern and direct spot Xm (m) LHS (Xml) | RES Xmr) ‘Wavelength of laser beam Page 163,wetter s FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND Tec Si ENGINEERING PHYSicg (399% B j te yen hie nine . Tech, YW: we? x 0:015 = = Gk h 10 9 Sn 264 (eC 8 ESS ee : 86.3 ne \oox (oo 8) 4(025) fi a Ae? 500086 en 2 (ots tx 1s x10 = 64U5.7 At SNe ET — ye he Aw x 004 : Boor War coage = GSE wero = 6531 gF =e, bye Dz Awe ov086 88300% (oonaee = SEI LOY yy han OF Slo. 086 JE (0:90 = ose3.tA" Be %= tb? 10-064 im ; ;ktftl ~f ah etic’ boo x (oOKA YA Cp.a0p $4 460% 10" x10 = 6ge - Iverage he : ¢ (543.4 464463 + GUUS 04 +45 THDACTS SSS ae eve eee Ss | (565 48 AFACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year sing Diftraction of light, the wavelength of given semiconductor laser is measured wb SGSAK A° QUESTIONS: - 1] Explain constructive and destructive interference? ans:-lonobuckve intesl ance’ 9 He tise anyelitvle howe “err asigaia, soy) ue [LI gaat oF farns a to nilar net uae wi Tpaste have appoli fe ctive_T rin key enoneg = Rw g Te (Duar aus ey ea pulotract fp fam oo Wave 2] What is diffraction of light and what is the condition to occur? ractiou io Hw slight bealuy « ut top ef Bd A place Ha 22 Hts sep Se te eacingi 6 the Tight - 3] Define wavelength and mention the range for wavelength of seven colours? , Hoe olin teunte, Ans: - wave lang cour be dlagtines oa te Tap esas vi Zuacnm cFO OM sqo nm 1 sqo- 620nNMm Rest | 620-7500 SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATE DY‘ACULTY OF ENGINEE) — . ENaINEERINg ND R 8 a was EXPERIMENT10 7; u , Crp. 4 NUMERICAL APERTURE aw OBJECTIVE: To Determine the Numerical Aperture of an Optical Fiber, x : N PPARATUS: The trainer consists ofthe following bull in pars: Al % | IC integrated DC power supply: Fiber-optic Analogue Transmitter @ 660nm. . Fiber-optic Analogue Transmitter @850nm. |. Fiber-Optic receiver. . One-meter PMMA Fiber patch cord. . Five-meter PMMA Fiber patch cord. In-line SMA adaptor. . To potentiometer to vary forward current of LED in transmitter & phototransistor in receiver. 9. SPDT switch for selecting wavelengths 660nm and 850nm. 10. NA JIG with scale marked on it to measure length. 11, Mains On/OFF Switch, Fuse and jewel light. 12. The unit is operative on 230V#10% AT S0Hz A.C. Mains, 13, Adequate no of patch cords stackable mm spring loaded plug length % Meter PA AwH REE THEORY: Optical Fiber: Optical Fiber isa flexible, transparent fiber made of very pure glass (silica) not much bigger than a human hair that acs as a waveguide, or the two ends of the fiber. Optical fibers are widely us Permits transmission over longer distances and at forms of communication, “light pipe", to transmit Tight between ed in fiber-optic communications, which higher bandwidths (data rates) than oer Optical fiber typically consists of a transparent core surrounded by a transpareat 8 material with a lower index of reftacton, Light is kept in the core by total intemal ion. This causes the ber to act as a ‘Waveguide. Fibers that support many propagation cladding TeflecticFACULTY OF ENGI CHNOLOGY sINEERING AND TE‘ 101) year ENGINEERING PHYSICS (031 B. Tech. 1 or transverse modes are eS alele called multi-mode fibers (MMF), whi Mage mode are called single-mode fibers ($y ), while those that only support principle of operation ‘An optical fiber i : | S a cylindrical dielectric waveguide (non conduct ae it along its axis lucting waveguide) eas ity ; pad the process of total internal reflection. The a air ofa core 8 y a cladding layer, both ; : a » both of which are oe : the optical signal i made of dielectric materials. To confine the optical signal in the core, the refractive index of the core must be greater than that othe cladding. The boundary between the : core and claddin; e : jndex fiber, or gradual, in graded-index fiber. 1g may either be abrupt, in step- Numerical Aperture (NA): ! a numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that characterizes the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light Fiber with a jarget NA requires less precision to splice and work with than fiber with smaller NA. single-mode fiber has a small NA. Fig: (1) Numerical Aperture of thin films f ‘The Numerical Aperture of an optical system such as an objective lens is defined by NA= ni X sin @max niis 1 for air Hence NA= sin 9max_—_—_— ., re pent ocho ENC eC] = CNEERING PYSC§ LO (03 A B. Teeh, 2Iny Ye iste. iter t index fiber the Numerical aperture is given by = ze NA= |(Neore® — Metadaing?) ferences in refractive indices the equation reduces to For a step- For very small di NA = Morey (24), where A is the fractional difference in refractive indices, Cladding: Coren EXPERIMENTAL SET UP:pROCEDURE: FACULTY OF ENGr NEERING ANI me 'D TECHNO) 'INEERING PHYSICS (Osszion) B.Tech. 1" year Connect one end of the cable other end to the NA 11G as 0) Put the Wavelength Selector 1 amet ter wring Port of the trainer and the Switch FO cable) to LED to. $60 meter postion, increase. Hold the white i apne — Ae the 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 and 25mm diameter) Suitable distance to make the red Spot from the emitting fiber with the 10mm ci i circle (The circumference of the outermost) must coincide with the circle, Record the distance “L” Of screen from the fiber end and note the diameter (D) of the spot. Compute NA from the formula. Tabulate the reading and repeat the experiment for 15, 20, 25mm diameters too. In case of under filled, the intensity within the spot may not be evenly distributed. To ensure even distribution of light in the fiber, first remove twists on the fiber and then wind 5 tums of the fiber on to the mandrel as shown in fig (5). Use an adhesive tape to hold the winding in position. Now view the spot. The intensity will be more evenly distributed within the core.OF FACULTY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (31900 ENGINEERING AND TECHNO) B.Tech, ye) ‘Diameter of | Acceptance spot angle D(mm) p)| NA=sing ee ge tan 2) (degree) 60 wyasys” | 023226 ug stasta’ | 92h es 16° 34! 26" | 06 2¥2 16 yo ss's3"] 0. 996 | ‘CALCULATION: fede! (Qe Nazwa f ane 2 tae") ¥y ge dow! (fs, Na ede (15% te > ala 20-3226 cw’ (8) (sla comet J = WB 244 eb = YE Oy" a ay de bent ( p ss (is*as' 4!) a\sodd VV (6+ \s* as! yi N, {pala = 0.2414FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) star ) ; Beech year ua NA= dun Bf = hn (6° 34196") 4 den if ta Gk) Na = gen (Ine 5 Ig3"") 2 Yo 4814 Tear zo.as% | a Average 6 NA = 0.3226 + 6.2414 aad USL AO2SF i... 1 H.W KUNA 415 As 4 [b-S44c oe te 4874 ne 26 = 4695203 2 7 7d ~ gigi! \ 5 ¥ A VEC ge A ctepgoner. Tenner nari ENGINEERING PHYSICS mOLoGy Qo Teak grit) at RESULT: From this experiment, erical aperture of given optical fiber is measured as be WOR The Num ‘And the acceptance angle of given optical fiber is measured as, 6 ° 3) 43" QUESTIONS: - 1] What is NA and acceptance angle? i cupOd wee Ey Ans: -_Al ( Oh am i Heim to & las an 7 He Hh tat Hiss Seles gre Romar of Qing tubs Ake _SyAitmn ttm Ltt pk Or ervich Ligyrt » 2] What is snell’s law?FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B.Tech. 1" year EXPERIMENT 11 PARTICLE SIZE OBJECTIVE: To determine the size of lyeqpod; ‘Yeopodium powder particle usi hen of Diffraction of ight eae APPARATUS: Diode Laser Source, screen, Scale, holder and Base, ‘sample slide Cycopodium powder for particle size determination) THEORY: ‘When waves pass through apertures or around obstacles, they spread out into regions which CO ee——— can be described in terms of Huygens Principle, Huygens proposed that every point on a wave front may be regarded as a source of secondary spherical wavelets. Where these waves cross, they constructively and destructively add, Diffraction is regarded as being due to the addition (superposition) of Huygens’ secondary wavelets, Imagine that a slit consists of strips of equal width, parallel to the length of the slit. The total effect in a particular direction is then found by adding the wavelets emitted in that direction by all the strips. In Lycopodium slide containing the spherical powder particle, the diffraction takes place at all the angles round the spherical particles of powder and produces the annular rings, The first disc is known as the array’s disc whose diameter can be used to calculate the size of powder particle using the formula given by 1.22 ° D= Page 173[NEERING fparinalctasing! see | of ENGINEERING PHYSICS (0319),°% pAcuLTY ENGINED) 4 Ta 2 ep PROCEDURE: ler and mount on the heavy base Hold the sample slide Place the LASER source on hold between LASER source and screen (as shown in figure) (amounted on the holder and base) so as to obtain the good pattern on the screen. the diameter of inner most circular dis in the pattern obtained on the screen. Measure Calculate the particle size using the formula ne 1.2204 p Where, A = Wavelength of LASER beam (630 nm) d=dis distance between screen & sample slide (in meter) P= Diameter of the first circle (in meter)FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year CALCULATIONS: ‘ Vy 2 boa ad § = Lad K gS add «197 Phare a= ].28 xrel yy = HA ~ 099 xb6594-OKE ona = bdnro$ Ys, = GeGam deege a os Ditto thy 3 bs AE LoS LoyFACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year * Mounting and coupling should be done carefully, © Care should be taken so that the laser light will Not directly fall into the eyes. * As far as possible, experiment should be conducted in a dark room, RESULT: The particle size of lycopodium powder using LASER source is measured as AG um. QUESTIONS: - 1] Which kind of laser is used in this experiment? 2] What is Huygens Principle? As PS ag pani gle_aiatte that Ou ree velet Ao SIGNATURE OF FACULTY WITH DATEENGINEERING AND ne acuLTY OF HINGINEERING PHYSICS oases \ B. Tech, 1 yen EXPERIMENT 12 IN OPTICAL FIBER powER Loss in Optical Fibers (PMMA) ang opsective: ToS measure the loss in onssts ofthe followin puilt in parts: ApPARATUS: The trainer & Ic integrated DC power supply: ‘Analogue Transmitter @ 6600" . Fiber-optic 500m. . Fiber-optic Analogue Transmitter @ 8: Fiber-Optic receiver. One-meter PMMA Fiber patel Five-meter PMMA Fiber pateh cord. |. Incline SMA adaptor. entiometer to vary forward current of LED in tran h cord. smitter & current of PI AW a Awe ep . To pot phototransistor in receiver. 9, SPDT switch for selecting wavel ‘ed on it to measure length. Jengths 660nm and 850nm. 10, NA JIG with scale marke 11. Mandrel. 12. Adequate no of other electronic components. 13. Mains On/OFF Switch, Fuse and jewel light. 14, The unit is operative on 230V+10% AT 50Hz A.C. Mains. : 15, Adequate no of patch cords stackable 4mm spring loaded plug length %4 Meter. 16. Digital Fiber-optic power OMEGA TYPE DFPM-021. 17. Digital Multi meter OMEGA TYPE DMM-201. THEORY: Loss or Attenuation (gradual loss i loss in intensity of any ki y kind of flux through a medium) i jum) in optical fibers occur at fil i pomp: eae joints or splices due to axial displacement angular : : (cir-core), mismatch of cores diameters, mit ipertures, improper cleaving and cleaning at the ends, eeon oe Lert ies ty FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ‘TECHNOLOGY — ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year The optical power ata distance L, in an optical fiber is given by Pi=Po10(-@4/10) Where 4 is attenuation coefficient in decibels (ab) per unit ength Pois the launched power & Pig the Power after covering distance L in the fibre Propagation loss: Po! Cabiey LBP ot *— Cable 2. Po catia 'ndine-Adaptor Cable 2 “Chea Bending loss:GINEERING AND TECHNO} UT OF en NEERING PHYSICS (0315080 2] B.Tech, yw ve) TRAINER LED] [FO CABLE] EO CONVERTER SET-UP FO LOSS. MEASUREMENT. PROCEDURE: 1. Connect the one end of 1 m cable to the LED port of the trainer and the other end to the power meter. 2. A digital multi meter is.connected to measure the power in dBm unit directly, keeping the voltage range of 200 mV or 2000 mV. 3. Put the wavelength selector switch to particular wavelength (as 660nm) position. 4. Plug the AC mains. Neon light will glow indicating that instrument is ready for use. 5. Make sure thatthe optical fiber patch cord is connected securely, as shown after relieving all twists and strains on the fiber. Adjust the LED CURRENT ADJUST knob to set Pp of the LED to @ suitable value (around 15 or 20 dBm) and note this as Pol. (voltmeter reading of 150 mV corresponds to 15 dBm)FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOG) ENGINEERING PHYSICS (0319210! B. Tech. 1* yeal 7. Pol- Po2- (loss in adapter) gives power loss in 5 m cable. Generally the loss in in- line adapter is up to maximum 1 dBm. 8 Now connect one end of the 5 m cable to LED port and other end to power meter and measure Pol (power at the end of 5 m cable) Connect one end of 1 m cable with § m cable meter to measure power at the end of, ubieiorarn ot ~ Po2- (loss i . 02. 10. Pol- Po (es in adapter) gives power loss in 1 11. To measure the bending loss, fj , first any twist and toms, ‘measure the power (Pol) at the end of the fiber without e ™ cable. Now the loss du i settle sea, © to bending and strain on the plastic fiber is Pol- P02 4B, For more ut set the power meter to the -20dB to -10dB range and take the measurement. 13. Wind second turn of the fiber on the mandrel and note the new reading of the power as Po3. 14. Find the difference Po2- Po3. This also gives loss per tum of the fiber. . OBSERVATION TABLE: (For propagation loss) Sr. Tossin | Lossineable | Lessin | Propagation No Pol Por | Pod | cable 1 2 6mFiber loss (dBm) | (dBm) | (Bm) (@B) @). @) (aB/m) 1 x bi > A c ‘\ 7 s Ww 2|~ : = 2 a = 3 2” As oe J ) 4|7. —FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHN ENGINEERING PHYSICS SC) in] fear OBSERVATION TABLE: (For bending loss) . Sr. | No.of Lossin | Loss in cable | Lossin Pol | Pod a No] wm | ay | com) | 2 6 m Fiber ing loss (@B) (aB) (@) (Bim) ie (e200 2{ 1 3] 2 CALCULATION: ee Osdbrn sn ey 0 Poy c-i5-3 dBm Poa e Tb de o12 CIF) OF ~ g . 3 5 = ps dB = OY. p)085 vn en (able = Porn Pod OF = (e162) He) a 0-686 _ iin ioFACULTY OF ENGINVEHING AND SYCHKOLOGY ENGINELMING PHYSICS (0359210) as a #8, Tech, JY year 87. dessin brn Chemnel = 955 jon Yin Ados> = Ob ths - 8 uy Piteenabion eafgicienl ~ ossFACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1 year eo aaa RESULT: From this experiment, @B/turn, Propagation loss in the fiber is measured as Ged aBifm Bending loss in the fiber is measured as. QUESTIONS: - 1] Mention the types of loses occurring in optical fiber?(OLOGY FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHN AND TECH 192101) (C8 (03192. ENGINEERING — Tech, 1" year EXPERIMENT 13 B-H CURVE OBJECTIVE: To trace the B-H curve for an iron core and to Study the effect of varying the voltage and frequency on hysteresis loop. APPARATUS: Power supply, U and I core, coils with 300 tums, BNC connector cable, 50 cm lead, CRO. THEORY: In a ferromagnetic material the magnetic induction field B is not a linear function of the magnetic field H. The ‘magnetic induction field, for a given H, depends on the previous history of the specimen. The curve of B vs. His shown in the following figure.TECHNOLOGY ‘SICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING PHY’ lirection, the magnetic When the magnetic field H is very large in the positive or negative di induction field B saturates at a value BS, called the saturation magnetic field. At any given value of the magnetic field H, there are two values for B, one when the magnetic field H is is increasing. Thus B depencs on the magnetic field is reduced from a a value + Br decreasing and another while the magnetic field H is history and the phenomenon is ‘called hysteresis. If the the magnetic induction field does not go to zero. It has from a positive value or from a maximum value to zero, duction field. To make the depending on whether the magnetic field H is brought fo Zero negative value. The value of Br is called the residual magnetic. in magnetic induction field B zero one has to apply @ magnetic field + He (+ when the magnetic field is increasing and — when it is decreasing). This field He is called the coercive field. The values of Br and He are characteristics of a ferromagnetic material. A material with a small called a hard He is called a soft ferromagnetic material while one with a large He is ic material is subjected to an AC maj f heat generated per cycle per unit ergy as heat. erature and ceramic netic field H, ferromagnetic material. If the ferromagneti the area enclosed by the B-H curve gives the amount o volume in the material. So hysteresis leads to wastage of electrical en Ni and Co at room temp’ ements like Zn. One can use materials a ferromagnetic 1 should. Examples of ferromagnetic materials are Fe, or Ni and other el materials which are oxides of iron with properties suited for a particular application. For example if one wants core material for winding a transformer, one should reduce the hysteresis loss i.e. on have a soft magnetic material like soft iron with low coercive field. On the other hand if one would like to make a permanent magnet, the material must have a large residual magnetization and a large coercive field. Such a material is hard iron. If one wants to use a ysteresis loop (i.€. Br ial for computer memories then it should have a square by a small coercive field. The state +Br will be called the state 1 and the A large variety of magnetic materials tailor-made for 4 ferrite materi nearly equal to Bs) with state —Br will be called the state 0. number of applications are now commercially available.FACUL’ ‘TY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY ENGINEERING PHYSICS (03192101) B. Tech. 1" year circulT DIAGRAM: INTEGRAT OR VER-CRO. ‘A Magnetic field is generated in a U & I shape iron core by continuous (Sin or Triangular) wave to primary coil which generates the magnetic field strength H as H= (NL). Where L: Effective length of iron core, N1: ‘Number of tum. ‘The corresponding magnetic induction B is obtained through integration of the voltage V induced in second coil as: Be (I/N2.A). JV.dt ‘Not Number of turns. iron core, and Hysteresis curve as function of the Where A: Cross-section of magnetization curve plotted. In the present setup, the magnetic field strength H isj ecnraty ROH oe gat) aetier eee PROCEDURE es ns and switch it on Adjust the intensity using ; een when jt is used in X-Y Connect the CRO to A.C mau ed on the so controls xo that fine and bright spot is observ 2 it to the external input 1 end by tt mode by ean : es and Y-plates of CRO and 2. Supply the voltages from the power switch on the supply connected to the pri .d vertical gain contro! supply to the X-plat imary of the U core. Is of CRO to get B-H curve of proper shape 3. Adjust the horizontal an and size on the screen of CRO. 4, The closed curve represents the cyclic variations of B which is called magnetic hysteresis or B-H curve or hysteresis loop. 5. Trace the curve on tracing paper after making it symmetrical with respect to X-axis and Y-axis marked on the screen of CRO. Mark these two axis on trace paper, along the B-H curve. tT . ‘race the curves for different voltages keeping frequency constant and for various frequencies keeping the voltage constant. Page |