GURU NANAK INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(NAAC ACCREDITED)
Dahegaon, Kalmeshwar Road, Nagpur

Topic
Environmental Engineering-I: Unit-III
Conducted by,
Prof. A. A. Nandanwar
Asst. Prof., CE

Organized by,
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
GNIT NAGPUR
 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING - I
Subject code: BECVE303T Evaluation Scheme: (80/20)

COURSE OBJECTIVE:
 To prepare students to apply basic knowledge of environmental
engineering in conventional civil engineering practice involving water
supply engineering in particular.

 The course will provide students knowledge regarding the sources, of

water demands, population forecasting, and conveyance of water.

 To prepare students to analyze, plan, and design of various phases of

water supply systems.

 To provide the students the knowledge regarding the various

characteristics of water, estimation of the quantity of water.

 The course will provide students with fundamentals of solid waste

management
 COURSE OUTCOMES:
 The students would be able to understand the importance and necessity
of water supply.

 The students would be able to determine the capacity of water supply

scheme.

 The students would have the basic knowledge related to the

conveyance systems and the appurtenances used.

 The students would have knowledge of characteristics of water,

drinking water standards and necessity of treatment.

 The students would be able to design various units of conventional

water treatment plant.

 The students would be equipped with the basic knowledge related to

design of water supply system.

 The students should be able to understand of necessity of treatment,

 Unit - III
A)Water quality: Physical, Chemical and
bacteriological characteristics of water, Health
effects of various water characteristics,
Standards of drinking water. (WHO 2011,
CPHEOO, IS 10500), Water born diseases.

B) Water treatment: Objective of treatment, unit

operations and processes, house hold &
community based rural water treatment,
decentralized water treatment, flow sheet of
conventional water treatment plant.
C) Aeration: Purpose, types of aerators,
design of cascade aerator.

D) Coagulation and Flocculation:

Definition, Principles, types of coagulants
and reactions, coagulant doses, types of
mixing and flocculation devices.
 Water Quality

Impurities in water

For the purpose of classification the impurities present in water

may be divided in to the following three categories.

1. Physical impurities

2. Chemical impurities

3. Bacteriological impurities
 Physical impurities

1) Colour:- The water bodies may be receiving colour from natural

and artificial sources. The discharge from many industries may be
coloured and such discharge in to natural water bodies imparts
colour to the water of such water bodies. The measurement of
colour in water is carried out by means of a fintometer. For public
water supply the number on cobalt scale should not exceed
20ppm and should be preferably less than 10ppm.

2) Temperature: Temperature of water is measured by means of

ordinary thermometers. The temperature of surface water is
generally at atmospheric temperature, while that of ground water
may be more or less than atmospheric temperature. The most
desirable temperature for public supply between 4.4°C to
10°C. The temperature above 35°C are unfit for public supply.
3) Taste and odour:

 Taste and odour in water may be due to presence of dead or live micro-
organisms, dissolved gases such as hydrogen sulphide, methane, carbon
dioxide or oxygen combined with organic matter, mineral substances
such as sodium chloride, iron compounds and carbonates and sulphates
of other substances.

 The water having bad smell and odour is objectionable and should not
be supplied to the public.

 The test is carried out by in having through tests of an osmoscope.

 The taste and odour of water may also be tasted by thresholds number.
For public water supply the threshold number should not be more that.
4) Turbidity:
 Turbidity is caused due to presence of suspended and colloidal matter in
the water.
 The turbidity in water may also be due to clay and silt practices,
discharges of sewage or industrial wastes, presence of large numbers of
nitro-organisms, etc.
 The character and amount of turbidity depends upon the type of soil over
which the water has moved ground waters are less turbid than the surface
water.
 Turbidity is a measure of resistance of water to the passage of light
through it.
 Turbidity is expressed as NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units) or PPM
(parts per million) or Milligrams per litre (mg/l).
The permissible turbidity for drinking water is 5 to 10 p.p.m.
5) Floating Matters: At many places the dumping ground for debries of
garbage may be close to the river. In rainy season garbage are carried by
rain water appearing as floating matters in the river or stream. Again in
rainy season different types of debries may come down with rain water
from the catchment area in hilly region. These floating matters may pollute
water by decomposing.

6) Unpleasant Gases: The presence of gases in water is indicated by the

formation of foam in rivers. The foam may be formed by the absorption of
gases while the water falls with tremendous velocity from water falls in
hilly area, or due to the whirling motion in river which flow with great
velocity.

7) Radioactive Substances: The nuclear power plant, nuclear research

center & some industries dealing with radioactive substances may discharge
some waste products which may have radioactive property. This property
seriously affects the human life & aquatic life.
 Chemical impurities

Chemical tests involve the determination of;

1. Total solids
2. PH value
3. Hardness of water
4. Chloride content
5. Metal and other chemical substances
6. Nitrogen and its compounds
7. Dissolved Gases
1. Total solids:

 The total amount of solids (suspended as well as dissolved solids)

present in water can be determined by evaporating a sample of water
& weighing the dry residue left.

 The suspended solids can be found by filtering the water sample &
weighing the residue left on the filter paper.

 The difference between the total solids & the suspended solids will
then represent nothing but dissolved solids.

 The total permissible amounts of solids in water is generally limited to

500 ppm.
2) PH Value: The acidity or alkalinity of water is measured in terms of its
pH value or H-ion concentration. Neutral water has pH value of 7.
 As pH value becomes less, the water
becomes acidic and when pH value is
zero it indicates maximum acidity
similarly the water becomes alkaline
as pH values at increase and maximum
alkalinity is indicated when pH value
is equal to 14.

 For portable water, the pH value

should be between 6.5 and 8.5.

pH = - log 10[H+ ] or
1 / log 10[H+ ]
3) Hardness of Water:

• It is a property of water, which prevents the lathering of the soap.

• Hardness is of two types.
1. Temporary hardness: It is caused due to the presence of carbonates
and sulphates of calcium and magnesium. It is removed by boiling.
2. Permanent hardness: It is caused due to the presence of chlorides
and nitrates of calcium and magnesium. It is removed by zeolite
method.
• Hardness is usually expressed in gm/litre or p.p.m. of calcium carbonate
in water. Hardness of water is determined by EDTA method. For potable
water hardness ranges from 5 to 8 degrees.
4) Chloride Content:

• The natural waters near the mines and sea dissolve sodium chloride and
also presence of chlorides may be due to mixing of saline water and
sewage in the water.
• Excess of chlorides is dangerous and unfit for use. The chlorides can be
reduced by diluting the water. Chlorides above 250p.p.m. are not
permissible in water.
• Chlorides are estimated by titration with standard silver nitrate solution
using potassium chromate as indicator.
• For this 50 c.c. of water sample is taken by a pipette, in a porcelien dish,
and two or three drops of potassium chromate solution is added to the
water in the dish.
• The water sample is then titrated with standard solution of silver nitrate.
5) Metal and other chemical substances

Various tests are made to detect the presence of different metals

and other chemical substance in a sample of water.

Name of metal Maximum permissible concentration

in mg/ ltr

Arsenic (As) 0.05

Copper (Cu) 1.00

Fluoride(F) 1.70

Iron (Fe) 0.30

Zinc (Zn) 5.00

6) Nitrogen and its compounds
The nitrogen is present in water in the following four forms:
1. Free ammonia
2. Albuminoid ammonia
3. Nitrites
4. Nitrates
• The amount of free ammonia in portable water should not be
exceeded 0.15 p.p.m. and that of albuminoid ammonia should not
exceed 0.3 p.p.m.
• The term albuminoid ammonia is used to represent the quantity of
nitrogen present in water before the decomposition of organic matter
has started.
• The presence of nitrides indicates that the organic matter present in
water is not fully oxidized or in other words, it indicates an
intermediate oxidation stage.
• The amount of nitrites in portable water should be nil.
• For portable water, the highest desirable level of nitrates is
45mg/ltr.
7) Dissolved Gases

• The water contains various gasses from its contact with the atmosphere
and ground surfaces.
• The usual gasses are nitrogen, methyl hydrogen sulphide, and oxygen.
• The contents of these dissolved gasses in a sample of water are suitably
worked out.
• The Nitrogen is not very important the methane concentration is to be
studied for its explosive property.
• The hydrogen sulphide gives disagreeable odour to the water even if its
amount is very small.
• The carbon dioxide content indicates biological activities causes’
corrosion, increases the solubility of many minerals in water and gives
taste to the water.
 Bacteriological impurities
• The examination of water for the presence of bacteria is important for
the water supply engineer from the viewpoint of public health.
• The bacteria may be harmless to mankind or harmful to mankind. The
former category is known as non-pathogenic bacteria and the later
category is known as pathogenic bacteria.
• Many of the bacteria found in water are derived from air, soil and
vegetation.
• Some of these are able to multiply and continue their existence while the
remaining die out in due course of time.
• The selective medium that promote the growth of particular bacteria and
inbuilt the growth of other organisms is used in the lab to detect the
presence of the required bacteria, usually coliform bacteria..

Following are the two standard bacteriological tests for the

bacteriological examination of water:
(1) Total count or agar plate count test.
(2) B-coli test.
 Water Borne Diseases
 World health organization has observes that 80% of communicable diseases
that are transmitted through water.
 The diseases like cholera, gastroenteritis, typhoid, amoebia, diarrhoea,
polio, hepatitis (Jaundice), Leptospirosis, Dracontiasis are caused by bacteria.
 Excess of fluorides present in water [ above 1.5 mg/litre] cause diseases
like dental flurosis, sketetalflurosis.
 This is a permanent irresible disease that weakens the bone structure. The
patient becomes bedridden.
 Excess of nitrates in water causes Mathaemoglobinaemia or blue baby
symptoms in infants.
 It effects the hemoglobin in the blood and reduces its capacity to transport
oxygen to the cells.
 Nitrates in water are caused by industrial effluents, agricultural runoff.
 Toxic ions of chromium, lead, arsenic and pesticides in water cause
diseases affecting the kidney, liver and high blood pressure, paralysis, cancer
etc.
 These toxic substances are due to industrial effluents reaching the surface
and ground water sources.
Water Borne Diseases are those diseases which spread primarily through
contaminated waters.
A) Diseases caused by bacterial infections:-
i) Typhoid fever & paratyphoid fever (caused by Salmonella typhi bacteria)
ii) Cholera (caused by vibro-cholerae bacteria)
iii) Bacillary dysentry (caused by shiga bacillus or flexer- bacillus or sonne
bacillus)
B) Disease caused by viral infections:-
i) Infectious hepatitis or infectious jaundice (caused by hepatitis virus)
ii) Poliomyelitis (caused by Polio virus)
C) Disease caused by protozoal infections:-
i) Amoebic dysentry (caused by entamoeba hystolytic germ)

Excreta of Water Water Sources Water Taken by well

Sick Person well/stream person
Contaminate
 STANDARDS OF DRINKING WATER

Standards for potable water as per I.S. specification:-

A) Physical:-
i) Temperature: 10ᵒC – 15ᵒC.
ii) Odour : 0 - 4 P. value
iii) Taste: not objectionable
iv) Colour: 10-20 ppm

B) Chemical :-
i) Hardness: 75-115 ppm
ii) Chloride : upto 250 ppm
iii) pH value: 6.5 – 8

C) Biological:-
i) B-Coli: No B-coli in 100 ml
ii) MPN : One number in 100 ml
Flowsheet of conventional water treatment plant
Functions of each unit:-

1. Intake well: The raw water admitted from the source, in these wells,
through the inlet opening having screen to separate the floating material.
2. Screen: Screen are used to remove the floating, suspended material.
3. Aerators: To remove the gases from the water, the raw water exposed to
the air.
4. Coagulant tank: It is Used to add the coagulant into the water.
5. Flash mixer: In this unit, added coagulators are properly mixed.
6. Clari Flocculator: In this unit two process are done i.e. Flocculation and
sedimentation.
7. Flocculation: Floc are formed and in sedimentation floc get settled down.
8. Filter beds: It helps to remove the fine and colloidal matter from the
water.
9. Disinfection: It helps to kill microorganisms and also to destroy organic
impurities. This is important process for water treatment.
10. Distribution System: Treated water convey to household.
Filtration: The water passes through filters, some made of layers of sand,
gravel, and charcoal that help remove even smaller particles.
Disinfection: A small amount of chlorine is added or some other
disinfection method is used to kill any bacteria or microorganisms that
may be in the water.
Sedimentation: Sedimentation is the tendency for particles in suspension
to settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest
against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response
to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal
acceleration, or electromagnetism.
Coagulation: Coagulation removes dirt and other particles suspended in
water. Alum and other chemicals are added to water to form tiny sticky
particles called “floc” which attract the dirt particles. The combined
weight of the dirt and the alum (floc) become heavy enough to sink to the
bottom during sedimentation.
 Functions of Water Treatment Units
UNIT TREATMENT FUNCTION REMOVAL

Aeration, chemicals used Colour, Odour, Taste

Screening Floating matter

Chemical methods Iron, Manganese, etc.

Softening Hardness

Sedimentation Suspended matter

Coagulation Suspended matter, a part of colloidal

matter and bacteria
Filtration Remaining colloidal dissolved matter,
bacteria
Disinfection Pathogenic bacteria, organic matter and
reducing substances
 Screening

• A screen is a device with openings for removing bigger suspended or floating

matter in sewage which would otherwise damage equipment or interfere with
satisfactory operation of treatment units.

• It is the first operation in wastewater treatment to remove most of the bigger

and longer visible objects such as trees, branches, sticks, rags, boards, animals
etc present in raw water of surface water sources as the screens protect pumps
and other mechanical equipments and to prevent clogging of valves and other
appurtenances.

Types of Screens:-

Screens are of three types depending upon the size of opening-

(a) Coarse screens
(b) Medium screens and
(c) Fine screens.
 Aeration
 It is the process of bringing water in intimate contact with air to increase the
oxygen concentration in water and to remove unwanted gases from water.
 It works on the principle of gas exchange process.

Objectives of Aeration:
1. To remove tastes and odors caused by gases due to decomposition.
2. To increase dissolved oxygen content.
3. To remove hydrogen sulphide and due to it.
4. Decrease carbon dioxide and raises pH value.
5. To remove minerals such as iron and manganese.
6. Due to agitation bacteria may get killed.
7. Can be used for mixing Chemicals.
Types of Aerators:-

1. Gravity Aerators or Free Fall Aerators

i) Cascade Aerator
ii) Inclined Apron Aerator
iii) Slat Tray Aerator
iv) Gravel Bed Aerators
2. Spray Aerators
3. Diffused Air Aerators
4. Mechanical aerators.

1. Gravity Aerators
In gravity aerators, water is allowed to fall by gravity such that a large
area of water is exposed to atmosphere, sometimes aided by turbulence.
Cascade aerators and Multi ‐tray aerators are two examples of this type.
(i) Cascade Aerators:-
• A cascade aerator (one of the oldest and most common aerators) consists
of a series of steps that the water flows over.

• In all cascade aerators, aeration is accomplished in the splash zones.

Splash zones are created by placing blocks across the incline. (They are
the oldest and most common type of aerators) Cascade aerators can be
used to oxidize iron and to partially reduce dissolved gases.
ii) Inclined Apron Aerator:

In this type of aerator, water is allowed to fall along an inclined plane or

apron which is provided with riffle plates. Due to riffles plates water
jumps into the atmosphere causing aeration.
iii) Slat Tray Aerator:
 This is most commonly used. It consists of a closed round or square
structure containing a series of closely stacked superimposed wood slat
trays.
 Water enters the top of aerator and is evenly distributed over the top
most try.
 The water is allowed to fall freely from tray to tray due to which water
comes in contact with air.
 Water is collected in collector pan at the bottom, from where it flows to
a catch basin or reservoir.
iv) Gravel Bed Aerator:
In this type of gravel bed aerator in which water is applied at the top and
trickles down while air is blown upwards. The thickness of gravel bed
may be from 1 to 1.5m. It is also known as tricking beds.
(2) Fountain Aerators(Spray Aerators) :-
• Spray aerators have one or more spray nozzles connected to a pipe
manifold. Water moves through the pipe under pressure, and leaves each
nozzle in a fine spray and falls through the surrounding air, creating a
fountain affect.
• Spray aeration is successful in oxidizing iron and manganese and
increases the dissolved oxygen in the water.
• These are also known as spray aerators with special nozzles to produce a
fine spray.
• Each nozzle is 2.5 to 4 cm diameter discharging about 18 to 36 l/h.
• Nozzle spacing should be such that each m³ of water has aerator area of
0.03 to 0.09 m² for one hour.
3.Injection or Diffused Aerators :-
• It consists of a tank with perforated pipes, tubes or diffuser plates,
fixed at the bottom to release fine air bubbles from compressor unit.
• The tank depth is kept as 3 to 4 m and tank width is within 1.5 times
its depth.
• If depth is more, the diffusers must be placed at 3 to 4 m depth below
water surface.
• Time of aeration is 10 to 30 min and 0.2 to 0.4 litres of air is required
for 1 litre of water.
4.Mechanical Aerators :-
• Mixing paddles as in flocculation are used. Paddles may be either
submerged or at the surface.
Mechanical Aerator
Design Criteria for Cascade Aerator:

i) Total area required = 0.015 to 0.045 m²/(m³/hr)

ii) No. of cascade = 3 to 9
iii) Height of each step = 20 to 50 cm
iv) Height of aerator = 1 to 3 m
v) Velocity in inlet pipe = 0.3 to 0.9 m/s
 DESIGN OF CASCADE AERATOR

Q 1) Design a cascade aerator for a design flow to 12 MLD.

Solution:

A) Design of Inlet Pipe:

Flow = 12 MLD
Q = 12 x 10⁶ = 500m³/hr
24 x 10³
Q = 0.138 m³/sec

Assuming velocity in pipe = 0.6 m/s

ˌˑˌArea of inlet pipe = Q/V = 0.138/ 0.6 = 0.23 m²

Diameter of inlet pipe = √4 x 0.23 = 0.54 m ≈ 0.6 m

Π
B) Design of Aerator:

Assuming total area required for aerator = 0.03 m²/(m³/hr)

ˌˑˌ area of bottom cascade = 0.03 x 500 = 15 m²

ˌˑˌTotal area of bottom cascade = Area of aerator + Area of Inlet Pipe

= 15 + Π (0.6)²
4
= 15.28 m²

ˌˑˌ Diameter of Bottom Cascade = √4 x 15.28

Π
= 4.41 m
≈ 4.5 m

Assuming height of aerator = 2 m

& number of steps = 5
ˌˑˌ rise of each step = 200 cm = 40cm
5
i) Diameter of tip of Aerator = 4.5/5 = 0.9 m
ii) Diameter of 1st Cascade = 0.9 + 0.9 = 1.8 m
iii) Diameter of 2nd Cascade = 0.9 x 3 = 2.7 m
iv) Diameter of 3rd Cascade = 0.9 x 4 = 3.6 m
v) Diameter of 4th Cascade = 0.9 x 5 = 4.5 m
vi) Diameter of collecting Channel = 4.5 +2 = 6.5 m

0.9 m

Inlet Pipe
40 cm

40 cm
1.8 m

40 cm
2.7 m

40 cm
3.6 m
0.6 Collecting
4.5 m 40 cm Chamber

6.5 m
IMPORTANT QUESTIONS:

1) Design a cascade aerator for the capacity of 35 MLD.

Assume suitable data with a neat sketch . (Win.16) (7M)

2) Design a cascade aerator for a capacity of 15 MLD. Take

velocity at inlet pipe as 1.2 m/s. Area requirement for
aerator is 0.03 m²/ m³/hr. No. of steps as 4 & rise of each
step as 0.2 m. (Sum.17)(7M)

3) Design a cascade aerator for the capacity of 10 MLD.

Assume suitable data with a neat sketch . (Win.15) (7M)
 COAGULATION & FLOCCULATION
Coagulation:-
 Solids are removed by sedimentation (settling) followed by filtration.
Small particles are not removed efficiently by sedimentation because they
settle too slowly; they may also pass through filters.
 They would be easier to remove if they clumped together (coagulated) to
form larger particles, but they don't because they have a negative charge
and repel each other (like two north poles of a magnet).
 In coagulation, we add a chemical such as alum which produces positive
charges to neutralize the negative charges on the particles.
 Then the particles can stick together, forming larger particles which are
more easily removed.
 The coagulation process involves the addition of the chemical (e.g.
alum) and then a rapid mixing to dissolve the chemical and distribute it
evenly throughout the water.
Common Coagulants :-

1. Aluminium Sulphate or alum (Al2(SO4)3.18H2O)

2. Copperas or Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4. 7H2O)
3. Chlorinated copperas (FeSO4.7H2O)
4. Sodium aluminate (Na2Al2O4)
5. Magnesium carbonate
6. Polyelectrolyte
1. Use of alum [Al2(S04)3 18H2O]:

 Alum is the most widely used coagulant in water treatment. It reacts

quickly giving excellent stable flocs.

 It is cheap and can be easily stored and handled.

 The alum when added to raw water, reacts with natural alkalinity in water
so as to form a gelatinuous precipitate of aluminium hydroxide.

 It increases the sulphate hardness and corrosiveness of water to a small

extent.

 Another variety known as Black Alum, contains 2-5% of activated

carbon.

 When it is used in coagulation helps in removal of taste and colour.

The amount of alum required for coagulation depends on the turbidity
and colour of raw water.

 The dose of alum may vary from 5 mg/l for relatively clear water to 85
mg/l for highly turbid waters.

 The average normal alum dose is about 17 mg/l.

2. Copperas or Ferrous sulphate:

 When ferrous sulphate and lime are added to the water, the
following chemical reaction takes place.

FeSO₄.7H₂O+Ca(OH)₂ Fe(OH)₂+CaSO₄+7H₂O.
(copperas) (hydrated lime) (ferrous
hydroxide)

 The ferrous hydroxide Fe (OH)₂ thus oxygen in water and

ferric hydroxide is formed as per the following chemical reaction.

4Fe(OH)₂+2H₂O 4Fe(OH)₃
(ferrous hydroxide) (ferric hydroxide)

 The ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)₃ forms the floc. For ferrous

suphate, the effective PH range is 8.50 and above.
3. Chlorinated copperas (FeSO4.7H2O)
 When chorine and solution of ferrous sulphate are fixed, the following
chemical reaction takes place.
6FeSO₄. 7H₂O+3Cl₂ = 2Fe₂(SO₄)₃+2FeCl₃ +42H₂O
 The combination of ferric sulphate Fe₂(SO₄)₃ and Ferric chloride is known as the
chlorinated coppers , each one of the compound is effective as a floc and the
combination is also quite effective.
 The ferric sulphate and ferric chloride FeCl₃ both can be used independently with
lime to act as coagulant and the chemical reactions involved would be as follows.
Fe₂(SO₄)₃+3Ca(OH)₂ = 3CaSo₄+2Fe(OH)₃2Fecl₃+3Ca(OH) = 3CaCl₂+2Fe(OH)₃.

 The ferric hydroxide Fe (OH)₃ forms the floc. For ferric sulphate, the
effective PH change is 4 to 7 and above 9.For ferric chloride, the effective PH
range is 3.50 to 6.50 and above
4. Use of sodium aluminate (Na2Al2O4) as coagulant:
 This is an alkaline compound sometimes used as coagulant. It can react
in water which does not have natural alkalinity.
 This chemical when dissolved and mixed with water, reacts with salts
of calcium and magnesium present in raw water, resulting in the
formation of precipitates of calcium or magnesium aluminate.
 Thus it can reduce both carbonate and noncarbonate hardness in the
process of coagulation and is, therefore, useful in treating hard, turbid
waters.
 This coagulant is about 1.5 times costlier than alum and is therefore
generally avoided for treating ordinary public supplies but however, it is
very useful for treating water which do not have the natural desired
alkalinity and thus cannot be treated with pure alum.