Introduction
A handbook for field use supplant these works. Of course, there is more than
I have met many climbers from around the world
who told me that they acquired their basic technical
knowledge by studying the drawings in Petzl catalo-
gues. These catalogues have always offered a wealth
of information.
When Jean-Jacques Eleouet, first secretary
general of the Petzl Foundation (established in
2005), approached me to develop a handbook
based on these illustrations, I was immediately on
board. The text would be secondary. Ideally anyone,
regardless of his or her origins, education or level of
literacy, could use the handbook. Thus we created a
first draft. It was put to the test during sessions in
Nepal, organized in collaboration with the Nepal
Mountaineering Association, the Petzl Foundation
and the International Mountaineering and Climbing
Federation (UIAA).
The handbook was very well received, and the
child has since grown into an adolescent. Fueled
by the enthusiasm of the Petzl Foundation, which
secured the motivated collaboration of the UIAA’s
Mountaineering Commission, the handbook has
evolved and attracted input from other organiza-
tions with first-rate “know-how.” The current English-
language version is the most elaborate to date, but it
is still a work in progress. The document will continue
evolving and expanding to cover other aspects of the
alpine world.
This handbook is a compendium of the essen-
tial skills one must acquire in order to become a
hiking, climbing or mountaineering volunteer leader.
This is by no means a bible! This work is neither
exhaustive nor compulsory. A number of prominent
UIAA-member climbing federations have produced
more detailed, more complex and more advanced
manuals. It is not the intent of this handbook to
I II
one way to do things, and every person has his or
her preferred method. One could discuss the merits
of one technique over another, but that is not the
intent of this handbook. There is no one sole UIAA-
approved technique.
This handbook is designed for practical applica-
tions. It is a field guide intended to reinforce lessons
already learned yet not fully assimilated. It is offered
as one reference among many to any federation
wishing to follow the “Training Standards” we have
developed in the UIAA Mountaineering Commission.
These standards target primarily member-organi-
zation volunteers who are eager to increase their
technical knowledge and skills, and reduce the
risks inherent to mountaineering. The commission’s
founding text uses the term “voluntary leaders.”
This is part of the framework that also includes the
handbook.
The handbook’s diagrams combined with its
simplicity make it an invaluable and readily accessible
tool for use on all continents. Consequently, it faci-
litates technical communication between climbers
and mountaineers of all origins and from all walks of
life.
To all of you who use the handbook, whatever
your home country, I wish you grand mountain
adventures. May we undertake them in perfect
command of the dangers we so willingly court,
accepting these dangers without naiveté, but above
all never imposing them upon those not fully aware
of their existence.
Pierre Humblet
President of the Mountaineering Commission
The International Mountaineering
and Climbing Federation (UIAA)
Introduction
A handbook for field use
I have met many climbers from around the world
who told me that they acquired their basic technical
knowledge by studying the drawings in Petzl catalo-
gues. These catalogues have always offered a wealth
of information.
When Jean-Jacques Eleouet, first secretary
general of the Petzl Foundation (established in
2005), approached me to develop a handbook
based on these illustrations, I was immediately on
board. The text would be secondary. Ideally anyone,
regardless of his or her origins, education or level of
literacy, could use the handbook. Thus we created a
first draft. It was put to the test during sessions in
Nepal, organized in collaboration with the Nepal
Mountaineering Association, the Petzl Foundation
and the International Mountaineering and Climbing
Federation (UIAA).
The handbook was very well received, and the
child has since grown into an adolescent. Fueled
by the enthusiasm of the Petzl Foundation, which
secured the motivated collaboration of the UIAA’s
Mountaineering Commission, the handbook has
evolved and attracted input from other organiza-
tions with first-rate “know-how.” The current English-
language version is the most elaborate to date, but it
is still a work in progress. The document will continue
evolving and expanding to cover other aspects of the
alpine world.
This handbook is a compendium of the essen-
tial skills one must acquire in order to become a
hiking, climbing or mountaineering volunteer leader.
This is by no means a bible! This work is neither
exhaustive nor compulsory. A number of prominent
UIAA-member climbing federations have produced
more detailed, more complex and more advanced
manuals. It is not the intent of this handbook to
I II
supplant these works. Of course, there is more than
one way to do things, and every person has his or
her preferred method. One could discuss the merits
of one technique over another, but that is not the
intent of this handbook. There is no one sole UIAA-
approved technique.
This handbook is designed for practical applica-
tions. It is a field guide intended to reinforce lessons
already learned yet not fully assimilated. It is offered
as one reference among many to any federation
wishing to follow the “Training Standards” we have
developed in the UIAA Mountaineering Commission.
These standards target primarily member-organi-
zation volunteers who are eager to increase their
technical knowledge and skills, and reduce the
risks inherent to mountaineering. The commission’s
founding text uses the term “voluntary leaders.”
This is part of the framework that also includes the
handbook.
The handbook’s diagrams combined with its
simplicity make it an invaluable and readily accessible
tool for use on all continents. Consequently, it faci-
litates technical communication between climbers
and mountaineers of all origins and from all walks of
life.
To all of you who use the handbook, whatever
your home country, I wish you grand mountain
adventures. May we undertake them in perfect
command of the dangers we so willingly court,
accepting these dangers without naiveté, but above
all never imposing them upon those not fully aware
of their existence.
Pierre Humblet
President of the Mountaineering Commission
The International Mountaineering
and Climbing Federation (UIAA)
Warning

Caution!
The practice of alpine activities and the
use of technical equipment are inherently
dangerous and may result in severe injury
or death. Specific training by a qualified
instructor on the use of technical equipment
is essential. You are responsible for your own
actions and decisions.
This handbook is intended for hikers, climbers
and mountaineers who wish to expand the
practice of their favourite activity by acquiring
additional skills and knowledge. It has been
developed specifically as a reference for
instructors and future trip leaders in clubs and
mountain organizations within the International
Mountaineering and Climbing Federation. To
name the trainees or the mountaineers, the
pronouns «he» or «she» will be used alternately
throughout the book randomly without gender
stereotype.
The handbook does not pretend to provide
the only acceptable, nor the best, techniques.
Techniques other than those recommended
here may be equally valid or required at some
future date. Individual practitioners’ physical
skills and coordination also have their limits,
potentially requiring more complete risk
analyses in certain cases. The purpose of
this handbook is to present tried-and-true
techniques that can be learned and mastered
© UIAA - Petzl Foundation
First English Edition – Legal registration, Septembre 2013
ISBN 978-0-920330-69-2
Rights: All rights reserved by UIAA and Petzl Foundation.
Partial or complete reproduction of this work via printing, electronic or mechanical
duplication of any kind is strictly prohibited. Authorization for the reproduction or
use of the text or illustration is provided by the Petzl Foundation.
Contributor on page 330.
Printed in Canada by McCallum Printing Group Inc.
only through formal training. Despite the care
with which this handbook has been compiled,
it may contain errors or inaccuracies, making
a critical eye and professional mentoring
indispensable.
In the margins beside the illustrations,
the danger sign draws the reader’s attention
to any maneuver or incorrect equipment
usage that could result in injurious or fatal
consequences.
The information provided is not exhaustive.
Consult each manufacturer’s product manual
for any recommended piece of equipment.
Everyone is responsible for his or her
actions and decisions. Before heading into the
mountains and using technical equipment,
each participant must:
– Read and understand all instructions pertaining
to proper equipment use;
– Receive proper training on how to use the
equipment;
– Familiarize him- or herself with the
equipment; know its performance capabilities
and limitations; and,
– Understand and accept all risks associated
with the use of this equipment.
Ignoring any of the above warnings may
result in severe or fatal injuries.
Preface
Priority to education
It has long been my desire to establish a foundation
to give back to the climbing and mountaineering
community that for so long has sustained us.
Through the Petzl Foundation, established in 2005,
we now do tangible work for the benefit of our
community.
In concert with the development of our equipment,
Petzl has always focused on education and the
mitigation of risk inherent to vertical activities. Since
the beginning, we have established a well-defined
process that summarizes essential user information
through our iconic technical illustrations.
Today, the Petzl Foundation breaks new ground
by supporting the creation of this handbook and
ensuring its widespread distribution. This hands-
on, user-friendly document represents knowledge
collected by Petzl over more than 30 years, and is
supplemented by tried-and-true techniques from
mountaineering clubs and organizations around the
world. It also builds on work previously performed
by CNISAG (Centre national d’instruction au ski et
à l’alpinisme de la gendarmerie) instructors. We
wish to recognize and thank all the instructors
and volunteers whose efforts have gone into this
important reference book.
We’re excited about helping those who wish to
expand their knowledge of the mountain world,
to better face its risks.
I wish you all a lifetime of amazing adventures!
Paul Petzl
President
The Petzl Foundation

Cover photo: Jean-François Hagenmuller. To learn more about the foundation:

Alpinists climbing the Aiguille D’Argentière, Mont-Blanc, France. www.petzl-foundation.org

V VI
Warning

Caution!
The practice of alpine activities and the
use of technical equipment are inherently
dangerous and may result in severe injury
or death. Specific training by a qualified
instructor on the use of technical equipment
is essential. You are responsible for your own
actions and decisions.
This handbook is intended for hikers, climbers
and mountaineers who wish to expand the
practice of their favourite activity by acquiring
additional skills and knowledge. It has been
developed specifically as a reference for
instructors and future trip leaders in clubs and
mountain organizations within the International
Mountaineering and Climbing Federation. To
name the trainees or the mountaineers, the
pronouns «he» or «she» will be used alternately
throughout the book randomly without gender
stereotype.
The handbook does not pretend to provide
the only acceptable, nor the best, techniques.
Techniques other than those recommended
here may be equally valid or required at some
future date. Individual practitioners’ physical
skills and coordination also have their limits,
potentially requiring more complete risk
analyses in certain cases. The purpose of
this handbook is to present tried-and-true
techniques that can be learned and mastered
© UIAA - Petzl Foundation
First English Edition – Legal registration, Septembre 2013
ISBN 978-0-920330-69-2
Rights: All rights reserved by UIAA and Petzl Foundation.
Partial or complete reproduction of this work via printing, electronic or mechanical
duplication of any kind is strictly prohibited. Authorization for the reproduction or
use of the text or illustration is provided by the Petzl Foundation.
Contributor on page 330.
Printed in Canada by McCallum Printing Group Inc.
only through formal training. Despite the care
with which this handbook has been compiled,
it may contain errors or inaccuracies, making
a critical eye and professional mentoring
indispensable.
In the margins beside the illustrations,
the danger sign draws the reader’s attention
to any maneuver or incorrect equipment
usage that could result in injurious or fatal
consequences.
The information provided is not exhaustive.
Consult each manufacturer’s product manual
for any recommended piece of equipment.
Everyone is responsible for his or her
actions and decisions. Before heading into the
mountains and using technical equipment,
each participant must:
– Read and understand all instructions pertaining
to proper equipment use;
– Receive proper training on how to use the
equipment;
– Familiarize him- or herself with the
equipment; know its performance capabilities
and limitations; and,
– Understand and accept all risks associated
with the use of this equipment.
Ignoring any of the above warnings may
result in severe or fatal injuries.
Preface
Priority to education
It has long been my desire to establish a foundation
to give back to the climbing and mountaineering
community that for so long has sustained us.
Through the Petzl Foundation, established in 2005,
we now do tangible work for the benefit of our
community.
In concert with the development of our equipment,
Petzl has always focused on education and the
mitigation of risk inherent to vertical activities. Since
the beginning, we have established a well-defined
process that summarizes essential user information
through our iconic technical illustrations.
Today, the Petzl Foundation breaks new ground
by supporting the creation of this handbook and
ensuring its widespread distribution. This hands-
on, user-friendly document represents knowledge
collected by Petzl over more than 30 years, and is
supplemented by tried-and-true techniques from
mountaineering clubs and organizations around the
world. It also builds on work previously performed
by CNISAG (Centre national d’instruction au ski et
à l’alpinisme de la gendarmerie) instructors. We
wish to recognize and thank all the instructors
and volunteers whose efforts have gone into this
important reference book.
We’re excited about helping those who wish to
expand their knowledge of the mountain world,
to better face its risks.
I wish you all a lifetime of amazing adventures!
Paul Petzl
President
The Petzl Foundation

Cover photo: Jean-François Hagenmuller. To learn more about the foundation:

Alpinists climbing the Aiguille D’Argentière, Mont-Blanc, France. www.petzl-foundation.org

V VI
 t
A Environment
e me n
r e
r ag
ri o
Basic knowledge
h o u t p B Leading a Group

wi t
e
Over the last two centuries, the mountains have become

us
Basic

a playground, where city dwellers come to reconnect with

C
the wildness of nature. A fragile, dynamic and sometimes
Adapting
t
dangerous environment, the mountains are an endless source

o
of wonder. Apart from learning alpine skills, our enjoyment
to the Environment
n
of and safety in this environment grow through the close

o
relationship that we cultivate with it. This first section provides

D
the knowledge foundation necessary to better understand
and respect the mountain environment. Before becoming a
hiker, mountaineer or climber, it is important that you first
understand the mountains.

knowledge D Rescue
 t
A Environment
e me n
r e
r ag
ri o
Basic knowledge
h o u t p B Leading a Group

wi t
e
Over the last two centuries, the mountains have become

us
Basic

a playground, where city dwellers come to reconnect with

C
the wildness of nature. A fragile, dynamic and sometimes
Adapting
t
dangerous environment, the mountains are an endless source

o
of wonder. Apart from learning alpine skills, our enjoyment
to the Environment
n
of and safety in this environment grow through the close

o
relationship that we cultivate with it. This first section provides

D
the knowledge foundation necessary to better understand
and respect the mountain environment. Before becoming a
hiker, mountaineer or climber, it is important that you first
understand the mountains.

knowledge D Rescue
 A.1.1
Altitudinal Zonation
In the mountains, the distribution of
animal and plant life is delineated by
climate. At higher altitudes, the air
As we gain elevation, the trees become Gaining altitude is comparable to cros- To simplify: every 100 meters you gain
shorter. They adapt to colder and sing one of the earth’s parallels. In the in altitude is equivalent to traveling
harsher conditions. However, depending Alps, if you start in cultivated hills at 100  km north in the northern hemis-

t
pressure diminishes and it is colder; on the latitude, zones do not begin at 900 meters and summit a glaciated peak phere, or 100 km south in the southern

n
meanwhile, vegetation and animal the same altitude from one mountain to topping 3,500 meters, you will have hemisphere.

e
species differ with both altitude and the next, and might even be inhabited crossed all of Europe’s climatic zones:
slope exposure (shade or sunlight). by different wildlife species. This can from the Mediterranean to the arctic

m
This is known as “altitudinal zonation.” be explained by differences in climate, climate of Northern Europe.

e
Geographers distinguish among five mountain features and each mountain’s

e
different levels or zones in the Alps and geographical location.

r
also in the Himalayas (see below).

a g
r
Alps Himalayas

i o
(Mont Blanc 4,807 m) (Mount Everest 8,850 m)

p r
t
6,000 m : Last sign of vegetation

u
5,200 m : Limit of permanent Snow line

o
Snow Zone

h
Snow Line

t
Snow 5,000 m

i
Zone > Herding
3,000 m

w
Alpine Zon
e
> Alpine tund
ra 3,900 m

e
> Evergree

us
Alpine Zone Subalpine n forest
Zone
2,200 m 3,200 m

t
forest > Oak
> Evergreen ne 2,600 m forest
Subalpine Zo

o
Temperate > Hygrop
1,600 m forest form hilous oak grove
ation
2,000 m

o n > Evergreen
and de ciduous fore
sts
Mountain Zo
ne > Subtropica
l rainforest

D
900 m 900 m

habitation
permanent Rainforest Trop > Rainforest
s forest, cultivation, Foothill Zone ical and subtro Tropical
> Deciduou pical formations

8- Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Natural Environment — 9

 A.1.1
Altitudinal Zonation
In the mountains, the distribution of
animal and plant life is delineated by
climate. At higher altitudes, the air
As we gain elevation, the trees become Gaining altitude is comparable to cros- To simplify: every 100 meters you gain
shorter. They adapt to colder and sing one of the earth’s parallels. In the in altitude is equivalent to traveling
harsher conditions. However, depending Alps, if you start in cultivated hills at 100  km north in the northern hemis-

t
pressure diminishes and it is colder; on the latitude, zones do not begin at 900 meters and summit a glaciated peak phere, or 100 km south in the southern

n
meanwhile, vegetation and animal the same altitude from one mountain to topping 3,500 meters, you will have hemisphere.

e
species differ with both altitude and the next, and might even be inhabited crossed all of Europe’s climatic zones:
slope exposure (shade or sunlight). by different wildlife species. This can from the Mediterranean to the arctic

m
This is known as “altitudinal zonation.” be explained by differences in climate, climate of Northern Europe.

e
Geographers distinguish among five mountain features and each mountain’s

e
different levels or zones in the Alps and geographical location.

r
also in the Himalayas (see below).

a g
r
Alps Himalayas

i o
(Mont Blanc 4,807 m) (Mount Everest 8,850 m)

p r
t
6,000 m : Last sign of vegetation

u
5,200 m : Limit of permanent Snow line

o
Snow Zone

h
Snow Line

t
Snow 5,000 m

i
Zone > Herding
3,000 m

w
Alpine Zon
e
> Alpine tund
ra 3,900 m

e
> Evergree

us
Alpine Zone Subalpine n forest
Zone
2,200 m 3,200 m

t
forest > Oak
> Evergreen ne 2,600 m forest
Subalpine Zo

o
Temperate > Hygrop
1,600 m forest form hilous oak grove
ation
2,000 m

o n > Evergreen
and de ciduous fore
sts
Mountain Zo
ne > Subtropica
l rainforest

D
900 m 900 m

habitation
permanent Rainforest Trop > Rainforest
s forest, cultivation, Foothill Zone ical and subtro Tropical
> Deciduou pical formations

8- Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Natural Environment — 9

 A.1.5
Objective Hazards
Mountain travel involves several types of hazards. Namely:
Dangers related to the incorrect use of equipment, improper technique, or the
mountaineer’s lacking the requisite skill level for the desired climb.
Dangers inherent to the natural environment, aka objective hazards, over which we
have little control.
This chapter focuses on the dangers associated with objective hazards. By first lear-
ning to recognize these dangers, you can significantly reduce your exposure to them.
Then, taking these dangers into account, you can work to reduce the risk level and
potential consequences during your itinerary.
Rockfall
Rockfall may occur on walls/faces as well
as on low-angle terrain. Falling rocks can
threaten mountaineers and climbers
as well as hikers. Certain places and
certain conditions are more conducive to
rockfall.
Unstable boulders (moraines) or cliffs
and walls composed of brittle or more
fractured rock (e.g., weathered limestone).
Natural features favouring the channel-
ling of stones (ravines, couloirs, gorges or
canyons).
Areas of loose or poor-quality rock where
the snow cover has recently melted.
High temperatures at altitude, causing
ice or permafrost to melt.
Presence of climbers, hikers and
o
wildlife uphill, higher on the slope.
n
High winds or rain during an intense
thunderstorm.
o
D
Falling seracs
Seracs can fall at any time, as it’s glacial
movement that causes them to calve off
and topple. Wherever possible, avoid
travelling under seracs. If you must travel
under seracs, minimize your exposure by
taking the following precautions:
Carefully observe the fall line and
deposit area. Evaluate possible escape
18 -
Avalanches Crevasses
In winter, avalanches are a major Snow can conceal glacial crevasses.
t
concern for mountaineers, climbers and Adopt proper rope technique (refer to
n
hikers alike. They also remain a consi- “Roping up” in the Alpinism Module,
e
derable risk throughout the summer. chapter 2). In case of a fall, be proficient
High in the mountains—above 3,500 with crevasse-rescue technique to rescue
m
meters in the Alps—winter conditions yourself or a friend (refer to “Glaciers,”
e
become common in midsummer after earlier in this module; and “Crevasse
e
a prolonged period of bad weather. As rescue,” in the Alpinism Module).
r
in winter, a passing mountaineer may
g
routes that let you evade or turn back trigger an avalanche that causes an Bad Weather
a
from a falling serac. accident. Specifically, a small snow slide
r
Don the proper gear/equipment before during the day’s warmest hours may In the mountains, bad weather can
o
continuing (are crampons or adjustments be enough to destabilize a roped party. have serious consequences. Refer to
i
to your tie-ins needed?). Basic precautions include: the “Meteorology,” “Orientation” and
r
Move quickly and calmly without stop- A night departure when attempting a “Adapting to the Environment” sections
p
ping, and set a sustainable pace. snow climb. Verify the altitude of the 0° in this module to learn how to avoid or
t
Move one rope team at a time, main- isotherm. deal with problematic situations relating
u
taining distance between teams to limit Increased vigilance in the high moun- to the weather.
o
the number of people exposed to serac tains after a period of bad weather. Allow
h
fall at any one time. enough time for the snowpack to stabi-
t
lize—a few warm days should suffice in
i
summer.
w
Cornices
e
Like seracs, cornices can break off at
s
any time. They can also collapse under a
u
mountaineer’s weight. To reduce the risk:
t
Avoid travelling under the potential
trajectory of a falling cornice.
Assess the cornice’s size from a safe loca-
tion off to the side (e.g., a rock summit).
When traveling along a corniced
ridge, maintain a healthy distance from
the edge. Depending on the size of
the overhang, cornices can sometimes
collapse several meters behind the crest.
Do not blindly follow footprints ventu-
ring too close to the cornice edge.
If necessary, protect yourself using
snow anchors and a rope (refer to
“Equipment for glacier travel” in the
Alpinism Module).
Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Natural Environment — 19
 A.1.5
Objective Hazards
Mountain travel involves several types of hazards. Namely:
Dangers related to the incorrect use of equipment, improper technique, or the
mountaineer’s lacking the requisite skill level for the desired climb.
Dangers inherent to the natural environment, aka objective hazards, over which we
have little control.
This chapter focuses on the dangers associated with objective hazards. By first lear-
ning to recognize these dangers, you can significantly reduce your exposure to them.
Then, taking these dangers into account, you can work to reduce the risk level and
potential consequences during your itinerary.
Rockfall
Rockfall may occur on walls/faces as well
as on low-angle terrain. Falling rocks can
threaten mountaineers and climbers
as well as hikers. Certain places and
certain conditions are more conducive to
rockfall.
Unstable boulders (moraines) or cliffs
and walls composed of brittle or more
fractured rock (e.g., weathered limestone).
Natural features favouring the channel-
ling of stones (ravines, couloirs, gorges or
canyons).
Areas of loose or poor-quality rock where
the snow cover has recently melted.
High temperatures at altitude, causing
ice or permafrost to melt.
Presence of climbers, hikers and
o
wildlife uphill, higher on the slope.
n
High winds or rain during an intense
thunderstorm.
o
D
Falling seracs
Seracs can fall at any time, as it’s glacial
movement that causes them to calve off
and topple. Wherever possible, avoid
travelling under seracs. If you must travel
under seracs, minimize your exposure by
taking the following precautions:
Carefully observe the fall line and
deposit area. Evaluate possible escape
18 -
Avalanches Crevasses
In winter, avalanches are a major Snow can conceal glacial crevasses.
t
concern for mountaineers, climbers and Adopt proper rope technique (refer to
n
hikers alike. They also remain a consi- “Roping up” in the Alpinism Module,
e
derable risk throughout the summer. chapter 2). In case of a fall, be proficient
High in the mountains—above 3,500 with crevasse-rescue technique to rescue
m
meters in the Alps—winter conditions yourself or a friend (refer to “Glaciers,”
e
become common in midsummer after earlier in this module; and “Crevasse
e
a prolonged period of bad weather. As rescue,” in the Alpinism Module).
r
in winter, a passing mountaineer may
g
routes that let you evade or turn back trigger an avalanche that causes an Bad Weather
a
from a falling serac. accident. Specifically, a small snow slide
r
Don the proper gear/equipment before during the day’s warmest hours may In the mountains, bad weather can
o
continuing (are crampons or adjustments be enough to destabilize a roped party. have serious consequences. Refer to
i
to your tie-ins needed?). Basic precautions include: the “Meteorology,” “Orientation” and
r
Move quickly and calmly without stop- A night departure when attempting a “Adapting to the Environment” sections
p
ping, and set a sustainable pace. snow climb. Verify the altitude of the 0° in this module to learn how to avoid or
t
Move one rope team at a time, main- isotherm. deal with problematic situations relating
u
taining distance between teams to limit Increased vigilance in the high moun- to the weather.
o
the number of people exposed to serac tains after a period of bad weather. Allow
h
fall at any one time. enough time for the snowpack to stabi-
t
lize—a few warm days should suffice in
i
summer.
w
Cornices
e
Like seracs, cornices can break off at
s
any time. They can also collapse under a
u
mountaineer’s weight. To reduce the risk:
t
Avoid travelling under the potential
trajectory of a falling cornice.
Assess the cornice’s size from a safe loca-
tion off to the side (e.g., a rock summit).
When traveling along a corniced
ridge, maintain a healthy distance from
the edge. Depending on the size of
the overhang, cornices can sometimes
collapse several meters behind the crest.
Do not blindly follow footprints ventu-
ring too close to the cornice edge.
If necessary, protect yourself using
snow anchors and a rope (refer to
“Equipment for glacier travel” in the
Alpinism Module).
Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Natural Environment — 19
 A.2.13
How do you assess changing weather conditions
in the field? Aircraft contrails stretch horizon- Aircraft contrails dissipate, leaving no
The arrival of bad weather always alters the sky’s appearance. Recognizing the first tally: increasing humidity at altitude trace: the air is dry. The weather will
signs of a change in the weather often enables you to take shelter before the arrival Deterioration in the weather is possible. remain good.

t
of a disturbance or thunderstorm.

Cirrus, filament-like clouds, indicate

an increase in humidity at altitude. They
A saucer-shaped cloud forms over the
high peaks. These altocumulus lenti-

e n
m
may indicate a potential disturbance. cular clouds indicate strong winds at

e
altitude. If these clouds extend to other

e
peaks, the weather will likely deterio-

r
rate within hours.

a g
A red sunrise: bad weather is coming A red sunset: bad weather is moving

r
from the west. Possible worsening. east. Probable improvement.

r i o
t p
If cirrus clouds multiply and form a veil Small cumulus in a blue sky early in

o u
t h
covering the sun or the moon, the distur- the day may signal potential afternoon

i
bance is confirmed. thunderstorms.

w
Visibility decreases: the air becomes Mountain visibility improves: the air is

e
humid. Worsening weather is possible. dry. The weather is stable.

u s
o t
o n Cumulonimbus clouds indicate an

D
imminent thunderstorm.
Cirrus clouds followed by a wall of The altimeter rises The altimeter falls
clouds often indicate the rapid arrival of even though you have even though you
a cold front, with a violent disturbance not gained altitude, have not lost altitude,
accompanied by a sharp drop in tempe- indicating a pressure indicating a pressure
rature likely. Take immediate shelter. drop: the weather increase: the weather
may deteriorate. will improve.

40 - Training Manual > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Meteorology — 41

 A.2.13
How do you assess changing weather conditions
in the field? Aircraft contrails stretch horizon- Aircraft contrails dissipate, leaving no
The arrival of bad weather always alters the sky’s appearance. Recognizing the first tally: increasing humidity at altitude trace: the air is dry. The weather will
signs of a change in the weather often enables you to take shelter before the arrival Deterioration in the weather is possible. remain good.

t
of a disturbance or thunderstorm.

Cirrus, filament-like clouds, indicate

an increase in humidity at altitude. They
A saucer-shaped cloud forms over the
high peaks. These altocumulus lenti-

e n
m
may indicate a potential disturbance. cular clouds indicate strong winds at

e
altitude. If these clouds extend to other

e
peaks, the weather will likely deterio-

r
rate within hours.

a g
A red sunrise: bad weather is coming A red sunset: bad weather is moving

r
from the west. Possible worsening. east. Probable improvement.

r i o
t p
If cirrus clouds multiply and form a veil Small cumulus in a blue sky early in

o u
t h
covering the sun or the moon, the distur- the day may signal potential afternoon

i
bance is confirmed. thunderstorms.

w
Visibility decreases: the air becomes Mountain visibility improves: the air is

e
humid. Worsening weather is possible. dry. The weather is stable.

u s
o t
o n Cumulonimbus clouds indicate an

D
imminent thunderstorm.
Cirrus clouds followed by a wall of The altimeter rises The altimeter falls
clouds often indicate the rapid arrival of even though you have even though you
a cold front, with a violent disturbance not gained altitude, have not lost altitude,
accompanied by a sharp drop in tempe- indicating a pressure indicating a pressure
rature likely. Take immediate shelter. drop: the weather increase: the weather
may deteriorate. will improve.

40 - Training Manual > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Meteorology — 41

 A.3.22 A.3.23
How to lead a hike using a compass Ensuring you don’t miss your target
Reduced visibility
It’s better to make an intentional offset Once you’ve confirmed the accuracy of
Simply aim for a recognizable feature in winter conditions, the rabbit should be (“aiming off”) or deviation than to be your altimeter, aim just left or right of

t
(e.g., a tree, boulder, corner of a building, attached to the party by a rope, to avoid confronted by an involuntary mistake. For your objective along the same contour

n
etc.) and reach it; repeat until your target subjecting him to snow hazards such as example, as per the diagram below, you line. Once at the specified altitude, follow

e
destination. With sufficient practice, this cornices. might choose to stray slightly westward. the contour line away from your inten-
is the safest and most efficient technique When the rabbit reaches the visibi- You do this because you know that you tional offset to reach the objective.

m
even in very poor visibility. lity threshold, she waits for the rest of will encounter a recognizable landmark If the terrain permits, it can also be

e
the group. Two people at ease with this (here, the ridge; though it can be any land- helpful to advance side by side and within

e
Very poor visibility technique can move forward together, mark, like a forest boundary) along which each other’s sight, to ensure you do not

r
provided they do not lose sight of each you then navigate to your destination. miss the target.

g
Choose a levelheaded group member other. You can also use two rabbits at

a
who can identify potential hazards, and once to save time.

r
send this “rabbit” up ahead. To verify the bearing’s accuracy, espe-

o
The rabbit goes as far as visibility allows cially in key sections, the rabbit can take

i
(sometimes no more than 20 meters) a reverse-bearing in the direction of the

r
while the group leader takes a bearing. leader using the same bearing less 180°. Target

p
The leader directs the rabbit by telling

t
him or her to move right or left in order Depending on the circumstances (wind,

u
to stay on the bearing. Note: for safety darkness, etc.), it helps if each partici-

o
pant has a headlamp and a whistle with

t
ffse
h
a predetermined code, such as: two

e
al o

ctiv
short blows, more to the left; three short

on
blows, more to the right; one long blow,

e
Obj
enti
w
straight ahead.

Int
N
N

u s e
t
W
70

o
S

o n
N
N
D 70 ° Be
aring
70

W E

66 - Training Manual > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Orientation — 67

 A.3.22 A.3.23
How to lead a hike using a compass Ensuring you don’t miss your target
Reduced visibility
It’s better to make an intentional offset Once you’ve confirmed the accuracy of
Simply aim for a recognizable feature in winter conditions, the rabbit should be (“aiming off”) or deviation than to be your altimeter, aim just left or right of

t
(e.g., a tree, boulder, corner of a building, attached to the party by a rope, to avoid confronted by an involuntary mistake. For your objective along the same contour

n
etc.) and reach it; repeat until your target subjecting him to snow hazards such as example, as per the diagram below, you line. Once at the specified altitude, follow

e
destination. With sufficient practice, this cornices. might choose to stray slightly westward. the contour line away from your inten-
is the safest and most efficient technique When the rabbit reaches the visibi- You do this because you know that you tional offset to reach the objective.

m
even in very poor visibility. lity threshold, she waits for the rest of will encounter a recognizable landmark If the terrain permits, it can also be

e
the group. Two people at ease with this (here, the ridge; though it can be any land- helpful to advance side by side and within

e
Very poor visibility technique can move forward together, mark, like a forest boundary) along which each other’s sight, to ensure you do not

r
provided they do not lose sight of each you then navigate to your destination. miss the target.

g
Choose a levelheaded group member other. You can also use two rabbits at

a
who can identify potential hazards, and once to save time.

r
send this “rabbit” up ahead. To verify the bearing’s accuracy, espe-

o
The rabbit goes as far as visibility allows cially in key sections, the rabbit can take

i
(sometimes no more than 20 meters) a reverse-bearing in the direction of the

r
while the group leader takes a bearing. leader using the same bearing less 180°. Target

p
The leader directs the rabbit by telling

t
him or her to move right or left in order Depending on the circumstances (wind,

u
to stay on the bearing. Note: for safety darkness, etc.), it helps if each partici-

o
pant has a headlamp and a whistle with

t
ffse
h
a predetermined code, such as: two

e
al o

ctiv
short blows, more to the left; three short

on
blows, more to the right; one long blow,

e
Obj
enti
w
straight ahead.

Int
N
N

u s e
t
W
70

o
S

o n
N
N
D 70 ° Be
aring
70

W E

66 - Training Manual > Basic Knowledge > Environment > Orientation — 67

 C.2.1 C.2.2

How is heat distributed in the body?
Core at 37 degrees (vital organs)
Exterior (outer body) at 33 degrees,
decreasing as you reach the extremities
Thermal exchange between the core
and the rest of the body is facilitated by
blood flow.
How wind increases the cold’s effects
(i.e., wind chill)
The sensation of cold increases when wind hits dry unprotected skin.
With their notoriously cold weather, Canadians have developed a wind-chill index

t
To keep the core’s blood warm in cold that expresses how cold feels on exposed skin. For example, a temperature of -15° C

n
temperatures, the body limits heat loss combined with 60 km/h wind will feel like -30° C without any wind.

e
by reducing blood flow to the extremities
Wind Chill Factor / Index
(resulting in the risk of frostbite to the

m
hands, feet and nose). Wind Temperature measured in ° C (first row)
What to look for when estimating

e
speed and perceived temperature (other rows)
wind speed
(km/h)

e
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45

r
Wind perceptible on face;

g
10 -3 -9 -15 -21 -27 -33 -39 -45 -51 -57
wind vane begins to move.

a
20 Small flags flap in the breeze. -5 -12 -18 -24 -30 -37 -43 -49 -56 -62
Internal temperature

r
Wind blows loose paper,
How to generate and retain heat

o
30 large flags flap and small tree -6 -13 -20 -26 -33 -39 -45 -52 -59 -65

i
External temperature branches wave.

r
(outer body) Your body absorbs nutrients (e.g., Small trees begin to sway,

p
carbohydrates, fats, proteins) that 40 and large flags extend and flap -7 -14 -21 -27 -34 -41 -48 -54 -61 -68

t
contribute to the chemical reactions strongly.
which maintain a normal body tempe-

u
Large tree branches move, tele-
rature of 37° C. This requires good 50 phone lines whistle and it is hard -8 -15 -22 -29 -35 -42 -49 -56 -63 -69

o
nutrition and proper hydration (refer to use an umbrella.
33°C

h
to the “Nutrition and Hydration” Trees bend, and walking against

t
60 -9 -16 -23 -30 -36 -43 -50 -57 -64 -71

i
section). the wind is difficult.
37°C Source: Environment Canada

w
• Physical exercise is another good way Recommendations
to generate heat.

e
Slight increase in discomfort. Dress warmly. Stay dry.

s
• Shivering is a muscular reflex that
Uncomfortable. Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate protection.

u
produces heat as the body cools. A fit, Dress in layers of warm clothing, adding an outer wind-resistant layer. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated
well-trained person produces muscular gloves, a scarf and insulated, waterproof footwear. Stay dry. Keep active.

t
activity for a longer period of time. To

o
Risk of frostnip or frostbite: check face and extremities for numbness or whiteness.
conserve body heat, aim to stay dry Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind and cold.

n
and protected from the wind. Dress in layers of warm clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer.
Cover exposed skin. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and
• Invest in clothing made of breathable

o
insulated, waterproof footwear. Stay dry. Keep active.
fabrics to avoid getting soaked in sweat.

D
• Remove layers of clothing before you
overheat; add layers of clothing before
getting cold.
• Protect sensitive extremities (hands,
feet, face, nose) from cooling by
wearing appropriate clothing.
• Protect yourself from the wind with
appropriate clothing or shelter.
Note: see http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=5FBF816A-1
High risk of frostbite: check face and extremities for numbness or whiteness.
Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind and cold.
Dress in layers of warm clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer. Cover all exposed skin.
Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and insulated, waterproof
footwear. Stay dry. Keep active.
Very high risk of frostbite: check face and extremities frequently for numbness or whiteness.
Serious risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind
and cold. Be careful. Dress very warmly in layers of clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer. Cover all
exposed skin. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and insulated,
waterproof footwear. Be ready to curtail or cancel outdoor activities. Stay dry. Keep active.
DANGER! Outdoor conditions are hazardous. Stay indoors.

92 - Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Adapting to the Environment > Cold — 93
 C.2.1 C.2.2

How is heat distributed in the body?
Core at 37 degrees (vital organs)
Exterior (outer body) at 33 degrees,
decreasing as you reach the extremities
Thermal exchange between the core
and the rest of the body is facilitated by
blood flow.
How wind increases the cold’s effects
(i.e., wind chill)
The sensation of cold increases when wind hits dry unprotected skin.
With their notoriously cold weather, Canadians have developed a wind-chill index

t
To keep the core’s blood warm in cold that expresses how cold feels on exposed skin. For example, a temperature of -15° C

n
temperatures, the body limits heat loss combined with 60 km/h wind will feel like -30° C without any wind.

e
by reducing blood flow to the extremities
Wind Chill Factor / Index
(resulting in the risk of frostbite to the

m
hands, feet and nose). Wind Temperature measured in ° C (first row)
What to look for when estimating

e
speed and perceived temperature (other rows)
wind speed
(km/h)

e
0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45

r
Wind perceptible on face;

g
10 -3 -9 -15 -21 -27 -33 -39 -45 -51 -57
wind vane begins to move.

a
20 Small flags flap in the breeze. -5 -12 -18 -24 -30 -37 -43 -49 -56 -62
Internal temperature

r
Wind blows loose paper,
How to generate and retain heat

o
30 large flags flap and small tree -6 -13 -20 -26 -33 -39 -45 -52 -59 -65

i
External temperature branches wave.

r
(outer body) Your body absorbs nutrients (e.g., Small trees begin to sway,

p
carbohydrates, fats, proteins) that 40 and large flags extend and flap -7 -14 -21 -27 -34 -41 -48 -54 -61 -68

t
contribute to the chemical reactions strongly.
which maintain a normal body tempe-

u
Large tree branches move, tele-
rature of 37° C. This requires good 50 phone lines whistle and it is hard -8 -15 -22 -29 -35 -42 -49 -56 -63 -69

o
nutrition and proper hydration (refer to use an umbrella.
33°C

h
to the “Nutrition and Hydration” Trees bend, and walking against

t
60 -9 -16 -23 -30 -36 -43 -50 -57 -64 -71

i
section). the wind is difficult.
37°C Source: Environment Canada

w
• Physical exercise is another good way Recommendations
to generate heat.

e
Slight increase in discomfort. Dress warmly. Stay dry.

s
• Shivering is a muscular reflex that
Uncomfortable. Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate protection.

u
produces heat as the body cools. A fit, Dress in layers of warm clothing, adding an outer wind-resistant layer. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated
well-trained person produces muscular gloves, a scarf and insulated, waterproof footwear. Stay dry. Keep active.

t
activity for a longer period of time. To

o
Risk of frostnip or frostbite: check face and extremities for numbness or whiteness.
conserve body heat, aim to stay dry Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind and cold.

n
and protected from the wind. Dress in layers of warm clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer.
Cover exposed skin. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and
• Invest in clothing made of breathable

o
insulated, waterproof footwear. Stay dry. Keep active.
fabrics to avoid getting soaked in sweat.

D
• Remove layers of clothing before you
overheat; add layers of clothing before
getting cold.
• Protect sensitive extremities (hands,
feet, face, nose) from cooling by
wearing appropriate clothing.
• Protect yourself from the wind with
appropriate clothing or shelter.
Note: see http://www.ec.gc.ca/meteo-weather/default.asp?lang=En&n=5FBF816A-1
High risk of frostbite: check face and extremities for numbness or whiteness.
Risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind and cold.
Dress in layers of warm clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer. Cover all exposed skin.
Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and insulated, waterproof
footwear. Stay dry. Keep active.
Very high risk of frostbite: check face and extremities frequently for numbness or whiteness.
Serious risk of hypothermia if outside for long periods without adequate clothing or shelter from wind
and cold. Be careful. Dress very warmly in layers of clothing, with a wind-resistant outer layer. Cover all
exposed skin. Wear a hat, mittens or insulated gloves, a scarf, neck warmer or face mask, and insulated,
waterproof footwear. Be ready to curtail or cancel outdoor activities. Stay dry. Keep active.
DANGER! Outdoor conditions are hazardous. Stay indoors.

92 - Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Adapting to the Environment > Cold — 93
 D.1.5 D.1.6

Caring for a victim before medical help arrives Clearing the airway
After you’re done PROTECTING and CALLING, the victim now needs CARE. In order to This is step one for an unconscious victim. With an avalanche victim, carefully remove
take the correct action, conduct an initial assessment by following the tried-and-true any snow from his mouth. If there are no foreign objects, the tongue might be bloc-
ABCDE method used by North American first responders. king the airway.

SES S M ENT
A n t
e
AS

m
The order goes thusly: Airway Avoid tilting the victim’s head back if you suspect a spinal injury

e
(e.g., following a fall). Try the jaw-thrust technique first: only resort

e
● A (Airway): make sure no foreign Could you to tilting the head if the casualty is still not breathing.

r
ear me ?
objects are obstructing the mouth or

B g
throat.

● B (Breathing): check if the victim is

r a
o
breathing by placing your ear near his
Breathing

i
nose, and assessing whether his chest is 1 2

r
rising and falling. Could you

p
ear me ?

C ut
● C (Circulation): check the pulse at the
wrist or carotid (neck), and note heart

o
rate over one minute. Look for severe

h
bleeding.
Circulation
● D (Disability): assess the victim’s
level of consciousness. Does he obey
commands? (“Take my hand.”) Is he diso-

wDi t
Could you
ear me ?

e
Remove any foreign
riented? Unconscious? If the victim is

s
Open the victim’s mouth. objects with your fingers.
fully conscious, ascertain whether he can

u
move all four limbs. Disability

o
● E (Environment): re-examine your
t Could you

n
surroundings and the weather, to prepare ear me ?

E
for a helicopter evacuation (Is visibility

o
good? Are there power lines nearby?).

D
Once you’ve conducted your ABCDE,
determine which first-aid actions to take.
Proficiency with these actions requires
instruction and training.
Could you
ear me ?
Environment

First Aid
116 - Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > Protect, Call, Care — 117
 D.1.5 D.1.6

Caring for a victim before medical help arrives Clearing the airway
After you’re done PROTECTING and CALLING, the victim now needs CARE. In order to This is step one for an unconscious victim. With an avalanche victim, carefully remove
take the correct action, conduct an initial assessment by following the tried-and-true any snow from his mouth. If there are no foreign objects, the tongue might be bloc-
ABCDE method used by North American first responders. king the airway.

SES S M ENT
A n t
e
AS

m
The order goes thusly: Airway Avoid tilting the victim’s head back if you suspect a spinal injury

e
(e.g., following a fall). Try the jaw-thrust technique first: only resort

e
● A (Airway): make sure no foreign Could you to tilting the head if the casualty is still not breathing.

r
ear me ?
objects are obstructing the mouth or

B g
throat.

● B (Breathing): check if the victim is

r a
o
breathing by placing your ear near his
Breathing

i
nose, and assessing whether his chest is 1 2

r
rising and falling. Could you

p
ear me ?

C ut
● C (Circulation): check the pulse at the
wrist or carotid (neck), and note heart

o
rate over one minute. Look for severe

h
bleeding.
Circulation
● D (Disability): assess the victim’s
level of consciousness. Does he obey
commands? (“Take my hand.”) Is he diso-

wDi t
Could you
ear me ?

e
Remove any foreign
riented? Unconscious? If the victim is

s
Open the victim’s mouth. objects with your fingers.
fully conscious, ascertain whether he can

u
move all four limbs. Disability

o
● E (Environment): re-examine your
t Could you

n
surroundings and the weather, to prepare ear me ?

E
for a helicopter evacuation (Is visibility

o
good? Are there power lines nearby?).

D
Once you’ve conducted your ABCDE,
determine which first-aid actions to take.
Proficiency with these actions requires
instruction and training.
Could you
ear me ?
Environment

First Aid
116 - Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > Protect, Call, Care — 117
 D.2.1 D.2.2

Carrying an injured person Choosing and preparing a landing zone

You can carry an injured person on your back using an improvised litter. However, Choose a flat or relatively flat area free wash (skis, poles, clothing, packs, first-
because this technique is exhausting for both victim and rescuer, it should be reserved of obstacles and that sits on high rather aid equipment, blankets, etc.).
for special situations: than low-lying ground. If necessary, such as at a ski area, esta-

t
Avoid dusty areas if possible. blish a security perimeter to keep out

n
The victim is well enough to be trans- You can reach a village or roadway in an On snow-covered areas, pack down those not involved in the rescue.

e
ported; that is, he has no major injuries, acceptable amount of time. any powder snow.
is conscious and is not too weak. Helicopter rescue is not an option. Avoid nearby obstacles such as trees,

m
power lines, logging cables, tram cables, If you can’t avoid one of these

e
etc. hazards, inform the helicopter

e
Clear the area of any objects that might crew via radio or hand signals.

r
hit the rotor blades or fly off in the rotor

a g
i o r
p r
u t
t h o
wi
u s e
t
1 – Tie off long loops 2 – Cross the loops 3 – Place the injured

o
of rope with a double behind you. person’s legs though

n
bowline. the loops, such that rope

o
supports him.

D
You can also fashion an

© O. Moret
improvised stretcher using
poles and clothing or fabric.

126 - Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > Evacuating an injured person — 127
 D.2.1 D.2.2

Carrying an injured person Choosing and preparing a landing zone

You can carry an injured person on your back using an improvised litter. However, Choose a flat or relatively flat area free wash (skis, poles, clothing, packs, first-
because this technique is exhausting for both victim and rescuer, it should be reserved of obstacles and that sits on high rather aid equipment, blankets, etc.).
for special situations: than low-lying ground. If necessary, such as at a ski area, esta-

t
Avoid dusty areas if possible. blish a security perimeter to keep out

n
The victim is well enough to be trans- You can reach a village or roadway in an On snow-covered areas, pack down those not involved in the rescue.

e
ported; that is, he has no major injuries, acceptable amount of time. any powder snow.
is conscious and is not too weak. Helicopter rescue is not an option. Avoid nearby obstacles such as trees,

m
power lines, logging cables, tram cables, If you can’t avoid one of these

e
etc. hazards, inform the helicopter

e
Clear the area of any objects that might crew via radio or hand signals.

r
hit the rotor blades or fly off in the rotor

a g
i o r
p r
u t
t h o
wi
u s e
t
1 – Tie off long loops 2 – Cross the loops 3 – Place the injured

o
of rope with a double behind you. person’s legs though

n
bowline. the loops, such that rope

o
supports him.

D
You can also fashion an

© O. Moret
improvised stretcher using
poles and clothing or fabric.

126 - Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > Evacuating an injured person — 127
 First-aid kit 3
While not quite assuming the mantle of physician, the trip leader always carries the
first-aid kit for his or her group. Its contents will vary according to the chosen activity
and venue, as well as the duration of the outing. A good first-aid kit should not be

t
too bulky, or you might omit it from your backpack. Maintain your kit by regularly

n
replenishing its various items, including replacing any expired medications.

One-day trek

me One-week trip

e
££light survival blanket ££light survival blanket

r e
££pressure bandage ££pressure dressing

g
££antiseptic dosettes (Betadine) ££antiseptic dosettes (Betadine)

a
££adhesive bandages, various sizes ££robust medical tape

r
££sterile pads ££adhesive bandages, various sizes

i o
££adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm wide) ££sterile pads

r
££non-adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm ££adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm wide)

p
wide) ££non-adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm

t
££robust medical tape wide)

u
££one Steri-Strip packet (butterfly ££one Steri-Strip packet (butterfly

o
stitches for minor wounds) stitches for minor wounds)

h
££Second Skin (for disinfected open ££Second Skin (for disinfected open

i t
blisters) blisters)

w
££acetaminophen ££acetaminophen
££whistle ££aspirin

se
££tweezers + mini-scissors ££powerful painkiller (tramadol)

u
££one pair of latex gloves ££antidiarrheal (Ioperamide) + intestinal

t
antiseptic (nifuroxazide)

o
££broad-spectrum antibiotic

n
(amoxicillin)
££one tube of vitamin C

o
££eyewash in dosette form (eye

D
treatment)
££relief cream (for sunburn)
££whistle
££tweezers + mini-scissors
££one pair of latex gloves
££small mouldable splint (SAM SPLINT®)
££spare pair of sunglasses
££mini-emergency headlamp

130 - Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > First-aid kit — 131
 First-aid kit 3
While not quite assuming the mantle of physician, the trip leader always carries the
first-aid kit for his or her group. Its contents will vary according to the chosen activity
and venue, as well as the duration of the outing. A good first-aid kit should not be

t
too bulky, or you might omit it from your backpack. Maintain your kit by regularly

n
replenishing its various items, including replacing any expired medications.

One-day trek

me One-week trip

e
££light survival blanket ££light survival blanket

r e
££pressure bandage ££pressure dressing

g
££antiseptic dosettes (Betadine) ££antiseptic dosettes (Betadine)

a
££adhesive bandages, various sizes ££robust medical tape

r
££sterile pads ££adhesive bandages, various sizes

i o
££adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm wide) ££sterile pads

r
££non-adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm ££adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm wide)

p
wide) ££non-adhesive elastic bandage (6 cm

t
££robust medical tape wide)

u
££one Steri-Strip packet (butterfly ££one Steri-Strip packet (butterfly

o
stitches for minor wounds) stitches for minor wounds)

h
££Second Skin (for disinfected open ££Second Skin (for disinfected open

i t
blisters) blisters)

w
££acetaminophen ££acetaminophen
££whistle ££aspirin

se
££tweezers + mini-scissors ££powerful painkiller (tramadol)

u
££one pair of latex gloves ££antidiarrheal (Ioperamide) + intestinal

t
antiseptic (nifuroxazide)

o
££broad-spectrum antibiotic

n
(amoxicillin)
££one tube of vitamin C

o
££eyewash in dosette form (eye

D
treatment)
££relief cream (for sunburn)
££whistle
££tweezers + mini-scissors
££one pair of latex gloves
££small mouldable splint (SAM SPLINT®)
££spare pair of sunglasses
££mini-emergency headlamp

130 - Handbook > Basic Knowledge > Rescue > First-aid kit — 131
 Alpine hiking

n t
While hiking does not require the same level of

e
stamina or technical skill as other alpine activities,
it does demand a greater awareness of the ecosystem.

m
During a trip lasting several weeks, a hiking group will

r ee
interact with a variety of environments as well as the
unique culture of a country. The group leader also

g
serves as interpreter for both the natural and human

a
environments.

i o r
r
1. Equipment p. 135

p 2. Mountain travel p. 139

ut
3. Alpine trekking hygiene p. 149

t h o 4. Alpine hiking grades p. 155

i 5. Managing and leading a trek p. 159

Alpine

e w 6. Evaluation p. 169

u s
ot
o n
D
hiking
 Alpine hiking

n t
While hiking does not require the same level of

e
stamina or technical skill as other alpine activities,
it does demand a greater awareness of the ecosystem.

m
During a trip lasting several weeks, a hiking group will

r ee
interact with a variety of environments as well as the
unique culture of a country. The group leader also

g
serves as interpreter for both the natural and human

a
environments.

i o r
r
1. Equipment p. 135

p 2. Mountain travel p. 139

ut
3. Alpine trekking hygiene p. 149

t h o 4. Alpine hiking grades p. 155

i 5. Managing and leading a trek p. 159

Alpine

e w 6. Evaluation p. 169

u s
ot
o n
D
hiking
 2.5.

How to secure the crux of a route

Assistance and gentle reassurance can be helpful when moving the group over an Fixed rope
exposed section, where a fall would be serious; or you can install a safety line or fixed
rope. In either case, do not hesitate to rope up less experienced or less skilled hikers You can employ a fixed rope to overcome a figure 8 knot. If you doubt the anchor’s

t
if a fall would prove injurious or fatal. short, steep sections without having to reliability—i.e., it consists of a single rock

n
resort to technical climbing techniques. spike, small tree, questionable in situ

e
Safety Line (Most hiking routes only rarely tackle pitons, etc.—back it up using all available
terrain steep enough to require the use protection options.

m
A safety line is installed by fixing a rope to Fix the rope end with a figure 8 on a bight, of your hands.) Ideally, you’ll use a knot such as the double

e
an existing anchor such as pitons or bolts, and, if terrain dictates, use a butterfly Fix the rope to a good anchor (e.g., a solid figure 8 that allows you to directly clip into

e
or by fixing (tying or girth-hitching) slings knot or Munter knot for mid-line (hori- tree) using a sling, a locking carabiner and two or three anchor points at once.

r
around natural anchors such as trees zontal redirect) anchor points.

g
or rocks. A hiker uses the safety line for

a
balance just like he would the handrail on 1 2 3

r
a staircase.

r i o
t p
o u
Butterfly knot

i t h
Tying off a Munter knot

e w
u s
o t
o n
D
144 - Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Mountain travel — 145
 2.5.

How to secure the crux of a route

Assistance and gentle reassurance can be helpful when moving the group over an Fixed rope
exposed section, where a fall would be serious; or you can install a safety line or fixed
rope. In either case, do not hesitate to rope up less experienced or less skilled hikers You can employ a fixed rope to overcome a figure 8 knot. If you doubt the anchor’s

t
if a fall would prove injurious or fatal. short, steep sections without having to reliability—i.e., it consists of a single rock

n
resort to technical climbing techniques. spike, small tree, questionable in situ

e
Safety Line (Most hiking routes only rarely tackle pitons, etc.—back it up using all available
terrain steep enough to require the use protection options.

m
A safety line is installed by fixing a rope to Fix the rope end with a figure 8 on a bight, of your hands.) Ideally, you’ll use a knot such as the double

e
an existing anchor such as pitons or bolts, and, if terrain dictates, use a butterfly Fix the rope to a good anchor (e.g., a solid figure 8 that allows you to directly clip into

e
or by fixing (tying or girth-hitching) slings knot or Munter knot for mid-line (hori- tree) using a sling, a locking carabiner and two or three anchor points at once.

r
around natural anchors such as trees zontal redirect) anchor points.

g
or rocks. A hiker uses the safety line for

a
balance just like he would the handrail on 1 2 3

r
a staircase.

r i o
t p
o u
Butterfly knot

i t h
Tying off a Munter knot

e w
u s
o t
o n
D
144 - Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Mountain travel — 145
 3.1. 3.2.

Preventative measures against infectious diseases Vaccinations for your destination country

You can avoid most backcountry illnesses by drinking clean (treated) water, keeping The only mandatory travel vaccine is for yellow fever, in approximately 15 African
your nails short, and washing your hands with soap each morning and before turning countries. For all other countries, vaccinations against certain diseases are only

t
in, as well as after using the bathroom and before eating. recommended. You must be vaccinated at least two months prior to travel. Some

n
vaccines (yellow fever) are administered only in specialized centres, while others
Three types of germs are responsible Prevention: some examples

e
require several injections spread out over time.
for illness:
Good personal hygiene and clothing

m
Viruses care (e.g., avoid fleas and lice). For all countries, you must be up to In Asia, add:

e
date on the following vaccines:
Bacteria Good hand and food-preparation Rabies (every 5 years).

r e
Parasites hygiene (diarrhoea). Diphtheria (every 10 years).

g
Clean drinking water (diarrhoea, hepa- Tetanus (every 10 years). In Nepal, add:

a
With the exception of certain parasites, titis A and E, polio, typhoid). Polio (every 10 years). Meningitis A and C (every 10 years).

r
germs are so small as to be invisible. Mosquito repellent (malaria). Hepatitis A (every 10 years).
They are present in the environment (air,

o
Condoms (hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS). In Africa and Latin America:

i
water, land), and in humans and animals. Typhoid, a rare disease in Europe,

r
Vaccinations. Russia, North America and Australia, but Yellow fever (every 10 years).

p
Germs are transmitted: present everywhere else (every 3 years).

t
Treatments
Through simple contact with the envi-

u
ronment; through respiratory, digestive Antibiotics for bacteria.

o
or sexual contact with another person Anti-parasitics for parasites.

h
or the environment; and from animals to No treatment for most viruses.

i t
people, as with a mosquito bite (malaria,
Japanese encephalitis).

w
There are means of prevention and

e
treatment.

u s
o t
o n
D
150 - Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Alpine trekking hygiene — 151
 3.1. 3.2.

Preventative measures against infectious diseases Vaccinations for your destination country

You can avoid most backcountry illnesses by drinking clean (treated) water, keeping The only mandatory travel vaccine is for yellow fever, in approximately 15 African
your nails short, and washing your hands with soap each morning and before turning countries. For all other countries, vaccinations against certain diseases are only

t
in, as well as after using the bathroom and before eating. recommended. You must be vaccinated at least two months prior to travel. Some

n
vaccines (yellow fever) are administered only in specialized centres, while others
Three types of germs are responsible Prevention: some examples

e
require several injections spread out over time.
for illness:
Good personal hygiene and clothing

m
Viruses care (e.g., avoid fleas and lice). For all countries, you must be up to In Asia, add:

e
date on the following vaccines:
Bacteria Good hand and food-preparation Rabies (every 5 years).

r e
Parasites hygiene (diarrhoea). Diphtheria (every 10 years).

g
Clean drinking water (diarrhoea, hepa- Tetanus (every 10 years). In Nepal, add:

a
With the exception of certain parasites, titis A and E, polio, typhoid). Polio (every 10 years). Meningitis A and C (every 10 years).

r
germs are so small as to be invisible. Mosquito repellent (malaria). Hepatitis A (every 10 years).
They are present in the environment (air,

o
Condoms (hepatitis B, HIV/AIDS). In Africa and Latin America:

i
water, land), and in humans and animals. Typhoid, a rare disease in Europe,

r
Vaccinations. Russia, North America and Australia, but Yellow fever (every 10 years).

p
Germs are transmitted: present everywhere else (every 3 years).

t
Treatments
Through simple contact with the envi-

u
ronment; through respiratory, digestive Antibiotics for bacteria.

o
or sexual contact with another person Anti-parasitics for parasites.

h
or the environment; and from animals to No treatment for most viruses.

i t
people, as with a mosquito bite (malaria,
Japanese encephalitis).

w
There are means of prevention and

e
treatment.

u s
o t
o n
D
150 - Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Alpine trekking hygiene — 151
 5.5.

Topics to make participants aware of

Local Populations Environment Places of Worship

Know and respect the local lifestyle, Bring home any hazardous waste (e.g., Do not enter a place of worship without

t
culture, traditions and habits—e.g., dress batteries). permission.

n
appropriately for the country. Pack out or burn toilet paper. Respect the beliefs, practices and prac-

e
Respect the local heritage: no graffiti, Treat water with tablets or filters instead titioners of all religions.
flash photography, etc.

m
of buying bottled water. Manage water In general, remove your shoes when

e
Learn a few words/phrases in the consumption: limit showers, use sponge entering places of worship, and often

e
national or regional tongue: “Hello,” baths and biodegradable soaps, and wash also in private homes.

r
“Goodbye,” “Thank you” and “How are downstream from any settlements and Do not “take” or buy objects that are

g
you?” away from water-collection spots. Avoid sacred or of local historical value.

a
Wear suitable clothing: discreet, and picking flora, respect protected species
Adopt a cosmic (clockwise) direction of

r
not too revealing. and do not feed or disturb the animals.
travel around Buddhist monasteries.

o
Before photographing anyone, ask his Do not purchase items made from

i
Make a traditional offering (a few coins)
endangered or protected species.

r
or her permission; prepare to take no for in monasteries.

p
an answer, and do not offer cash. Respect fields and crops.

t
Do not make gifts or donations to Avoid or minimise burning of trash (never
people, including children, to avoid the plastic), and carry out all remnants.

u
encouraging begging. Favour existing

o
Build fires only as needed, by safe
organizations: schools, associations, means, without damaging the environ-

h
health centres, etc.

t
ment and while leaving no trace.

i
Do not donate medications, except

w
directly to medical organizations.
Limit physical contact: do not stroke

e
children’s hair or heads, or shake

s
women’s hands; avoid kissing in public.

u
Eschew all forms of sexual tourism.

o t
Be aware of the social reality of the
country, the price of goods and services,

n
and current local wages; respect human

o
rights and accept supply difficulties.

D
164 - Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Managing and leading a trek — 165
 5.5.

Topics to make participants aware of

Local Populations Environment Places of Worship

Know and respect the local lifestyle, Bring home any hazardous waste (e.g., Do not enter a place of worship without

t
culture, traditions and habits—e.g., dress batteries). permission.

n
appropriately for the country. Pack out or burn toilet paper. Respect the beliefs, practices and prac-

e
Respect the local heritage: no graffiti, Treat water with tablets or filters instead titioners of all religions.
flash photography, etc.

m
of buying bottled water. Manage water In general, remove your shoes when

e
Learn a few words/phrases in the consumption: limit showers, use sponge entering places of worship, and often

e
national or regional tongue: “Hello,” baths and biodegradable soaps, and wash also in private homes.

r
“Goodbye,” “Thank you” and “How are downstream from any settlements and Do not “take” or buy objects that are

g
you?” away from water-collection spots. Avoid sacred or of local historical value.

a
Wear suitable clothing: discreet, and picking flora, respect protected species
Adopt a cosmic (clockwise) direction of

r
not too revealing. and do not feed or disturb the animals.
travel around Buddhist monasteries.

o
Before photographing anyone, ask his Do not purchase items made from

i
Make a traditional offering (a few coins)
endangered or protected species.

r
or her permission; prepare to take no for in monasteries.

p
an answer, and do not offer cash. Respect fields and crops.

t
Do not make gifts or donations to Avoid or minimise burning of trash (never
people, including children, to avoid the plastic), and carry out all remnants.

u
encouraging begging. Favour existing

o
Build fires only as needed, by safe
organizations: schools, associations, means, without damaging the environ-

h
health centres, etc.

t
ment and while leaving no trace.

i
Do not donate medications, except

w
directly to medical organizations.
Limit physical contact: do not stroke

e
children’s hair or heads, or shake

s
women’s hands; avoid kissing in public.

u
Eschew all forms of sexual tourism.

o t
Be aware of the social reality of the
country, the price of goods and services,

n
and current local wages; respect human

o
rights and accept supply difficulties.

D
164 - Handbook > Alpine Hiking > Managing and leading a trek — 165
 Climbing

n t
e
The advent of sport climbing and the development
of artificial climbing walls have broadened access to

m
the sport, a pursuit once limited to a small number of

e
traditional climbers and mountaineers. Now hugely

r e
popular, climbing remains an activity in which an

g
error can still have serious consequences. To stay safe,

a
you need a solid technical foundation. This module

r
complements the skills acquired in the Basic Knowledge

o
and Alpine Hiking modules.

p r i
u t
t ho
wi
e
1. Equipment p. 173

u s 2. Tying in p. 187

ot 3. Single-pitch routes p. 201

o n 4. The belay station p. 213

D
5. Multi-pitch routes p. 225
6. Rappelling p. 231

Climbing
7. Tips and troubleshooting p. 241
8. Rock-climbing grades p. 259
9. Evaluation p. 261
 Climbing

n t
e
The advent of sport climbing and the development
of artificial climbing walls have broadened access to

m
the sport, a pursuit once limited to a small number of

e
traditional climbers and mountaineers. Now hugely

r e
popular, climbing remains an activity in which an

g
error can still have serious consequences. To stay safe,

a
you need a solid technical foundation. This module

r
complements the skills acquired in the Basic Knowledge

o
and Alpine Hiking modules.

p r i
u t
t ho
wi
e
1. Equipment p. 173

u s 2. Tying in p. 187

ot 3. Single-pitch routes p. 201

o n 4. The belay station p. 213

D
5. Multi-pitch routes p. 225
6. Rappelling p. 231

Climbing
7. Tips and troubleshooting p. 241
8. Rock-climbing grades p. 259
9. Evaluation p. 261
 1.11.

How to carry slings

Keeping slings accessible
Tying in 2
Knowing how to properly tie in and belay your partner are fundamental skills for all
climbers. For lead climbing, primary skills include choosing the right quickdraw to
To ensure easy access to slings, loop match the terrain and finding a good clipping stance. Meanwhile, understanding a

t
them around your torso and clip them fall’s impact on the belay chain helps foster good practices.

n
off with a carabiner. Now you can access

e
them with one hand, even under your
backpack straps.

m
Tying In

e
2.1. Tie-in knots

e
2.2. Properly tying in to the harness

r
To attach a sling to your harness, fold and

g
then twist it: 2.3. Why partners should double-check each other

a
Clipping

r
2.4. How to orient a quickdraw

i o
2.5. How to clip the rope into a carabiner

r
2.6. Clipping stances and techniques

t p Falling

u
2.7. What a fall entails

o
2.8. How to minimize impact force on the lead climber during a fall

h
Tip for extending a quickdraw 2.9. The pulley effect
This nifty trick results in an extendable
quickdraw that can be easily lengthened
depending on your needs. Having at

wi t
wandering pitches and helps prevent
protection from walking or pulling out.
The sling must be able to move freely in

e
least two extendable quickdraws on the carabiners—do not attach elastic or

s
your rack lets you limit rope drag on “String” to this type of quickdraw.

t u
n o
D o

186 - Handbook > Climbing > Tying in — 187

 1.11.

How to carry slings

Keeping slings accessible
Tying in 2
Knowing how to properly tie in and belay your partner are fundamental skills for all
climbers. For lead climbing, primary skills include choosing the right quickdraw to
To ensure easy access to slings, loop match the terrain and finding a good clipping stance. Meanwhile, understanding a

t
them around your torso and clip them fall’s impact on the belay chain helps foster good practices.

n
off with a carabiner. Now you can access

e
them with one hand, even under your
backpack straps.

m
Tying In

e
2.1. Tie-in knots

e
2.2. Properly tying in to the harness

r
To attach a sling to your harness, fold and

g
then twist it: 2.3. Why partners should double-check each other

a
Clipping

r
2.4. How to orient a quickdraw

i o
2.5. How to clip the rope into a carabiner

r
2.6. Clipping stances and techniques

t p Falling

u
2.7. What a fall entails

o
2.8. How to minimize impact force on the lead climber during a fall

h
Tip for extending a quickdraw 2.9. The pulley effect
This nifty trick results in an extendable
quickdraw that can be easily lengthened
depending on your needs. Having at

wi t
wandering pitches and helps prevent
protection from walking or pulling out.
The sling must be able to move freely in

e
least two extendable quickdraws on the carabiners—do not attach elastic or

s
your rack lets you limit rope drag on “String” to this type of quickdraw.

t u
n o
D o

186 - Handbook > Climbing > Tying in — 187

 2.3.

Why partners should double-check each other

Habit, overconfidence, distraction and fatigue can cause us to make mistakes. Even
the most experienced climber can tie an incomplete knot, incorrectly thread a belay

t
device or forget to lock a locking carabiner. Such careless errors often have serious

n
consequences. Before each and every pitch, you and your partner should double-

e
check each other, much like parachutists do prior to each jump. This double vigilance,
for yourself and your partner, can prevent many an accident. It is also the foundation

m
of a solid partnership.

r ee
g
Climber’s check of the belayer Belayer’s check of the climber

Helmet properly fitted and buckled Helmet properly fitted and buckled.

r a
o
Harness properly fitted and buckles Harness properly fitted and buckles

i
taut. taut.

r
Rope properly installed in the belay Proper tie-in and well-dressed knot (3).

p
device (1).

t
Carabiner locked (2).

u
Stopper knot at the end of the rope (4). 1

t h o 2

i
3

w
1 3

u s e
o t
o n
2
D 4
4
Yes No

190 - Handbook > Climbing > Tying in — 191

 2.3.

Why partners should double-check each other

Habit, overconfidence, distraction and fatigue can cause us to make mistakes. Even
the most experienced climber can tie an incomplete knot, incorrectly thread a belay

t
device or forget to lock a locking carabiner. Such careless errors often have serious

n
consequences. Before each and every pitch, you and your partner should double-

e
check each other, much like parachutists do prior to each jump. This double vigilance,
for yourself and your partner, can prevent many an accident. It is also the foundation

m
of a solid partnership.

r ee
g
Climber’s check of the belayer Belayer’s check of the climber

Helmet properly fitted and buckled Helmet properly fitted and buckled.

r a
o
Harness properly fitted and buckles Harness properly fitted and buckles

i
taut. taut.

r
Rope properly installed in the belay Proper tie-in and well-dressed knot (3).

p
device (1).

t
Carabiner locked (2).

u
Stopper knot at the end of the rope (4). 1

t h o 2

i
3

w
1 3

u s e
o t
o n
2
D 4
4
Yes No

190 - Handbook > Climbing > Tying in — 191

 2.4. 2.5.

How to orient a quickdraw How to clip the rope into a carabiner

To work properly, a carabiner must be loaded along its long axis. If a quickdraw Properly clipping the rope into the Yes
includes a captive carabiner (e.g. String), this should always be clipped to the rope carabiner reduces the risk of either the

t
rather than attached to bolts or other protection. rope or protection coming unclipped.

e n
The rope must pass up through
the carabiner from the cliff side

m
and then back to the climber.
No
Yes

r ee
g
No On a traversing route, face the cara- Yes

a
biner gate away from your direction of
No

r
travel.

o
Danger!

Choose the appropriate-length quickdraw to avoid rope drag and improper loading.

p r i Proper gate orientation will help

t
prevent the rope from unclipping
No

u
itself in a lead fall.

t h o
i
If the rope is clipped wrong, there is a

w
Yes significant risk of its coming unclipped
in a lead fall. During such a fall, the rope

e
makes a whiplash-like movement (gate

us
No chatter) that may cause it to unclip itself
Danger!
from the carabiner.

t
No

o
Clip the quickdraw properly to prevent the rope coming accidentally unclipped. Danger!

o n Position the quickdraw such that the rope-side carabiner does not contact the
rock in a fall.

D
Yes
No No
Danger! Danger!

192 - Handbook > Climbing > Tying in — 193

 2.4. 2.5.

How to orient a quickdraw How to clip the rope into a carabiner

To work properly, a carabiner must be loaded along its long axis. If a quickdraw Properly clipping the rope into the Yes
includes a captive carabiner (e.g. String), this should always be clipped to the rope carabiner reduces the risk of either the

t
rather than attached to bolts or other protection. rope or protection coming unclipped.

e n
The rope must pass up through
the carabiner from the cliff side

m
and then back to the climber.
No
Yes

r ee
g
No On a traversing route, face the cara- Yes

a
biner gate away from your direction of
No

r
travel.

o
Danger!

Choose the appropriate-length quickdraw to avoid rope drag and improper loading.

p r i Proper gate orientation will help

t
prevent the rope from unclipping
No

u
itself in a lead fall.

t h o
i
If the rope is clipped wrong, there is a

w
Yes significant risk of its coming unclipped
in a lead fall. During such a fall, the rope

e
makes a whiplash-like movement (gate

us
No chatter) that may cause it to unclip itself
Danger!
from the carabiner.

t
No

o
Clip the quickdraw properly to prevent the rope coming accidentally unclipped. Danger!

o n Position the quickdraw such that the rope-side carabiner does not contact the
rock in a fall.

D
Yes
No No
Danger! Danger!

192 - Handbook > Climbing > Tying in — 193

 4.3. 4.4.

What to do when you arrive at a bolted belay station How to equalize two anchor points

On multipitch routes—but rarely on sport routes—the belay station consists of two Equalization allows you to connect natural, bolted or mixed anchor points with slings
unlinked anchor points. Follow this procedure to build a secure belay station after made of cordage or webbing. The various forces distributed on each anchor point will

t
rigging your redirect. depend on the angles between these points.

Inspect the belay station 50% 50%

e n
m
Belay stations are generally bolted, but Boulder or horn: Test by rapping them

e
you should always check the condition of with the palm of your hand. Less than 45°

e
the bolts or other in situ hardware. Chain: check the condition of the chain This is ideal: the anchors share

r
Bolts: check condition and tightness. links, of the quicklinks, etc. the load equally, at 50 percent.

g
Pitons: check condition and systemati- In situ slings or webbing: systematically

a
cally re-seat them with a hammer. check for weathering/wear and swap

r
Back up the belay station with addi- them out if necessary. You should always

o
tional pitons, nuts or cams. carry a knife.

p r i54% 54%

Linking anchor points

u t 60 degrees

o
Still acceptable, because the load

h
A belay station must at a minimum consist Bear in mind that the belayer may be is distributed nicely between the

t
of two anchor points. If the anchor points lifted if the lead climber falls. In an anchors.

i
aren’t already connected, equalize them emergency, when no locking carabiner

w
such that each point equally shares you is available, you should use at least two
and your partner’s combined weight. carabiners with gates facing opposing

e
Always use locking carabiners. directions.

s
71% 71%

Yes

t u No

o
90 degrees

n
Barely acceptable.

D o
120 degrees or more
Load distribution is unsafe—each
Always use locking carabiners piece may be subjected to greater
at the belay station.
Danger! forces than if left unequalized.

216 - Handbook > Climbing > The belay station — 217

 4.3. 4.4.

What to do when you arrive at a bolted belay station How to equalize two anchor points

On multipitch routes—but rarely on sport routes—the belay station consists of two Equalization allows you to connect natural, bolted or mixed anchor points with slings
unlinked anchor points. Follow this procedure to build a secure belay station after made of cordage or webbing. The various forces distributed on each anchor point will

t
rigging your redirect. depend on the angles between these points.

Inspect the belay station 50% 50%

e n
m
Belay stations are generally bolted, but Boulder or horn: Test by rapping them

e
you should always check the condition of with the palm of your hand. Less than 45°

e
the bolts or other in situ hardware. Chain: check the condition of the chain This is ideal: the anchors share

r
Bolts: check condition and tightness. links, of the quicklinks, etc. the load equally, at 50 percent.

g
Pitons: check condition and systemati- In situ slings or webbing: systematically

a
cally re-seat them with a hammer. check for weathering/wear and swap

r
Back up the belay station with addi- them out if necessary. You should always

o
tional pitons, nuts or cams. carry a knife.

p r i54% 54%

Linking anchor points

u t 60 degrees

o
Still acceptable, because the load

h
A belay station must at a minimum consist Bear in mind that the belayer may be is distributed nicely between the

t
of two anchor points. If the anchor points lifted if the lead climber falls. In an anchors.

i
aren’t already connected, equalize them emergency, when no locking carabiner

w
such that each point equally shares you is available, you should use at least two
and your partner’s combined weight. carabiners with gates facing opposing

e
Always use locking carabiners. directions.

s
71% 71%

Yes

t u No

o
90 degrees

n
Barely acceptable.

D o
120 degrees or more
Load distribution is unsafe—each
Always use locking carabiners piece may be subjected to greater
at the belay station.
Danger! forces than if left unequalized.

216 - Handbook > Climbing > The belay station — 217

 Alpinism

t
Excellence in mountaineering rests on two pillars: knowledge

n
of the mountains and physical fitness. Both are cultivated by

e
spending considerable time in the mountains. Fortunately, rope

m
techniques, climbing skills and self-rescue basics can be acquired

e
more quickly. However, if you do not practice regularly, you

e
may lose proficiency with the equipment and/or forget how to

g r
carry out these procedures. This module provides the necessary

a
basics for the practice and instruction of mountaineering in

r
snowy and glaciated terrain, and complements the techniques

o
covered in the Climbing Module.

p r i
u t
t ho
wi
u se 1. Equipment p. 267

ot 2. Roping up p. 271

n
3. Climbing p. 279

D o 4. Belay stations on snow and ice

5. Crevasse rescue
p. 295
p. 305
6. Tips and troubleshooting p. 313
7. Mountaineering grades p. 321

Alpinism 8. Evaluation p. 327

 Alpinism

t
Excellence in mountaineering rests on two pillars: knowledge

n
of the mountains and physical fitness. Both are cultivated by

e
spending considerable time in the mountains. Fortunately, rope

m
techniques, climbing skills and self-rescue basics can be acquired

e
more quickly. However, if you do not practice regularly, you

e
may lose proficiency with the equipment and/or forget how to

g r
carry out these procedures. This module provides the necessary

a
basics for the practice and instruction of mountaineering in

r
snowy and glaciated terrain, and complements the techniques

o
covered in the Climbing Module.

p r i
u t
t ho
wi
u se 1. Equipment p. 267

ot 2. Roping up p. 271

n
3. Climbing p. 279

D o 4. Belay stations on snow and ice

5. Crevasse rescue
p. 295
p. 305
6. Tips and troubleshooting p. 313
7. Mountaineering grades p. 321

Alpinism 8. Evaluation p. 327

 2.1.

Rope length to maintain between climbers

on a glacier; rope length to keep in reserve

On a glacier, you should always keep at least 15 meters of rope between each climber. Knotted rope

t
The spare rope on either end of your team (kept in backpacks) is reserved for aid in

n
ascending the rope or to construct a rescue hauling system. Therefore, keep at least In some countries in the European Alps (Switzerland, Germany, Austria), mountaineers

e
6 meters of spare rope on either end. With a shorter rope, you can get by with less tie a series of knots in the rope between them about every two meters (but normally
spare rope but must still maintain at least 15 meters of rope between climbers. leaving the central section of the rope span clear of knots). This technique has its

m
advantages and disadvantages. To limit disadvantages you can use both techniques,

e
Rope team of two one rope with knots and another without.

g r e -
a

+
Advantages Disadvantages
15 m minimum

Minimum spare rope

in the backpack:

i o r
The knots have a braking action on
crevasse lips. This technique makes it
The knots make hauling very difficult,
and require that you carry another rope

r
6 to 15 meters.
easier to arrest a fall in certain cases, or a large amount of spare rope.

p
Rope length between the climbers: minimum 15 meters. especially for a two-person team with

t
a significant weight difference between

u
When mountaineers climb with half ropes, For example, with two 50-meter ropes: the climbers.

o
one partner takes the spare rope while the keeping the minimum 15-meter distance If the fallen climber is conscious and

h
other carries a second rope. This method between the climbers, one climber will has stopped just below the crevasse lip,

i t
allows either mountaineer to perform a carry 35 meters of spare rope, while the the loops can help him or her climb out.
rescue in case of a crevasse fall. other carries a second 50-meter rope.

e w
u s
o t
n
35 metres of spare rope. Second (50-meter) rope.

D
Rope team of three
o 4 m. 4 m.

Series of braking knots with loops. The rope should be taut.

8 to 15 metres 8 to 15 metres

272 - Handbook > Alpinism > Roping up — 273

 2.1.

Rope length to maintain between climbers

on a glacier; rope length to keep in reserve

On a glacier, you should always keep at least 15 meters of rope between each climber. Knotted rope

t
The spare rope on either end of your team (kept in backpacks) is reserved for aid in

n
ascending the rope or to construct a rescue hauling system. Therefore, keep at least In some countries in the European Alps (Switzerland, Germany, Austria), mountaineers

e
6 meters of spare rope on either end. With a shorter rope, you can get by with less tie a series of knots in the rope between them about every two meters (but normally
spare rope but must still maintain at least 15 meters of rope between climbers. leaving the central section of the rope span clear of knots). This technique has its

m
advantages and disadvantages. To limit disadvantages you can use both techniques,

e
Rope team of two one rope with knots and another without.

g r e -
a

+
Advantages Disadvantages
15 m minimum

Minimum spare rope

in the backpack:

i o r
The knots have a braking action on
crevasse lips. This technique makes it
The knots make hauling very difficult,
and require that you carry another rope

r
6 to 15 meters.
easier to arrest a fall in certain cases, or a large amount of spare rope.

p
Rope length between the climbers: minimum 15 meters. especially for a two-person team with

t
a significant weight difference between

u
When mountaineers climb with half ropes, For example, with two 50-meter ropes: the climbers.

o
one partner takes the spare rope while the keeping the minimum 15-meter distance If the fallen climber is conscious and

h
other carries a second rope. This method between the climbers, one climber will has stopped just below the crevasse lip,

i t
allows either mountaineer to perform a carry 35 meters of spare rope, while the the loops can help him or her climb out.
rescue in case of a crevasse fall. other carries a second 50-meter rope.

e w
u s
o t
n
35 metres of spare rope. Second (50-meter) rope.

D
Rope team of three
o 4 m. 4 m.

Series of braking knots with loops. The rope should be taut.

8 to 15 metres 8 to 15 metres

272 - Handbook > Alpinism > Roping up — 273

 4.1. 4.2.

How to choose a good location How to build and use a snow bollard
for a snow belay station
On steep snow, when simul-climbing becomes too dangerous, you’ll need to build an This type of anchor allows you to rappel With good positioning in hard snow, a
anchor. These anchors can vary widely in strength. down a slope, or to cross a crevasse or bollard can be a reliable anchor.

t
bergschrund.

n
The leader chooses a line of ascent that The belayer faces in the direction of

e
avoids falling directly onto the belay, in pull, to prepare to catch a falling leader.
case of a fall or slide.

m
The belayer uses a dynamic belay in d = 1 to 3 metres
order to protect the anchor. Anchor

e
The belayer braces into the snow
strength varies with snow consistency, so h > 30 cm

e
slope, digging notches for his buttocks

r
and heels. it won’t always be predictable.

g
h

a
d

i o r
Yes Yes
p r
ut
maximum 90°

t h o
wi
us e
t
0,5 m 1 m 1,5 m

n o
D oNo
No

Hard snow: wrist used Packed snow: elbow Soft snow: Shoulder
as centre of rotation used as centre of rotation used as centre of rotation
Danger!

296 - Handbook > Alpinism > Belay stations on snow and ice — 297
 4.1. 4.2.

How to choose a good location How to build and use a snow bollard
for a snow belay station
On steep snow, when simul-climbing becomes too dangerous, you’ll need to build an This type of anchor allows you to rappel With good positioning in hard snow, a
anchor. These anchors can vary widely in strength. down a slope, or to cross a crevasse or bollard can be a reliable anchor.

t
bergschrund.

n
The leader chooses a line of ascent that The belayer faces in the direction of

e
avoids falling directly onto the belay, in pull, to prepare to catch a falling leader.
case of a fall or slide.

m
The belayer uses a dynamic belay in d = 1 to 3 metres
order to protect the anchor. Anchor

e
The belayer braces into the snow
strength varies with snow consistency, so h > 30 cm

e
slope, digging notches for his buttocks

r
and heels. it won’t always be predictable.

g
h

a
d

i o r
Yes Yes
p r
ut
maximum 90°

t h o
wi
us e
t
0,5 m 1 m 1,5 m

n o
D oNo
No

Hard snow: wrist used Packed snow: elbow Soft snow: Shoulder
as centre of rotation used as centre of rotation used as centre of rotation
Danger!

296 - Handbook > Alpinism > Belay stations on snow and ice — 297
 5.6.

How to haul an injured climber out of a crevasse Tips and troubleshooting 6

Knowing how to manage the unexpected is part of every experienced mountai-
Mechanical-advantage hauling systems The 7:1 Triple Mariner is used when: neer’s skill set. A sudden slip, an improvised bivouac, rappelling an ice slope—
With a two-person rope team, a single The victim is unconscious or incapacitated. nothing should ever catch us unprepared.

t
climber alone on the surface will have Communication is impossible.

n
a hard time hauling up her partner. She The victim doesn’t know self-rescue

e
must therefore use a hauling system with technique. 6.1 How to arrest a slide on snow with an ice axe
significant mechanical advantage. 6.2 How to make a V-thread (or «Abalakov»)

m
Even with a team of three or more clim- Required equipment 6.3 How to carve a bivouac shelter into a snow slope

e
bers, it’s best to implement a «Triple

e
1 progress-capture pulley (head of the 6.4 How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow.

r
Mariner»-type hauling system to bring
hauling system).

g
up an incapacitated climber. This system
Two simple ascending devices (mecha-
gives a theoretical mechanical advan-

a
nical or cordage).
tage of 7:1. However, once you factor in

r
friction, especially if using only carabi- 4 locking carabiners.

o
5 to 10 m of 6 mm cord, or extra rope.

i
ners (no pulleys), the actual mechanical

r
advantage is closer to 2:1. 2 additional pulleys, if available.

The Triple Mariner requires

t p
u
5 to 10 m of 6 mm cord,

o
or extra rope. Using pulleys
helps reduce friction.

i t h
e w
u s
o t
o n
D The sling prevents
the rope from digging
into the snow. Once
the victim reaches
the lip, pull on the rope
with the sling to help
him up and over,
onto flatter ground.
312 - Handbook > Alpinism > Tips and troubleshooting — 313
 5.6.

How to haul an injured climber out of a crevasse Tips and troubleshooting 6

Knowing how to manage the unexpected is part of every experienced mountai-
Mechanical-advantage hauling systems The 7:1 Triple Mariner is used when: neer’s skill set. A sudden slip, an improvised bivouac, rappelling an ice slope—
With a two-person rope team, a single The victim is unconscious or incapacitated. nothing should ever catch us unprepared.

t
climber alone on the surface will have Communication is impossible.

n
a hard time hauling up her partner. She The victim doesn’t know self-rescue

e
must therefore use a hauling system with technique. 6.1 How to arrest a slide on snow with an ice axe
significant mechanical advantage. 6.2 How to make a V-thread (or «Abalakov»)

m
Even with a team of three or more clim- Required equipment 6.3 How to carve a bivouac shelter into a snow slope

e
bers, it’s best to implement a «Triple

e
1 progress-capture pulley (head of the 6.4 How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow.

r
Mariner»-type hauling system to bring
hauling system).

g
up an incapacitated climber. This system
Two simple ascending devices (mecha-
gives a theoretical mechanical advan-

a
nical or cordage).
tage of 7:1. However, once you factor in

r
friction, especially if using only carabi- 4 locking carabiners.

o
5 to 10 m of 6 mm cord, or extra rope.

i
ners (no pulleys), the actual mechanical

r
advantage is closer to 2:1. 2 additional pulleys, if available.

The Triple Mariner requires

t p
u
5 to 10 m of 6 mm cord,

o
or extra rope. Using pulleys
helps reduce friction.

i t h
e w
u s
o t
o n
D The sling prevents
the rope from digging
into the snow. Once
the victim reaches
the lip, pull on the rope
with the sling to help
him up and over,
onto flatter ground.
312 - Handbook > Alpinism > Tips and troubleshooting — 313
 6.4.

How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow Mountaineering grades 7

Internationally, climbers use several different systems to classify mountaineering
Snow on flat or semi-flat ground can be loose or poorly packed, making it almost routes. The most precise systems are alphanumeric rating scales that distinguish
impossible to excavate a shelter. Try this instead: between a route’s technical difficulty and its commitment level. To prepare for a

t
climb, you need to be able to correctly interpret a route’s rating, and then assess the

n
1 – Make a pile of packs, clothing and Now excavate the hole into a bivouac real-world implications as you go. All rating scales describe routes under standard

e
sleeping pads. shelter, taking care not to weaken the climbing conditions.
overlying structure.

m
7.1. Alphanumeric grades (technical alpinism)
2 – Cover the pile with snow and stamp

e
7.2. Classic grades
it down. 4 – Climb inside and cover the entryway

e
7.3. Russian grades

r
with packs while maintaining air circula-

g
3 – Dig a hole beneath the packs, clothing, tion with the outside.

a
pads etc. and delicately remove them.

i o r
p r
2

u t
t h o
wi
e
3

u s
o t
o n
D
4

320 - Handbook > Alpinism > Mountaineering grades — 321

 6.4.

How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow Mountaineering grades 7

Internationally, climbers use several different systems to classify mountaineering
Snow on flat or semi-flat ground can be loose or poorly packed, making it almost routes. The most precise systems are alphanumeric rating scales that distinguish
impossible to excavate a shelter. Try this instead: between a route’s technical difficulty and its commitment level. To prepare for a

t
climb, you need to be able to correctly interpret a route’s rating, and then assess the

n
1 – Make a pile of packs, clothing and Now excavate the hole into a bivouac real-world implications as you go. All rating scales describe routes under standard

e
sleeping pads. shelter, taking care not to weaken the climbing conditions.
overlying structure.

m
7.1. Alphanumeric grades (technical alpinism)
2 – Cover the pile with snow and stamp

e
7.2. Classic grades
it down. 4 – Climb inside and cover the entryway

e
7.3. Russian grades

r
with packs while maintaining air circula-

g
3 – Dig a hole beneath the packs, clothing, tion with the outside.

a
pads etc. and delicately remove them.

i o r
p r
2

u t
t h o
wi
e
3

u s
o t
o n
D
4

320 - Handbook > Alpinism > Mountaineering grades — 321

 Basic knowledge

contents
A. Environment
1. Natural Environment............................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Altitudinal Zonation................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Main adaptations of life in the mountains .................................................................... 10
1.3 Most common types of rocks.............................................................................................. 12
1.4 Glaciers.......................................................................................................................................... 14
1.5 Objective Hazards..................................................................................................................... 18
1.6 Managing garbage in the mountains................................................................................ 20
1.7 Rules of good conduct............................................................................................................ 22

2. Meteorology................................................................................................................................ 23
2.1 What are the main weather patterns of the world’s major mountain ranges?. 24
2.2 What is atmospheric pressure?.......................................................................................... 28
2.3 What are the different types of clouds?......................................................................... 29
2.4 What is a high-pressure system (anticyclone)?............................................................ 30
2.5 What are the effects of a high-pressure system?........................................................ 31
2.6 How does an isolated thunderstorm form?................................................................... 32
2.7 How do your recognize the formation of an isolated thunderstorm?................ 33
2.8 What is a low-pressure system?......................................................................................... 34
2.9 What happens inside a low-pressure system?............................................................. 35
2.10 What happens with the arrival of a warm front?..................................................... 36
2.11 What happens with the arrival of a cold front?........................................................ 37
2.12 How do you interpret a weather report?..................................................................... 38
2.13 How do you assess changing weather conditions in the field?.......................... 40

3. Orientation.................................................................................................................................... 43
3.1 What is orientation?................................................................................................................ 44
3.2 How to orient yourself without a map............................................................................. 45
3.3 What is a map?.......................................................................................................................... 46
3.4 How to choose the right scale............................................................................................. 47
3.5 How to interpret a legend..................................................................................................... 48
3.6 What is a contour line?........................................................................................................... 49
3.7 How to identify a summit and locate a depression.................................................... 50
3.8 How to differentiate a valley from a ridge, and how to recognize a col............ 51
3.9 How to interpret a profile and estimate slope angle................................................. 52
3.10 How to orient a map without a compass..................................................................... 53
3.11 How to properly read a map.............................................................................................. 54
3.12 Tools to use with a map....................................................................................................... 55
3.13 What is a compass?............................................................................................................... 56
3.14 What is the difference between magnetic north and true north?.................... 57
3.15 What are the strengths and limitations of GPS technology?............................... 58

333
 Basic knowledge

contents
A. Environment
1. Natural Environment............................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Altitudinal Zonation................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Main adaptations of life in the mountains .................................................................... 10
1.3 Most common types of rocks.............................................................................................. 12
1.4 Glaciers.......................................................................................................................................... 14
1.5 Objective Hazards..................................................................................................................... 18
1.6 Managing garbage in the mountains................................................................................ 20
1.7 Rules of good conduct............................................................................................................ 22

2. Meteorology................................................................................................................................ 23
2.1 What are the main weather patterns of the world’s major mountain ranges?. 24
2.2 What is atmospheric pressure?.......................................................................................... 28
2.3 What are the different types of clouds?......................................................................... 29
2.4 What is a high-pressure system (anticyclone)?............................................................ 30
2.5 What are the effects of a high-pressure system?........................................................ 31
2.6 How does an isolated thunderstorm form?................................................................... 32
2.7 How do your recognize the formation of an isolated thunderstorm?................ 33
2.8 What is a low-pressure system?......................................................................................... 34
2.9 What happens inside a low-pressure system?............................................................. 35
2.10 What happens with the arrival of a warm front?..................................................... 36
2.11 What happens with the arrival of a cold front?........................................................ 37
2.12 How do you interpret a weather report?..................................................................... 38
2.13 How do you assess changing weather conditions in the field?.......................... 40

3. Orientation.................................................................................................................................... 43
3.1 What is orientation?................................................................................................................ 44
3.2 How to orient yourself without a map............................................................................. 45
3.3 What is a map?.......................................................................................................................... 46
3.4 How to choose the right scale............................................................................................. 47
3.5 How to interpret a legend..................................................................................................... 48
3.6 What is a contour line?........................................................................................................... 49
3.7 How to identify a summit and locate a depression.................................................... 50
3.8 How to differentiate a valley from a ridge, and how to recognize a col............ 51
3.9 How to interpret a profile and estimate slope angle................................................. 52
3.10 How to orient a map without a compass..................................................................... 53
3.11 How to properly read a map.............................................................................................. 54
3.12 Tools to use with a map....................................................................................................... 55
3.13 What is a compass?............................................................................................................... 56
3.14 What is the difference between magnetic north and true north?.................... 57
3.15 What are the strengths and limitations of GPS technology?............................... 58

333
 3.16 How to orient a map with a compass............................................................................ 60
3.17 How to orient yourself when visibility is good........................................................... 61
3.18 How to take a bearing on the ground and transfer it to the map...................... 62
3.19 How to determine your position in good weather................................................... 63
3.20 How to navigate in poor visibility.................................................................................... 64
3.21 How to take a bearing on the map and follow it on the ground........................ 65
3.22 How to lead a hike using a compass............................................................................... 66
3.23 Ensuring you don’t miss your target.............................................................................. 67
3.24 How to bypass an obstacle................................................................................................. 68
3.25 How to plan a hike using a compass............................................................................... 69
D. Rescue
B. Leading a Group
1. Group Management ........................................................................................................... 73
1.1 How to organize your group................................................................................................. 74
1.2 The most common group dynamics.................................................................................. 75
2. Decision-Making .................................................................................................................... 77
2.1 How to make good decisions............................................................................................... 78
2.2 Criteria to consider when planning a route................................................................... 79
2.3 Choosing a route while mitigating risk............................................................................. 80
2.4 Evaluating risk during an outing......................................................................................... 81
2.5 Why do an evaluation at the end of the outing?......................................................... 82
C. Adapting to the Environment
1. Nutrition and hydration................................................................................................... 87
1.1 The three nutritional groups................................................................................................ 88
1.2 Why we need to hydrate........................................................................................................ 89
2. Cold....................................................................................................................................................... 91
2.1 How is heat distributed in the body?............................................................................... 92
2.2 How wind increases the cold’s effects (i.e., wind chill)............................................. 93
Alpine hiking
2.3 What is hypothermia?............................................................................................................. 94
2.4 How frostbite occurs................................................................................................................ 95
2.5 The different stages of frostbite......................................................................................... 96
2.6 Treating frostbite in the field............................................................................................... 97
3. Altitude............................................................................................................................................. 99
3.1 What effects does altitude have on oxygen levels?................................................ 100
3.1 How to evaluate the seriousness of Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS)............ 101
3.1 How to recognize pulmonary edema and cerebral edema.................................. 102
334
4. Lightning....................................................................................................................................... 103
Protecting against direct lightning strikes........................................................................... 104
Protecting against ground currents caused by lightning strikes................................ 105
5. Sun...................................................................................................................................................... 107
1. Protect, Call, Care ............................................................................................................... 111
1.1 Managing a rescue situation............................................................................................. 112
1.2 Protecting yourself and the victim in an emergency situation........................... 113
1.3 Calling for help........................................................................................................................ 114
1.4 Ways to call for help.............................................................................................................. 115
1.5 Caring for a victim before medical help arrives........................................................ 116
1.6 Clearing the airway................................................................................................................ 117
1.7 What to do in case of severe bleeding.......................................................................... 118
1.8 What to do in case of respiratory and cardiac arrest.............................................. 119
1.9 Securing an unconscious victim....................................................................................... 120
1.10 Securing a conscious victim............................................................................................ 121
1.11 What to do if someone is choking................................................................................ 122
1.12 Keeping the victim comfortable while awaiting medical help.......................... 123
2. Evacuating an injured person ................................................................................. 125
2.1 Carrying an injured person................................................................................................ 126
2.2 Choosing and preparing a landing zone....................................................................... 127
2.3 Dealing with an approaching helicopter...................................................................... 128
2.4 Approaching a helicopter for boarding......................................................................... 129
3. First-aid kit.................................................................................................................................. 131
1. Equipment ................................................................................................................................. 135
1.1 Equipment to bring on a hike............................................................................................ 136
1.1 Type of ropes and technical equipment to use when hiking............................... 138
2. Mountain travel ................................................................................................................... 139
2.1 How to manage a group while traveling in the mountains.................................. 140
2.2 How to travel on low-angle snow without crampons............................................. 141
2.3 How to self-arrest without crampons or an ice axe................................................ 142
2.4 How to reassure a hiker during a technical crux....................................................... 143
Handbook > Contents — 335
 3.16 How to orient a map with a compass............................................................................ 60
3.17 How to orient yourself when visibility is good........................................................... 61
3.18 How to take a bearing on the ground and transfer it to the map...................... 62
3.19 How to determine your position in good weather................................................... 63
3.20 How to navigate in poor visibility.................................................................................... 64
3.21 How to take a bearing on the map and follow it on the ground........................ 65
3.22 How to lead a hike using a compass............................................................................... 66
3.23 Ensuring you don’t miss your target.............................................................................. 67
3.24 How to bypass an obstacle................................................................................................. 68
3.25 How to plan a hike using a compass............................................................................... 69
D. Rescue
B. Leading a Group
1. Group Management ........................................................................................................... 73
1.1 How to organize your group................................................................................................. 74
1.2 The most common group dynamics.................................................................................. 75
2. Decision-Making .................................................................................................................... 77
2.1 How to make good decisions............................................................................................... 78
2.2 Criteria to consider when planning a route................................................................... 79
2.3 Choosing a route while mitigating risk............................................................................. 80
2.4 Evaluating risk during an outing......................................................................................... 81
2.5 Why do an evaluation at the end of the outing?......................................................... 82
C. Adapting to the Environment
1. Nutrition and hydration................................................................................................... 87
1.1 The three nutritional groups................................................................................................ 88
1.2 Why we need to hydrate........................................................................................................ 89
2. Cold....................................................................................................................................................... 91
2.1 How is heat distributed in the body?............................................................................... 92
2.2 How wind increases the cold’s effects (i.e., wind chill)............................................. 93
Alpine hiking
2.3 What is hypothermia?............................................................................................................. 94
2.4 How frostbite occurs................................................................................................................ 95
2.5 The different stages of frostbite......................................................................................... 96
2.6 Treating frostbite in the field............................................................................................... 97
3. Altitude............................................................................................................................................. 99
3.1 What effects does altitude have on oxygen levels?................................................ 100
3.1 How to evaluate the seriousness of Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS)............ 101
3.1 How to recognize pulmonary edema and cerebral edema.................................. 102
334
4. Lightning....................................................................................................................................... 103
Protecting against direct lightning strikes........................................................................... 104
Protecting against ground currents caused by lightning strikes................................ 105
5. Sun...................................................................................................................................................... 107
1. Protect, Call, Care ............................................................................................................... 111
1.1 Managing a rescue situation............................................................................................. 112
1.2 Protecting yourself and the victim in an emergency situation........................... 113
1.3 Calling for help........................................................................................................................ 114
1.4 Ways to call for help.............................................................................................................. 115
1.5 Caring for a victim before medical help arrives........................................................ 116
1.6 Clearing the airway................................................................................................................ 117
1.7 What to do in case of severe bleeding.......................................................................... 118
1.8 What to do in case of respiratory and cardiac arrest.............................................. 119
1.9 Securing an unconscious victim....................................................................................... 120
1.10 Securing a conscious victim............................................................................................ 121
1.11 What to do if someone is choking................................................................................ 122
1.12 Keeping the victim comfortable while awaiting medical help.......................... 123
2. Evacuating an injured person ................................................................................. 125
2.1 Carrying an injured person................................................................................................ 126
2.2 Choosing and preparing a landing zone....................................................................... 127
2.3 Dealing with an approaching helicopter...................................................................... 128
2.4 Approaching a helicopter for boarding......................................................................... 129
3. First-aid kit.................................................................................................................................. 131
1. Equipment ................................................................................................................................. 135
1.1 Equipment to bring on a hike............................................................................................ 136
1.1 Type of ropes and technical equipment to use when hiking............................... 138
2. Mountain travel ................................................................................................................... 139
2.1 How to manage a group while traveling in the mountains.................................. 140
2.2 How to travel on low-angle snow without crampons............................................. 141
2.3 How to self-arrest without crampons or an ice axe................................................ 142
2.4 How to reassure a hiker during a technical crux....................................................... 143
Handbook > Contents — 335
 2.5 How to secure the crux of a route.................................................................................. 144
2.6 How to stage and organize an outing............................................................................ 146
3. Alpine trekking hygiene ............................................................................................... 149
3.1 Preventative measures against infectious diseases................................................. 150
3.2 Vaccinations for your destination country.................................................................. 151
3.3 How to prevent and treat diarrhoea.............................................................................. 152
3.4 How to guard against rabies.............................................................................................. 153
3.5 Type of first aid kit to bring for a multi-week trek................................................... 154
4. Alpine hiking grades......................................................................................................... 155
5. Managing and leading a trek................................................................................... 159
5.1 Formalities under the leader’s purview....................................................................... 160
5.2 Preparing for your expedition........................................................................................... 161
5.3 Leading a local support team............................................................................................ 162
5.4 Encouraging responsible tourism.................................................................................... 163
5.5 Topics to make participants aware of............................................................................ 164
5.6 Running a successful group trip....................................................................................... 166
5. Evaluation .................................................................................................................................. 169
Climbing
1. Equipment ................................................................................................................................. 173
1.1 What gear to bring................................................................................................................ 174
1.2 The various types of ropes................................................................................................. 175
1.3 The various types of dynamic ropes.............................................................................. 176
1.4 What weakens a rope ......................................................................................................... 177
1.5 Inspecting and caring for your rope............................................................................... 178
1.6 How to single-coil and carry a rope................................................................................ 179
1.7 How to double-coil and carry a rope............................................................................. 180
1.8 The various types of carabiners....................................................................................... 182
1.9 Tying a nylon webbing sling............................................................................................... 184
1.10 The best knot for joining two ropes............................................................................ 185
1.11 How to carry slings.............................................................................................................. 186
2. Tying in .......................................................................................................................................... 187
2.1 Tie-in knots............................................................................................................................... 188
2.2 Properly tying in to the harness....................................................................................... 189
2.3 Why partners should double-check each other........................................................ 190
2.4 How to orient a quickdraw................................................................................................. 192
2.5 How to clip the rope into a carabiner............................................................................ 193
336
2.6 Clipping stances and techniques..................................................................................... 194
2.7 What a fall entails.................................................................................................................. 196
2.8 How to minimize impact force on the lead climber during a fall....................... 198
2.9 The pulley effect..................................................................................................................... 200
3. Single-pitch routes ............................................................................................................ 201
3.1 What mindset should the belayer adopt?................................................................... 202
3.2 How to belay a lead climber with a traditional device .......................................... 204
3.3 How to belay a lead climber with an assisted-braking device ........................... 206
3.4 When is a bottom anchor necessary for the belayer?........................................... 207
3.5 How to position the rope when lead climbing.......................................................... 208
3.6 Precautions to take before setting up a toprope...................................................... 209
3.7 How to thread the anchors and set up a toprope.................................................... 210
3.8 How to remove quickdraws on toprope....................................................................... 212
4. The belay station ................................................................................................................ 213
4.1 How to quickly protect a belay station......................................................................... 214
4.2 How to protect a belay station with a more-distant redirect.............................. 215
4.3 What to do when you arrive at a bolted belay station........................................... 216
4.4 How to equalize two anchor points............................................................................... 217
4.5 How to build a unidirectional anchor............................................................................ 218
4.6 How to build a multidirectional anchor........................................................................ 219
4.7 How to use natural anchors............................................................................................... 220
4.8 How to place nuts.................................................................................................................. 221
4.9 How to place cams................................................................................................................ 222
4.10 Where to position a traditional belay station.......................................................... 223
4.11 How to build a traditional belay station.................................................................... 224
5. Multi-pitch routes .............................................................................................................. 225
5.1 How to correctly anchor into the belay station......................................................... 226
5.2 How to belay one or two seconds (climbers)............................................................. 227
5.3 What to do when your second arrives at the belay station................................. 228
5.4 How to organize/manage the belay station when swapping leads.................. 229
6. Rappelling ................................................................................................................................. 231
6.1 Preparing to rappel............................................................................................................... 232
6.2 Which knot to use to join two ropes............................................................................. 233
6.3 How to set up a rappel......................................................................................................... 234
6.4 How to stay anchored while going on rappel ........................................................... 235
6.5 Does the friction hitch go above or below the rappel device?........................... 236
6.6 What are the best friction hitches?................................................................................ 238
6.7 How to pull the rope............................................................................................................. 239
6.8 How to execute a series of consecutive rappels....................................................... 240
7. Tips and troubleshooting .......................................................................................... 241
7.1 How to tie off a partner/load on toprope .................................................................. 242
Handbook > Contents — 337
 2.5 How to secure the crux of a route.................................................................................. 144
2.6 How to stage and organize an outing............................................................................ 146
3. Alpine trekking hygiene ............................................................................................... 149
3.1 Preventative measures against infectious diseases................................................. 150
3.2 Vaccinations for your destination country.................................................................. 151
3.3 How to prevent and treat diarrhoea.............................................................................. 152
3.4 How to guard against rabies.............................................................................................. 153
3.5 Type of first aid kit to bring for a multi-week trek................................................... 154
4. Alpine hiking grades......................................................................................................... 155
5. Managing and leading a trek................................................................................... 159
5.1 Formalities under the leader’s purview....................................................................... 160
5.2 Preparing for your expedition........................................................................................... 161
5.3 Leading a local support team............................................................................................ 162
5.4 Encouraging responsible tourism.................................................................................... 163
5.5 Topics to make participants aware of............................................................................ 164
5.6 Running a successful group trip....................................................................................... 166
5. Evaluation .................................................................................................................................. 169
Climbing
1. Equipment ................................................................................................................................. 173
1.1 What gear to bring................................................................................................................ 174
1.2 The various types of ropes................................................................................................. 175
1.3 The various types of dynamic ropes.............................................................................. 176
1.4 What weakens a rope ......................................................................................................... 177
1.5 Inspecting and caring for your rope............................................................................... 178
1.6 How to single-coil and carry a rope................................................................................ 179
1.7 How to double-coil and carry a rope............................................................................. 180
1.8 The various types of carabiners....................................................................................... 182
1.9 Tying a nylon webbing sling............................................................................................... 184
1.10 The best knot for joining two ropes............................................................................ 185
1.11 How to carry slings.............................................................................................................. 186
2. Tying in .......................................................................................................................................... 187
2.1 Tie-in knots............................................................................................................................... 188
2.2 Properly tying in to the harness....................................................................................... 189
2.3 Why partners should double-check each other........................................................ 190
2.4 How to orient a quickdraw................................................................................................. 192
2.5 How to clip the rope into a carabiner............................................................................ 193
336
2.6 Clipping stances and techniques..................................................................................... 194
2.7 What a fall entails.................................................................................................................. 196
2.8 How to minimize impact force on the lead climber during a fall....................... 198
2.9 The pulley effect..................................................................................................................... 200
3. Single-pitch routes ............................................................................................................ 201
3.1 What mindset should the belayer adopt?................................................................... 202
3.2 How to belay a lead climber with a traditional device .......................................... 204
3.3 How to belay a lead climber with an assisted-braking device ........................... 206
3.4 When is a bottom anchor necessary for the belayer?........................................... 207
3.5 How to position the rope when lead climbing.......................................................... 208
3.6 Precautions to take before setting up a toprope...................................................... 209
3.7 How to thread the anchors and set up a toprope.................................................... 210
3.8 How to remove quickdraws on toprope....................................................................... 212
4. The belay station ................................................................................................................ 213
4.1 How to quickly protect a belay station......................................................................... 214
4.2 How to protect a belay station with a more-distant redirect.............................. 215
4.3 What to do when you arrive at a bolted belay station........................................... 216
4.4 How to equalize two anchor points............................................................................... 217
4.5 How to build a unidirectional anchor............................................................................ 218
4.6 How to build a multidirectional anchor........................................................................ 219
4.7 How to use natural anchors............................................................................................... 220
4.8 How to place nuts.................................................................................................................. 221
4.9 How to place cams................................................................................................................ 222
4.10 Where to position a traditional belay station.......................................................... 223
4.11 How to build a traditional belay station.................................................................... 224
5. Multi-pitch routes .............................................................................................................. 225
5.1 How to correctly anchor into the belay station......................................................... 226
5.2 How to belay one or two seconds (climbers)............................................................. 227
5.3 What to do when your second arrives at the belay station................................. 228
5.4 How to organize/manage the belay station when swapping leads.................. 229
6. Rappelling ................................................................................................................................. 231
6.1 Preparing to rappel............................................................................................................... 232
6.2 Which knot to use to join two ropes............................................................................. 233
6.3 How to set up a rappel......................................................................................................... 234
6.4 How to stay anchored while going on rappel ........................................................... 235
6.5 Does the friction hitch go above or below the rappel device?........................... 236
6.6 What are the best friction hitches?................................................................................ 238
6.7 How to pull the rope............................................................................................................. 239
6.8 How to execute a series of consecutive rappels....................................................... 240
7. Tips and troubleshooting .......................................................................................... 241
7.1 How to tie off a partner/load on toprope .................................................................. 242
Handbook > Contents — 337
 7.1 How to lower a second with a Munter hitch.............................................................. 244
7.1 How to lower a second with a plaquette..................................................................... 245
7.1 How to descend a rappel rope that is under tension............................................. 246
7.1 What to do if you lose your belay device..................................................................... 247
7.1 How to assist the second with a difficult move......................................................... 248
7.1 How to re-ascend a fixed rope......................................................................................... 249
7.1 Can you belay a rappel from the bottom?................................................................... 250
7.1 How to rappel on a damaged rope................................................................................. 251
7.1 How to pass the knot on a damaged rope.................................................................. 252
7.1 How to provide assistance to a partner stuck mid-rappel.................................... 254
7.1 How to lower from two unconnected protection points
while remaining backed up....................................................................................................... 256
7.1 How to retrieve a stuck rappel rope.............................................................................. 257
8. Rock-Climbing Grades..................................................................................................... 259
9. Evaluation.................................................................................................................................... 261
3.10 How to place a piton................................................................................... 292
3.11 How to clip a piton...................................................................................... 293
4. Belay stations on snow and ice............................................................................. 295
4.1 How to choose a good location for a snow belay station............................. 296
4.2 How to build and use a snow bollard........................................................... 297
4.3 How to build and use a deadman................................................................. 298
4.4 How to place a snow fluke............................................................................ 300
4.5 How to build an ice belay station.................................................................. 302
4.6 How to climb between belay stations........................................................... 303
5. Crevasse rescue..................................................................................................................... 305
5.1 How to arrest a crevasse fall......................................................................... 306
5.2 How to build a bomber anchor..................................................................... 307
5.3 How to extricate yourself from a crevasse.................................................... 308
5.4 How to transfer the load to an anchor......................................................... 310
5.5 How to haul an able-bodied climber............................................................ 311
5.6 How to haul an injured climber out of a crevasse........................................ 312

6. Tips and troubleshooting............................................................................................. 313

6.1 How to arrest a slide on snow with an ice axe.............................................. 314
ALPINISME 6.2 How to make a V-thread (or “Abalakov”)...................................................... 316
6.3 How to carve a bivouac shelter into a snow slope....................................... 318
6.4 How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow.......................................... 320
1. Equipment................................................................................................................................... 267
1.1 Equipment for glacier travel......................................................................... 268
7. Mountaineering grades................................................................................................. 321
1.2 Equipment for an ice, snow, rock or mixed route......................................... 269 7.1 Alphanumeric grades (technical alpinism) ................................................... 322
7.2 Classic grades................................................................................................ 324
2. Roping up..................................................................................................................................... 271 7.3 Russian grades.............................................................................................. 325
2.1 Rope length to maintain between climbers on a glacier; rope length to keep in
reserve................................................................................................................ 272
8. Evaluation.................................................................................................................................... 327
2.2 Roping up for simul-climbing........................................................................ 274
2.3 Spacing between members of the party....................................................... 275
2.4 Roping up three or more climbers (on snow)............................................... 276
2.5 Roping up for technical routes...................................................................... 277

3. Climbing........................................................................................................................................ 279
3.1 Climbing a slope of less than 40°.................................................................. 280
3.2 Climbing a slope between 40° and 50°......................................................... 282
3.3 When and where to short-rope.................................................................... 284
3.4 How to tie off hand coils when short-roping................................................ 286
3.5 How to safely climb an easy rock ridge......................................................... 287
3.6 The different types of ice screws.................................................................. 288
3.7 Where to place an ice screw......................................................................... 289
3.8 How to place an ice screw............................................................................ 290
3.9 The different types of pitons........................................................................ 291

338 Handbook > Contents — 339

 7.1 How to lower a second with a Munter hitch.............................................................. 244
7.1 How to lower a second with a plaquette..................................................................... 245
7.1 How to descend a rappel rope that is under tension............................................. 246
7.1 What to do if you lose your belay device..................................................................... 247
7.1 How to assist the second with a difficult move......................................................... 248
7.1 How to re-ascend a fixed rope......................................................................................... 249
7.1 Can you belay a rappel from the bottom?................................................................... 250
7.1 How to rappel on a damaged rope................................................................................. 251
7.1 How to pass the knot on a damaged rope.................................................................. 252
7.1 How to provide assistance to a partner stuck mid-rappel.................................... 254
7.1 How to lower from two unconnected protection points
while remaining backed up....................................................................................................... 256
7.1 How to retrieve a stuck rappel rope.............................................................................. 257
8. Rock-Climbing Grades..................................................................................................... 259
9. Evaluation.................................................................................................................................... 261
3.10 How to place a piton................................................................................... 292
3.11 How to clip a piton...................................................................................... 293
4. Belay stations on snow and ice............................................................................. 295
4.1 How to choose a good location for a snow belay station............................. 296
4.2 How to build and use a snow bollard........................................................... 297
4.3 How to build and use a deadman................................................................. 298
4.4 How to place a snow fluke............................................................................ 300
4.5 How to build an ice belay station.................................................................. 302
4.6 How to climb between belay stations........................................................... 303
5. Crevasse rescue..................................................................................................................... 305
5.1 How to arrest a crevasse fall......................................................................... 306
5.2 How to build a bomber anchor..................................................................... 307
5.3 How to extricate yourself from a crevasse.................................................... 308
5.4 How to transfer the load to an anchor......................................................... 310
5.5 How to haul an able-bodied climber............................................................ 311
5.6 How to haul an injured climber out of a crevasse........................................ 312

6. Tips and troubleshooting............................................................................................. 313

6.1 How to arrest a slide on snow with an ice axe.............................................. 314
ALPINISME 6.2 How to make a V-thread (or “Abalakov”)...................................................... 316
6.3 How to carve a bivouac shelter into a snow slope....................................... 318
6.4 How to make a bivouac shelter in powder snow.......................................... 320
1. Equipment................................................................................................................................... 267
1.1 Equipment for glacier travel......................................................................... 268
7. Mountaineering grades................................................................................................. 321
1.2 Equipment for an ice, snow, rock or mixed route......................................... 269 7.1 Alphanumeric grades (technical alpinism) ................................................... 322
7.2 Classic grades................................................................................................ 324
2. Roping up..................................................................................................................................... 271 7.3 Russian grades.............................................................................................. 325
2.1 Rope length to maintain between climbers on a glacier; rope length to keep in
reserve................................................................................................................ 272
8. Evaluation.................................................................................................................................... 327
2.2 Roping up for simul-climbing........................................................................ 274
2.3 Spacing between members of the party....................................................... 275
2.4 Roping up three or more climbers (on snow)............................................... 276
2.5 Roping up for technical routes...................................................................... 277

3. Climbing........................................................................................................................................ 279
3.1 Climbing a slope of less than 40°.................................................................. 280
3.2 Climbing a slope between 40° and 50°......................................................... 282
3.3 When and where to short-rope.................................................................... 284
3.4 How to tie off hand coils when short-roping................................................ 286
3.5 How to safely climb an easy rock ridge......................................................... 287
3.6 The different types of ice screws.................................................................. 288
3.7 Where to place an ice screw......................................................................... 289
3.8 How to place an ice screw............................................................................ 290
3.9 The different types of pitons........................................................................ 291

338 Handbook > Contents — 339