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Concise Sports Science & Exercise

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 Concise Sports
Science & Exercise

By

Sudip K Sarker MB ChB PhD FRCS

1
Preface
This book was written as an aide memoir for those who are interested
and enthusiastic about sports science, exercise and participating in
sporting activities. The book is divided into concise chapters covering all
the main aspects of sports science and training but with enough detail
for those who just want a quick reminder in some detail aspects. In the
last few years sports science has influenced greatly the performance of
elite athletes individually as well as collectively. I have covered some
essential sports science techniques and knowledge. I hope the book
helps you motivate and makes your training regime more varied and
dynamic.

© London, UK 2015

2
Contents
Science of the Human Body 4

Anatomy 5

Exercise Physiology 14

Planning Your Training 27

Health & Fitness Components 29

Test Components 30

Programme Design 31

Pre-Conditioning 33

Core Training 41

Strength Training 41

Power Training 49

Endurance Training 56

Core Stability 61

Performance Training 62

Over Training 62

Sports Nutrition 69

Sports Psychology 84

3
Science of the Human Body
The life sciences comprise the fields of science that involve the scientific
study of living organisms – such as micro-organisms, plants, animals,
and human beings – as well as related considerations like bioethics.
While biology remains the centerpiece of the life sciences, technological
advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have led to a
burgeoning of specializations and interdisciplinary fields.

Some life sciences focus on a specific type of life. For example, zoology
is the study of animals, while botany is the study of plants. Other life
sciences focus on aspects common to all or many life forms, such as
anatomy and genetics. Yet other fields are interested in technological
advances involving living things, such as bio-engineering. Another
major, though more specific, branch of life sciences involves
understanding the mind – neuroscience.

The life sciences are helpful in improving the quality and standard of life.
They have applications in health, agriculture, medicine, and the
pharmaceutical and food science industries.

4
Anatomy
Anatomy is the scientific study of the structure of organisms including
their systems, organs and tissues. It includes the appearance and
position of the various parts, the materials from which they are
composed, their locations and their relationships with other parts.
Anatomy is quite distinct from physiology and biochemistry, which deal
respectively with the functions of those parts and the chemical
processes involved. For example, an anatomist is concerned with the
shape, size, position, structure, blood supply and innervation of an organ
such as the liver; while a physiologist is interested in the production of
bile, the role of the liver in nutrition and the regulation of bodily functions.

The discipline of anatomy can be subdivided into a number of branches

including gross or macroscopic anatomy and microscopic anatomy.
Gross anatomy is the study of structures large enough to be seen with
the naked eye, and also includes superficial anatomy or surface
anatomy, the study by sight of the external body features. Microscopic
anatomy is the study of structures on a microscopic scale, including
histology (the study of tissues), and embryology (the study of an
organism in its immature condition).

5
Anatomy can be studied using both invasive and non-invasive methods
with the goal of obtaining information about the structure and
organization of organs and systems. Methods used include dissection, in
which a body is opened and its organs studied, and endoscopy, in which
a video camera-equipped instrument is inserted through a small incision
in the body wall and used to explore the internal organs and other
structures.

The term "anatomy" is commonly taken to refer to human anatomy.

However, substantially the same structures and tissues are found
throughout the rest of the animal kingdom and the term also includes the
anatomy of other animals.

Connective Tissue
Connective tissues are fibrous and made up of cells scattered among
inorganic material called the extracellular matrix. Connective tissue gives
shape to organs and holds them in place. The main types are loose
connective tissue, adipose tissue, fibrous connective tissue, cartilage
and bone. The extracellular matrix contains proteins, the chief and most
abundant of which is collagen. Collagen plays a major part in organizing

6
and maintaining tissues. The matrix can be modified to form a skeleton
to support or protect the body. An exoskeleton is a thickened, rigid
cuticle which is stiffened by mineralization, as in crustaceans or by the
cross-linking of its proteins as in insects. An endoskeleton is internal and
present in all developed animals, as well as in many of those less
developed.

Epithelium
Epithelial tissue is composed of closely packed cells, bound to each
other by cell adhesion molecules, with little intercellular space. Epithelial
cells can be squamous (flat), cuboidal or columnar and rest on a basal
lamina, the upper layer of the basement membrane, the lower layer is
the reticular lamina lying next to the connective tissue in the extracellular
matrix secreted by the epithelial cells.

7
There are many different types of epithelium, modified to suit a particular
function. In the respiratory tract there is a type of ciliated epithelial lining;
in the small intestine there are microvilli on the epithelial lining and in the
large intestine there are intestinal villi. Skin consists of an outer layer of
keratinised stratified squamous epithelium that covers the exterior of the
vertebrate body. Keratinocytes make up to 95% of the cells in the skin.

The epithelial cells on the external surface of the body typically secrete
an extracellular matrix in the form of a cuticle. In simple animals this may
just be a coat of glycoproteins. In more advanced animals, many glands
are formed of epithelial cells.

Muscle Tissue
Muscle cells (myocytes) form the active contractile tissue of the body.
Muscle tissue functions to produce force and cause motion, either
locomotion or movement within internal organs. Muscle is formed of
contractile filaments and is separated into three main types; smooth
muscle, skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle. Smooth muscle has no
striations when examined microscopically. It contracts slowly but
maintains contractibility over a wide range of stretch lengths. It is found
in such organs as sea anemone tentacles and the body wall of sea
cucumbers.

8
Skeletal muscle contracts rapidly but has a limited range of extension. It
is found in the movement of appendages and jaws. Obliquely striated
muscle is intermediate between the other two. The filaments are
staggered and this is the type of muscle found in earthworms that can
extend slowly or make rapid contractions. In higher animals striated
muscles occur in bundles attached to bone to provide movement and
are often arranged in antagonistic sets. Smooth muscle is found in the
walls of the uterus, bladder, intestines, stomach, esophagus, respiratory
airways, and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart,
allowing it to contract and pump blood round the body.

Nervous Tissue
Nervous tissue is composed of many nerve cells known as neurons
which transmit information. In some slow-moving radially symmetrical
marine animals such as ctenophores and cnidarians (including sea
anemones and jellyfish), the nerves form a nerve net, but in most
animals they are organized longitudinally into bundles. In simple
animals, receptor neurons in the body wall cause a local reaction to a
stimulus. In more complex animals, specialised receptor cells such as
chemoreceptors and photoreceptors are found in groups and send
messages along neural networks to other parts of the organism.

9
Neurons can be connected together in ganglia. In higher animals,
specialized receptors are the basis of sense organs and there is a
central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and a peripheral nervous
system. The latter consists of sensory nerves that transmit information
from sense organs and motor nerves that influence target organs. The
peripheral nervous system is divided into the somatic nervous system
which conveys sensation and controls voluntary muscle, and the
autonomic nervous system which involuntarily controls smooth muscle,
certain glands and internal organs, including the stomach.

Human Anatomy
Human anatomy is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the
human body. Anatomy is subdivided into gross anatomy and
microscopic anatomy (histology). Gross anatomy (also called
topographical anatomy, regional anatomy, or anthropotomy) is the study
of anatomical structures that can be seen by the naked eye. Microscopic
anatomy involves the use of microscopes to study minute anatomical
structures, and is the field of histology which studies the organization of
tissues at all levels, from cell biology, to organs. Anatomy, human
physiology (the study of function), and biochemistry (the study of the
chemistry of living structures) are complementary basic medical
sciences, that are generally taught together to students studying
medicine.

In some of its facets human anatomy is closely related to embryology,

comparative anatomy and comparative embryology, through common
roots in evolution; for example, much of the human body maintains the
ancient segmental pattern that is present in all vertebrates with basic

10
units being repeated, which is particularly obvious in the vertebral
column and in the ribcage, and which can be traced from the
somitogenesis stage in very early embryos.

Main Elements that Compose the Human Body

11
12
13
Exercise Physiology
Immediate Energy Sources
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the common chemical intermediate that
provides energy for all forms of biological work and is essential for
muscle contraction. Some enzymes (ATPase) are able to use the energy
stored in the bond between adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic
phosphate (Pi). As water is involved this is called hydrolysis.

ATP + H 2 O → ADP + Pi + Energy

Each mole of ATP releases 7.3 kcal (30.7 kJ), and a small amount of
ATP is stored in the muscle. If enough ATP was stored to fuel daily
resting metabolism, it would amount to more than half of an individual's
body mass. Therefore it is essential that ATP can be resynthesized
rapidly from energy-dense molecules, and, at rest, the ATP requirement
of muscles is readily supplied from the oxidative metabolism of glucose
and fatty acids. However, at the onset of exercise there is an immediate
requirement for increased supply of energy and there is only enough
ATP stored for 1–2 seconds of work and therefore rapid ways to
resynthesize ATP are required.

14
Adenylate Kinase Reaction
One alternative source is the adenylate kinase reaction, which results in
ATP production from the conversion of two molecules of adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and ATP.
However, of greater quantitative importance is the utilization of
phosphocreatine stored in the muscle.

Phosphocreatine System
Phosphocreatine (PCr) is another high-energy compound containing a
high-energy phosphate bond that can be hydrolysed to provide energy
and resynthesize ATP:

PCr + ADP → ATP + PCrCreatine kinase

Skeletal muscle stores of PCr provide quantitatively the greatest

contribution to energy provision in the first 10 seconds of high intensity
activities such as sprinting. PCr stores are rapidly depleted but they
provide an important buffer in the first few seconds of exercise before
other aspects of metabolism are activated.

Resynthesis of ATP From Energy-Dense Substrates

Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the pathway by which glycogen and glucose are converted
to two pyruvate molecules. In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate enters
the Krebs cycle via acetyl CoA. Each turn of the Krebs cycle produces
hydrogen carriers that enter the electron transport chain (ETC) and
ultimately donate H+ to oxygen to form water, allowing the ETC to
proceed. However, when oxygen is not present, the ETC cannot

15
proceed which prevents flux through the Krebs cycle and results in a
build up of pyruvate. If this was allowed to continue then glycolysis
would stop and no further ATP would be resynthesized. Fortunately,
pyruvate can accept the hydrogen carrier, forming lactic acid via lactate
dehydrogenase (LDH). The conversion of glycogen to lactic acid yields
only 3 moles ATP per molecule of glycogen, but this can occur in the
absence of oxygen and the maximum rate of glycolysis can be reached
within a few seconds of the onset of exercise. In contrast, complete
breakdown of glycogen via glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the ETC
yields 39 ATP per molecule of glycogen.

Fat Metabolism
Fatty acids are more energy dense than glycogen and there are very
large stores of fat in adipose tissue. In fact, if all of the energy stored as
fat were stored as glycogen, body mass would increase by ∼50 kg. Fatty
acids are catabolized via β-oxidation and then entry to the Krebs cycle
and the ETC. If it is fully oxidized a typical fat (palmitate) yields 129
molecules of ATP. Given that stores of fat in the body are so vast, they
would allow exercise at a maximal intensity (i.e. sprinting) to continue for
>1 h. However, the rate of ATP resynthesis from fat is too slow to be of
great importance during high intensity activity. Therefore, although fat is
the preferred substrate and dominates the energy contribution to resting
metabolism, carbohydrate stores are available when energy
requirements increase, for example at the onset of exercise. As exercise
continues, however, fat metabolism may become more important,
particularly if muscle glycogen stores become depleted.

16
Muscle Types
Muscle fibres can be classified as type I, type IIa and type IIb fibres.
Characteristics of type I (slow twitch) and type IIb (fast twitch) fibres are
summarized in Table 1. The proportion of type I and type II fibres varies
in different muscles, with greater proportions of type I fibres in postural
muscles. Type I fibres are more suited to prolonged activity as they are
more efficient than type II fibres and have a greater reliance on oxidative
metabolism of fatty acids and glycogen. Therefore, during prolonged,
low intensity activity, type I fibres will be recruited. However, as the force
required increases, larger type II fibres are recruited. If the speed of
contraction is rapid, only type II fibres can contribute to force generation
since type I fibres cannot produce force at as fast a rate as type II fibres.
There are hereditary differences in the proportion of each type of fibre in
a given muscle, which determine to some degree the athletic capabilities
of the individual. For example, some people appear to be more suited to
marathon running (type I predominant) whereas others are born to sprint
and jump (type II predominant).

17
Table 1 Characteristics of Type I and II Muscles

Characteristic Type I Type II

Time to peak tension ∼110 ms ∼50 ms

Macroscopic colour Red White
Capillary supply High Low

Main energy system Aerobic Anaerobic

Myoglobin levels High Low
Number of High Low
mitochondria
Oxidative enzymes High Low
levels

Resistance to fatigue Low High

Type of Exercise Endurance/Long-Distance High
Runner Intensity/Sprinter

Respiratory System
During exercise, ventilation might increase from resting values of around
5–6 litre min−1 to >100 litre min−1. Ventilation increases linearly with
increases in work rate at submaximal exercise intensities. Oxygen
consumption also increases linearly with increasing work rate at
submaximal intensities.

In an average young male, resting oxygen consumption is about 250 ml

min−1 and in an endurance athlete oxygen consumption during very high
intensity exercise might reach 5000 ml min−1. The increase in pulmonary
ventilation is attributable to a combination of increases in tidal volume
and respiratory rate and closely matches the increase in oxygen uptake
and carbon dioxide output. Breathing capacity, however, does not reach

18
its maximum even during strenuous exercise and it is not responsible for
the limitation in oxygen delivery to muscles seen during high intensity
activity. Haemoglobin continues to be fully saturated with oxygen
throughout exercise in people with normal respiratory function.

Changes in Arterial Blood Gases

The changes which occur in arterial pH, P O2 and P CO2 values during
exercise are usually small. Arterial P O2 often rises slightly because of
hyperventilation although it may eventually fall at high work rates. During
vigorous exercise, when sufficient oxygen for flux through the Krebs
cycle is not available, the increased reliance on glycolysis results in
increased accumulation of lactic acid, which initially leads to an increase
in PaCO2. However, this is counteracted by the stimulation of ventilation
and as a result PaCO2 is decreased. This provides some respiratory
compensation for further lactic acid production and prevents a decline in
blood pH, which remains nearly constant during moderate exercise.

Changes in Ventilation
Ventilation increases abruptly in the initial stages of exercise and is then
followed by a more gradual increase. The rapid rise in ventilation at the
onset of exercise is thought to be attributable to motor centre activity and
afferent impulses from proprioceptors of the limbs, joints and muscles.

The mechanism of stimulation following this first stage is not completely

understood. Arterial oxygen and carbon dioxide tensions are not
sufficiently abnormal to stimulate respiration during exercise.
Suggestions have been made that the sensitivity of peripheral

19
chemoreceptors to oscillations in PaO2 and PaCO2 is responsible for
increasing ventilation, even though the absolute values remain stable.

Central chemoreceptors may be readjusted to increase ventilation to

maintain carbon dioxide concentrations. Other theories are that the rise
in body temperature may play a role, or that collateral branches of
neurogenic impulses from the motor cortex to active muscles and joints
may stimulate the brain stem and respiratory centre leading to
hyperpnoea. Overall, a number of factors have been suggested for the
increase in ventilation, which occurs with exercise. The respiratory rate
might remain elevated after heavy exercise for up to 1–2 hours.

Cardiovascular System
Substrate and oxygen requirements of working skeletal muscles are
dramatically elevated above resting requirements. Resting blood flow to
muscle is usually 2–4 ml·100 g muscle−1 min−1, but might increase to
nearly 100 ml·100 g muscle−1 min−1 during maximal exercise. This
occurs in part because of vasodilatory metabolites such as AMP,
adenosine, H+, K+ and PO 3− 4 acting on pre-capillary sphincters, which
override the vasoconstrictor effects of norepinephrine. In addition,
decreased pH and increased temperature shift the oxygen dissociation
curve for haemoglobin to the right in exercising muscle. This assists in
unloading more oxygen from the blood into the muscle. During muscular
contraction, blood flow is restricted briefly but overall it is enhanced by
the pumping action of the muscle.

Whilst muscle and coronary blood flow increase, cerebral blood flow is
maintained constant and splanchnic flow diminishes. However, essential
organs such as the bowel and kidneys must be protected with some
20
blood flow maintained. An additional demand on blood flow during
exercise is the requirement to increase skin blood flow in order to enable
heat dissipation.

Circulatory Changes
The increase in blood flow to muscles requires an increase in the
cardiac output, which is in direct proportion to the increase in oxygen
consumption. The cardiac output is increased by both a rise in the heart
rate and the stroke volume attributable to a more complete emptying of
the heart by a forcible systolic contraction. These chronotropic and
inotropic effects on the heart are brought about by stimulation from the
noradrenergic sympathetic nervous system. The increase in heart rate is
also mediated by vagal inhibition and is sustained by autonomic
sympathetic responses and carbon dioxide acting on the medulla.

The efficacy of systolic contraction is particularly important in trained

athletes who can achieve significant increases in cardiac output as a
consequence of hypertrophy of cardiac muscle. Table 2 shows that
increased maximal cardiac output in endurance trained athletes is a
function of greater stroke volume rather than an increase in maximal
heart rate, which is, in fact, lower in these athletes.

21
Table 2 Comparison of Cardiac Function Between Athletes and Non-Athletes

Stroke volume (ml) Heart rate (beats min−1)

At rest
Non-athlete 70 70
Trained athlete 100 50

Maximum exercise
Non-athlete 110 190
Trained athlete 160 180

Heart rate and stroke volume increase to about 90% of their maximum
values during strenuous exercise and cardiovascular function is the
limiting factor for oxygen delivery to the tissues. Oxygen utilization by the
body can never be more than the rate at which the cardiovascular
system can transport oxygen to the tissues. There is only a moderate
increase in blood pressure secondary to the rise in cardiac output. This
is caused by stretching of the walls of the arterioles and vasodilatation,
which in combination reduce overall peripheral vascular resistance.
There is a large increase in venous return as a consequence of
muscular contraction, blood diversion from the viscera and
vasoconstriction.

22
Maximum Oxygen Consumption
As work rate is increased, oxygen uptake increases linearly. However,
there is an upper limit to oxygen uptake and, therefore, above a certain
work rate oxygen consumption reaches a plateau. This is termed the
maximal oxygen uptake (V02max).

Pulmonary System
Pulmonary limitations to V02max are evident in some situations, such as
when exercising at high altitudes and in individuals with asthma or other
types of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. However, in most
individuals exercising at sea level the lungs perform their role of
saturating arterial blood with oxygen extremely effectively as described
previously.

Cardiac Output
As described previously, endurance training results in increased cardiac
output through increased stroke volume. This is considered to be a very
important factor determining V02max in the normal range of
V02max values. In addition, β-blockade reduces cardiac output and
results in a concomitant reduction in V02max.

23
During maximal exercise, almost all of the available oxygen in the blood
is extracted by skeletal muscle, and for this reason it appears that
delivery of oxygen through increased blood flow is the most important
factor limiting V02max.

Oxygen Carrying Capacity of the Blood

A reduction in the oxygen carrying capacity in conditions such as
anaemia produces fatigue and shortness of breath on mild exertion.
Some athletes have tried to increase red blood cell levels by removing,
storing and then reinfusing them. This method of ‘blood doping’ has
been shown to improve V02max by up to 10%. More recently, there has
been evidence of erythropoietin abuse in sport in order to increase red
blood cell levels. The improvements in V02max observed when
employing these methods provide good evidence that oxygen delivery is
a limiting factor for V02max.

24
Skeletal Muscle Limitations
The factors listed above can be considered as ‘central’ factors in the
same way that potential limitations in the skeletal muscle are considered
‘peripheral’ factors limiting V02max. Peripheral factors include properties
of skeletal muscle such as levels of mitochondrial enzymes and capillary
density. As mitochondria are the sites of oxygen consumption (in the
final stage of the ETC), doubling the number of mitochondria should
double oxygen uptake in the muscle. However, this is not the case,
suggesting that the number of mitochondria are not limiting to V02max.

Capillary density is known to increase with endurance training, with the

effect of increasing transit time of blood through the muscle, and
improving oxygen extraction from the muscle. It has been suggested that
there is a relationship between capillary density and V02max.

In summary, a reduction in any of the factors involved in the delivery and

utilization of oxygen will decrease V02max. However, in healthy
individuals carrying out whole-body maximal exercise at sea level, the
ability of the cardiorespiratory system to deliver oxygen to the working
muscles rather than the ability of the muscles to consume the oxygen is
limiting.

Body Temperature
The maximum efficiency for the conversion of energy nutrients into
muscular work is 20–25%. The remainder is released in a non-usable
form as heat energy, which raises the body temperature. In order to
dissipate the extra heat generated as a result of increased metabolism
during exercise, blood supply to the skin must be increased. This is
achieved with vasodilatation of cutaneous vessels by inhibition of the
25
vasoconstrictor tone. Evaporation of sweat is also a major pathway for
heat loss and further heat is lost in the expired air with ventilation.

The hypothalamus is responsible for thermoregulation and it is important

that this process is effective. However, during exercise in hot, humid
conditions evaporative heat loss through sweating might not be able to
remove sufficient heat from the body. Regulation of body temperature
may fail and temperatures may be high enough to cause heat stroke.
This presents with symptoms of extreme weakness, exhaustion,
headache, dizziness eventually leading to collapse and
unconsciousness.

Figure 1 - An Overview of Substrate Metabolism

26
Planning Your Training
Screening
Identify any health issues or injuries before planning am exercise
programme, as the programme can be tailored specifically to improve or
prevent the problem.

Identify Stages of Change

These are the processes that are required for someone to successfully
apply and maintain an exercise programme.

Pre-contemplation Not considering change in exercise behaviour

Contemplation Considering change in exercise behaviour

Preparation Serious of changing in exercise behaviour in the

immediate future

27
Action Change of exercise behaviour in the last

6 months

Maintenance Maintained exercise change for at least 6 months

Stable Behaviour Can be left to be independent exerciser

Agree Goals
Process Goals Tasks broken down into manageable units

Outcome Goals Results of the process goals

SMART Goals Specific

Measureable

Adjustable

Realistic

Time-based

28
Health & Fitness Components
Cardiovascular Endurance
This is the ability of the heart and lungs to deliver oxygen to the working
muscles and for the muscles to use this oxygen to generate work. It is
measured as volume of oxygen V02 with V02 max being the maximum
amount of oxygen that can be delivered to and used by the working
muscles.

Muscular Strength
This is the maximum amount of force that a muscle or muscle groups
can generate. Both static and dynamic muscular strength can be
measured.

Muscular Endurance
This is the ability of a muscle or muscle group to perform repeated
contractions against resistance over a period of time.

Flexibility
This is the ability to move a joint through its complete range of motion.

Body Composition
This is the ratio of fat to lean tissue in an individual.

Co-ordination
This is the ability to move the limbs precisely in a particular direction.

29
Balance
This is the ability to maintain the body in equilibrium at all times.

Speed
The ability to move quickly from one point to another, can be improved
by muscle co-ordination, efficiency of body movement, core strength and
flexibility training.

Agility
The ability to change direction at speed, and can be improved by speed
and power training combined with agile specific movements.

Power
This is the combination of strength and speed, and can be improved by
plyometric and resistance training.

Test Components
Benefit of testing are: Identify strengths & weaknesses

Monitor progress

Grouping of abilities

Education

Recovery guide

Motivation

Goal setting

30
Cyclical testing process: Select characteristic to measure

Select appropriate measuring tool

Collect data

Analyse collected data

Adjustment to programme

Agree follow up test date

Programme Design

Principles of fitness are: Specificity of the exercise

Adaptation of muscles

Overload to achieve new demand

Progression requires adaption

Regression if workload reduces

Individual genetic make up

Recovery time from exercise

Lifestyle changes

Different types of programmes: Foundation Programme

Conditioning Programme

Development Programme

Performance Programme

31
Exercise order: Warm up/Stretching/
Self Myofascial Release

Conditioning phase

Warm Down/Stretching/
Self Myofascial Release

Periodisation
This is the process of manipulation of a programme of exercise at
regular intervals, known as cycles.

Microcycle 7 days

Mesocycle Few weeks

Macrocycle Few months

Periodization is the systematic planning of athletic or physical training.

The aim is to reach the best possible performance in the most important
competition of the year. It involves progressive cycling of various
aspects of a training program during a specific period.

Conditioning programs can use periodization to break up the training

program into the offseason, pre-season, in-season, and the post-
season. Periodization divides the year round condition program into
phases of training which focus on different goals.

32
Pre-Conditioning
It is about ‘training to train’ rather than training to compete; and it
resembles the preparatory processes followed in numerous
manufacturing industries, whereby tolerances and tests are
painstakingly devised for materials and structures, so that when they are
finally incorporated into the product the risks of failure are virtually
nonexistent.

The start of the training year would seem an ideal time to pre-condition.
Indeed, many coaches would say that’s what they are already doing by
emphasizing general training methods to build a foundation of strength
for more specific work. In many ways these coaches are engaged in
preconditioning, but in others they are not.

As a model, let’s look at how Formula 1 racing teams prepare. They

work meticulously on their cars and drivers during the off-season as well
as the Grand Prix season. They don’t, for example, simply fit the biggest
engine they can find into their cars but rather work out just how much
stress the chassis can take and what the cornering forces and breaking
implications will be. A huge amount of data is generated to make this
process as successful as possible.

The sports coach should adopt a similar approach for optimal pre-
conditioning, determining, for example, the nature of the weaknesses in
the athlete’s performances over the previous season, what injuries
occurred, and when, and what the athlete’s body can handle.

33
Pre-conditioning should be seen as an ongoing process, operating
continuously in the background of the main training programme to keep
the athlete in prime training condition all year round. For example, bouts
of eccentric calf training to ‘protect’ sprinters and endurance runners
against Achilles strain should be used periodically throughout the
training year to keep this potential injury at bay.

Ultimately, pre-conditioning underpins all aspects of training. But its

effectiveness depends on a broad range of determining factors.
Understanding how muscles contract to produce sporting motion is one
such factor. Most sports rely on a combination of concentric and
eccentric muscular actions. A concentric contraction occurs when a
muscle shortens as it contracts to move a limb e.g. the biceps
movement during the lifting part of a biceps curl; an eccentric action
occurs when a muscle lengthens as it contracts e.g. the biceps
movement during the lowering phase of the curl.

Damage From Eccentric Contractions

Eccentric contractions create more short- and long-term muscular
damage than the concentric variety. Many runners will be all-too-familiar
with the delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS) that occurs in the
thighs after a workout involving downhill running. This results from the
thigh muscles having to stretch on ground strike to control the speed of
the descent. More serious strain injuries can also result from downhill
running and similar eccentric activities.

Although the key aim of pre-conditioning is to minimise injury, if an

athlete does sustain an injury it is important to understand why and take

34
remedial steps to avoid a recurrence, and this goal will form a significant
part of future preconditioning programmes. In this respect, self
diagnostic tests can be used throughout the training period to predict
potential injury.

Not all coaches have access to equipment like isokinetic machinery that
is required to test muscular strength, but this should not be seen as a
huge impediment to successful preconditioning (and injury prevention)
as there are numerous other methods available.

The following general pre-conditioning advice can be used by coaches

working with athletes from many disciplines:

Use ‘home-grown’ tests to determine muscular weaknesses and

imbalances. For example, one repetition weight training maximums
(1RM) and/or plyometric (jumping) tests can be very useful pre-
conditioners that can also act as periodic points of reference during
conditioning. If, for example, there is a great discrepancy in strength
between legs, the coach could instigate training designed to promote
greater parity. In so doing, he or she will also increase an athlete’s
general power expression and reduce injury risk.

Develop a repertoire of relevant preconditioning exercises – and know

when to use them. Weight training as a pre-conditioner is covered later,
while selected examples of pre-conditioning exercises are offered below.

Establish ‘norms’ for required sport specific range of movement (ROM).

Injury is likely if insufficient ROM is available in key muscle and tendon
groups, such as the hamstrings and Achilles tendons for sprinters. This

35
process will be subjective to some extent, particularly for novices with no
training history, but the process of working out where muscular tightness
could at best impair performance and at worst cause injury are key to
successful pre-conditioning.

Analyse sporting technique. From a preconditioning standpoint, the

emphasis should be on looking for muscular imbalances rather than
focusing on ways to enhance performance. When filming a runner on a
treadmill from behind, for example, the focus should be on hip
alignment, the recovery phase of the running action, foot strike and back
and shoulder position. From study of the film it may be possible to
discern such problems as poor left leg hamstring and hip flexor muscle
strength, identified by a ‘lazier’ lower left leg return phase during the
running cycle. The coach can then design a training programme to
counteract this technical deficiency in time for the start of the season.

Self-test for potential injury on an ongoing basis. Numerous self-

diagnostic trigger point (TP) tests are available to coaches and athletes,
although these should not be regarded as substitutes for sports
medicine/physiotherapy interventions. TPs can flag up potential
‘problems’ before they become acute, allowing the coach to attempt to
condition them out and/or seek appropriate professional help. Use
eccentric training. This is recognised as a conditioning metod in its own
right due to its ability to recruit fast twitch muscle fibre and improve the
‘elastic’ properties of muscles. Here are some pre-conditioning
suggestions:

36
 1. Controlled bouts of eccentric exercise to induce minimum
muscular soreness – e.g. 4 x 100m of downhill running at 70%
effort. There is much evidence to suggest that one bout of
eccentric exercise will ‘inoculate’ against further eccentric
muscular damage caused by the same activity for a period of up to
six weeks afterwards.

2. Eccentric pre-conditioning drills. For example, those involved in

running sports could perform drop/depth jumps where the
emphasis is just on the ‘landing and hold’ from the drop. Another
example is eccentric weight training, where you concentrate on
the lowering phase of a movement, such as controlling the weight
as it is lowered to the chest during a bench press.

In terms of pre-conditioning, weight training is a must, since it can

reduce the incidence of injury by strengthening soft tissue (muscles,
ligaments and tendons). This is a very important consideration for
endurance athletes, who may be wary of weight training because of its
theoretical potential to ‘interfere’ with endurance training. However, this
should not be a problem if the ‘right’ exercises are selected.

Coaches tend, quite naturally, to prefer exercises that have the capacity
to develop their charges’ playing power. Invariably, they look at how
power is generated – for a basketball jump shot, for example, or a tennis
serve – then design a progressive conditioning programme to enhance
that capacity. Although this is obviously crucial in terms of performance,
thought must also be given to the muscles not directly involved in
performing the relevant skill.

37
It is vital for a coach to gain a full understanding of the muscular
dynamics of all relevant sporting actions. For example, shoulder and
elbow problems often occur in racket sports players, who tend to have
very powerful internal shoulder rotation muscles and much weaker
external rotators – the result of years of hitting. There are numerous
exercises that can be used to balance shoulder rotation strength, such
as the cable or pulley external shoulder rotation described below.
Whatever their sport, coaches need to consider including such
‘balancing’ in their pre-conditioning and conditioning programmes.

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Selected Pre-Conditioning Exercises

Pre-conditioning Applicable
Exercise Comments/Exercise Pointers
Relevance Sports

Suitable for independent left and right

Stabilises and strengthens
Leg extension All leg training for more balanced strength
the knee joints
expression

Improves agility, lower limb

Backwards strength and flexibility and
All running- Can be included as a regular element of
and sideways proprioception (the ability to
based sports a warm-up
running perform a skill from an
unstable position)

Eccentric calf Strengthens Achilles All running-

(See text below)
raise tendons based sports

Cable
external Balances rotator cuff All hitting and
(See text above)
shoulder shoulder strength throwing sports
rotation

Develops concentric and Stand tall and cycle one leg underneath
Dynamic
eccentric hamstring strength All running the body in an out-and-back running
standing leg
without the impact forces sports action. Stand near a wall to aid balance.
cycling
associated with running Increase speed as confidence develops

Develop the elastic strength

Eccentric All running and Set up a Smith machine so that it allows
of the thigh muscles and
squats jumping sports the weight to be lowered under control
reduce injury risk

Running sports
Reduces the risk of ‘runner’s Seek expert advice if exercise causes
Leg press – particularly
knee’ (PFPS) pain
endurance

39
To further illustrate the role of weight training in pre-conditioning, let’s
consider the use of heavy weight eccentric calf raises as a means of
combating Achilles tendon injury. This and similar exercises can be used
by a coach to ‘shore up’ an athlete’s body before the main training
programme and to reduce the risk of injury during training.

As is probably becoming apparent, preconditioning is an incredibly

complex phenomenon, and coaches need to have a full understanding
of their sports (biomechanically, physiologically and in terms of injury
risk) and match this to the abilities and limitations of their athletes. Only
when completely armed with this knowledge will they be able to
optimally precondition (and condition) them. To add to this complexity, it
is also more than likely that no two athletes in the same squad or team
will have exactly the same specific preconditioning (and conditioning)
needs. Gender differences must also be considered. There are
significant biomechanical differences between men and women that
could lead to injury if not taken into account.

40
Core Training
This is progressive training of the musculature of the lumbo-pelvic-hip
complex and/or the transversus abdominis, which has a central role in
posture and in stabilising the lumbar spine

Strength Training
Strength training is a type of physical exercise specializing in the use of
resistance to induce muscular contraction which builds the strength,
anaerobic endurance, and size of skeletal muscles.

When properly performed, strength training can provide significant

functional benefits and improvement in overall health and well-being,
including increased bone, muscle, tendon and ligament strength and
toughness, improved joint function, reduced potential for injury,
increased bone density, increased metabolism, increased fitness,
improved cardiac function, and improved lipoprotein lipid profiles,
including elevated HDL cholesterol.

41
Training commonly uses the technique of progressively increasing the
force output of the muscle through incremental weight increases and
uses a variety of exercises and types of equipment to target specific
muscle groups. Strength training is primarily an anaerobic activity,
although some proponents have adapted it to provide the benefits of
aerobic exercise through circuit training.

Technique
The basic principles of strength training involve a manipulation of the
number of repetitions (reps), sets, tempo, exercises and force to cause
desired changes in strength, endurance or size by overloading of a
group of muscles. The specific combinations of reps, sets, exercises,
resistance and force depend on the purpose of the individual performing
the exercise: to gain size and strength multiple (4+) sets with fewer reps
must be performed using more force. A wide spectrum regimens are
adopted to achieve different results, but the classic formula
recommended by the American College of Sports Medicine reads as
follows:

 8 to 12 repetitions of a resistance training exercise for each major

muscle group at an intensity of 40% to 80% of a one-repetition
max (RM) depending on the training level of the participant.

 Two to three minutes of rest is recommended between exercise

sets to allow for proper recovery.

 Two to four sets are recommended for each muscle group

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Typically failure to use good form during a training set can result in injury
or an inability to meet training goals – since the desired muscle group is
not challenged sufficiently, the threshold of overload is never reached
and the muscle does not gain in strength. There are cases when
cheating is beneficial, as is the case where weaker groups become the
weak link in the chain and the target muscles are never fully exercised
as a result.

The benefits of strength training include increased muscle, tendon and

ligament strength, bone density, flexibility, tone, metabolic rate and
postural support.

Terminology
Strength training has a variety of specialized terms used to describe
parameters of strength training:

 Exercise Different movements which involve rotating joints in

specific patterns to challenge muscles in different
ways.

 Form Each exercise has a specific form, a topography of

movement designed to maximize safety and muscle
strength gains.

 Rep Short for repetition, a rep is a single cycle of lifting and

Lowering a weight in a controlled manner, moving
through the form of the exercise.

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  Set A set consists of several repetitions performed one
after another with no break between them with the
number of reps per set and sets per exercise
depending on the goal of the individual.

The number of repetitions one can perform at a certain

weight is called the Rep Maximum (RM). For example,
if one could perform ten reps at 50kg, then their RM for
that weight would be 10RM. 1RM is therefore the
maximum weight that someone can lift in a given
exercise – i.e. a weight that they can only lift once
without a break.

 Tempo The speed with which an exercise is performed; the

tempo of a movement has implications for the weight
that can be moved and the effects on the muscle.

Realisation of Training Goals

 Sets of one to five repetitions primarily develop strength, with more

impact on muscle size and none on endurance.

 Sets of six to twelve repetitions develop a balance of strength,

muscle size and anaerobic endurance.

 Sets of thirteen to twenty repetitions develop anaerobic endurance,

with some increases to muscle size and limited impact on strength.

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  Sets of more than twenty repetitions do still use the anaerobic
system, but usually at a rate through which it can consistently
remove the lactic acid generated from it.

Individuals typically perform one to six sets per exercise, and one to
three exercises per muscle group, with short breaks between each set –
the specific combinations of reps, exercises, sets and break duration
depends on the goals of the individual program. The duration of these
breaks determines which energy system the body utilizes. Performing a
series of exercises with little or no rest between them, referred to as
"circuit training", will draw energy mostly from the aerobic energy
system. Brief bursts of exercise, separated by breaks, are fueled by
anaerobic systems, which use either phosphagens or glycolysis.

For developing endurance, gradual increases in volume and gradual

decreases in intensity is the most effective program. It has been shown
that for beginners, multiple-set training offers minimal benefits over
single-set training with respect to either strength gain or muscle mass
increase, but for the experienced athlete multiple-set systems are
required for optimal progress. However, one study shows that for leg
muscles, three sets are more effective than one set.

Beginning weight-trainers are in the process of training the neurological

aspects of strength, the ability of the brain to generate a rate of neuronal
action potentials that will produce a muscular contraction that is close to
the maximum of the muscle's potential.

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 Training goal
Variable
Strength Power Hypertrophy Endurance Speed

Load (% of 1RM) 90–80 60–45 80–60 60–40 30

Reps per set 1–5 1–5 6–12 13–60 1–5

Sets per exercise 4–7 3–5 4–8 2–4 3–5

Rest between sets

2–6 2–6 2–5 1–2 2–5
(mins)

Duration (seconds per

5–10 4–8 20–60 80–150 20–40
set)

Speed per rep (% of

60–100 90–100 60–90 60–80 100
max)

Training sessions per

3–6 3–6 5–7 8–14 3–6
week

Weights for each exercise arevchosen so that the desired number of repetitions can just be achieved.

Advanced Techniques
A number of techniques have been developed to make weight training
exercises more intense, and thereby potentially increase the rate of
progress. Many weight lifters use these techniques to bring themselves
past a plateau, a duration where a weightlifter may be unable to do more
lifting repetitions, sets, or use higher weight resistance.

Set Structure
Drop Sets
The drop sets do not end at the point of momentary muscular failure, but
continue with progressively lighter weights.

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Pyramid Sets
The pyramid set are weight training sets in which the progression is from
lighter weights with a greater number of repetitions in the first set, to
heavier weights with fewer repetitions in subsequent sets. A reverse
pyramid is the opposite in which the heavier weights are used at the
beginning and progressively lightened.

Burnouts Set
The burnout set combine pyramids and drop sets, working up to higher
weights with low reps and then back down to lower weights and high
reps.

Diminishing Set
The diminishing set method is where a weight is chosen that can be
lifted for 20 reps in one set, and then 70 repetitions are performed in as
few sets as possible.

Rest-Pause Set
The rest-pause heavy singles are performed at or near 1RM, with ten to
twenty seconds of rest between each lift. The lift is repeated six to eight
times. It is generally recommended to use this method infrequently.

Giant Set
The Giant set, is a form of training that targets one muscle group (e.g.
the triceps) with four separate exercises performed in quick succession,
often to failure and sometimes with the reduction of weight halfway
through a set once muscle fatigue sets in. This form of intense training
'shocks' the muscles and as such, is usually performed by experienced
trainers and should be used infrequently.

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Combined Sets
Supersets
The supersets combine two or more exercises with similar motions to
maximize the amount of work of an individual muscle or group of
muscles. The exercises are performed with no rest period between the
exercises. An example would be doing bench press, which
predominantly works the pectoralis and triceps muscles, and then
moving to an exercise that works just the triceps such as the triceps
extension or the pushdown.

Push-Pull Supersets
The push-pull supersets are similar to regular supersets, but exercises
are chosen which work opposing muscle groups. This is especially
popular when applied to arm exercises, for example by combining
biceps curls with the triceps pushdown. Other examples include the
shoulder press and lateral pulldown combination, and the bench press
and wide grip row combination.

Pre-Exhaustion Set
The pre-exhaustion set combines an isolation exercise with a compound
exercise for the same muscle group. The isolation exercise first
exhausts the muscle group, and then the compound exercise uses the
muscle group's supporting muscles to push it further than would
otherwise be possible. For example, the triceps muscles normally help
the pectorals perform their function. But in the "bench press" the weaker
triceps often fails first, which limits the impact on the pectorals. By
preceding the bench press with the pec fly, the pectorals can be pre-

48
exhausted so that both muscles fail at the same time, and both benefit
equally from the exercise.

Breakdowns Set
The breakdown set was developed to work the different types of muscle
fibers for maximum stimulation. Three different exercises that work the
same muscle group are selected, and used for a superset. The first
exercise uses a heavy weight (~85% of 1 rep max) for around five reps,
the second a medium weight (~70% of 1 rep max) for around twelve
reps, and finally the third exercise is performed with a light weight (~50%
of 1 rep max) for twenty to thirty reps, or even lighter (~40% of 1 rep
max) for forty or more reps. The entire superset is performed three
times.

Power Training
Power training enables an athlete to apply the greatest amount of their
maximal strength in the shortest period of time. This is crucial for many
sports men and women who will rarely be required nor have the time to
produce maximal forces.

Most athletic activities involve far faster movements and far higher
power outputs than are found in maximal strength exercises. An athlete
can be exceptionally strong but lack significant explosive power if they
are unable to apply their strength rapidly.

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Force-Velocity Relationship

Power is intimately related to force and time, which can be expressed

in the simple formula:

Traditional strength training typically alters the top half of this equation -
increasing the ability to apply a maximum amount of force. But for
power to be maximized the time component must also be altered. This
is the aim of power training - to reduce the amount of time it takes to
apply a set amount of force.

Maximum force production occurs when the speed of movement is very

low (i.e. performing a one repetition maximum lift) or zero such as
performing a static or isometric exercise.

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Conversely, as the speed of movement increases, force decreases and
at very high speeds force production is very low. Between these two
extremes is an optimal point for power development. In fact, maximal
power occurs at intermediate velocities when lifting moderate
loads. Peak power output is typically seen when loads of 30% one
repetition maximum (1-RM) are used.

This relationship between force and velocity and its affect on power
explains why an athlete can be exceptionally strong but lack significant
power if they are unable to apply much of their strength over a short
period of time.

Assuming an athlete has maximized his or her ability to apply force

(through maximal strength training), it would be beneficial if they could
train to increase the rate of force production. Increasing the rate at
which strength can be generated positively alters the time aspect of the
power equation above.

The goal of power training is to increase the rate of force production

and there are several methods that have been devised to do this.

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Different Types of Power Training
Below are four methods of power training. A prerequisite to starting one
of these routines is the development of a solid base of functional
strength. Power training, particularly plyometrics and ballistics,
becomes less effective and the risk of injury is increased if a phase of
anatomical adaptation has not already been completed.

Heavy Strength Training

Strength training alone can increase explosive power by positively
affecting the top half of the power equation or the peak force
production. Most athletic movements also start from a stationary
position and it is this early phase of moving a resistance (be it a
medicine ball or bodyweight) that requires the most effort. Therefore
the greater an athlete's strength is, the more explosive this initial phase
of motion will be. However, once this initial inertia has been overcome
less force and more speed is required to continue the movement and
heavy strength training becomes less suitable.

Additionally, lifting weights of 70-100% 1-RM has also been shown to

reduce the rate of force production which is counter-productive to
power development. This may explain why in strength trained
individuals heavy resistance training is less effective at increasing
vertical jump performance compared to ballistics or plyometrics for
example.

For an athlete who already has a solid base of strength training (+6
months) gains in power are minimal with further weight training. Of
course, untrained individuals can significantly improve their power with

52
weight training and this is a safer and more favorable mode of training
than some of the advanced techniques that follow.

Explosive Strength Training

Once a plateau in strength has been reached, more sport-specific types
of power training are required. One of these training methods is a
variation of traditional resistance training. As mentioned earlier,
maximal power production occurs when moderate loads of about 30%
1-RM are used.

Completing traditional weight lifting exercises as fast as possible with

relatively light loads produces in theory, the greatest power output.
Unfortunately there is a problem with this approach.

Lifting a bar rapidly loaded with 30% 1-RM is difficult to execute,

particularly in the final phase of the movement. The athlete must
decelerate and stop the bar in order to keep it under control. This
deceleration activates the antagonist muscles negatively affecting
power output and hinders the required adaptations.

Ballistics and plyometrics avoid this problem, as there is no

deceleration. The athlete is free to jump as high as possible or throw an
object as far as possible without restricting the movement. If free
weights exercises are used for power training, loads of 75-85% are
recommended for sets of 3-5 repetitions.

53
For single power efforts such as the throwing events in athletics, a
higher load (80-90% 1-RM) can be used for a smaller number of
repetitions (1-2). A multiple power effort sport includes sprinting, team
sports or any event that requires repeated efforts. Sets are not
performed to exhaustion as the quality and speed of each lift is the
most important factor. Rest intervals are also kept high for the same
reason.

Ballistics
During a ballistic action, the force far outweighs the resistance so
movement is of a high velocity. The resistance is accelerated and
projected. Examples include a medicine ball throw and a jump squat.

The aim is to reach peak acceleration at the moment of release

projecting the object or body as far as possible. While there is no
definitive guidelines for the resistance used with ballistics, Fleck and
Kraemer suggest a load of 30-35% 1-RM should be used for exercises
that include free weights such as jump squats.

For many ballistic exercises the weight of the objects themselves

dictate the load i.e. medicine balls ranging from 2-6kg and kettlebells
ranging from 10-32kg.

Repetitions can be reasonably high as the nature of some exercises

means there can be up to 20 seconds between efforts - for example
when a medicine ball has to be retrieved. A set should stop however,
the moment the speed and quality of movement can no longer be
maintained.

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For exercises such as jump squats that use 30% 1-RM loads, Fleck
and Kraemer recommend up to 5 sets of 3 repetitions with 3 minutes
rest between sets.

Ballistics can place considerable eccentric forces on joints, ligaments

and tendons when landing from a jump squat for example. Athletes
should always progress gradually from unloaded to loaded exercises
and must not be fatigued before starting a ballistic power training
session.

Plyometrics
Plyometric drills involve a quick, powerful movement using a pre-stretch
or counter-movement that involves the stretch shortening cycle.
Classical plyometric exercises include various types of jump training
and upper body drills using medicine balls.

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Plyometrics is a suitable form of power training for many team and
individual sports. While many might see it simply as jumping up and
down, there are important guidelines and program design protocols that
need to be followed if plyometrics is to be as safe and effective as
possible.

Endurance Training
Endurance training is the act of exercising to increase endurance. The
term endurance training generally refers to training the aerobic system
as opposed to anaerobic. The need for endurance in sports is often
predicated as the need of cardiovascular and simple muscular
endurance, but the issue of endurance is far more complex. Endurance
can be divided into two categories including: general endurance and
specific endurance. It can be shown that endurance in sport is closely
tied to the execution of skill and technique. A well conditioned athlete
can be defined as, the athlete who executes his or her technique
consistently and effectively with the least effort.

56
Physiological Effects
Long-term endurance training induces many physiological adaptations
both centrally and peripherally mediated. Central cardiovascular
adaptations include decreased heart rate, increased stroke volume of
the heart, increased blood plasma, without any major changes in red
blood cell count, which reduces blood viscosity and increased cardiac
output as well as total mitochondrial volume in the muscle fibers used in
the training (i.e. the thigh muscles in runners will have more
mitochondria than the thigh muscles of swimmers).

Mitochondria increase in both number and size and there are similar
increases in myoglobin and oxidative enzymes. Adaptations of the
peripheral include capillarisation, that is an increase in the surface area
that both the venous and arterial capillaries supply. This also allows for
increased heat dissipation during strenuous exercise. The muscles
heighten their glycogen and fat storing capabilities in endurance athletes
in order to increase the length in time in which they can perform work.
Endurance training primarily work the slow twitch (type 1) fibers and
develop such fibers in their efficiency and resistance to fatigue.

Catabolism also improves increasing the athletes capacity to use fat and
glycogen stores as an energy source. These metabolic processes are
known as glycogenolysis, glycolysis and lipolysis. There is higher
efficiency in oxygen transport and distribution. In recent years it has
been recognized that oxidative enzymes such as succinate
dehydrogenase (SDH) that enable mitochondria to break down nutrients
to form ATP increase by 2.5 times in well trained endurance athletes In
addition to SDH, myoglobin increases by 75-80% in well trained
endurance athletes.
57
Risks of Excessive Endurance Training.
The potential for negative health effects from long-term, high-volume
endurance training have begun to emerge in the scientific literature in
recent years. The known risks are primarily associated with training for
and participation in extreme endurance events, and affect the
cardiovascular system through adverse structural remodeling of the
heart and the associated arteries, with heart-rhythm abnormalities
perhaps being the most common resulting symptom. Endurance
Exercise can also reduce Testosterone levels.

Methods and Training Plans

Common methods for training include periodization, intervals, hard easy,
long slow distance, and in recent years high-intensity interval training.
The periodization method is very common and was accredited to Tudor
Bompa and consists of blocks of time, generally 4–12 weeks each. The
blocks are called preparation, base, build and race. The goal of a
structured training program with periodization is to bring the athlete into
peak fitness at the time of a big race or event. Preparation as the name
suggests lays the groundwork for heavier work to follow.

For a runner contemplating a competitive marathon the preparation

phase might consist of easier runs of 1–4 miles 3-4 times per week and
including 2–3 days of core strengthening. In the base phase the athlete
now works on building cardiovascular endurance by having several long
runs staying in heart rate zone 1-2 every week and each week adding
slightly more mileage (using 10% rule for safely increasing the mileage).
Core strengthening is continued in the base period. Once the base
phase is complete and the athlete has sufficient endurance, the build

58
period is needed to give the athlete the ability to hold a faster pace for
the race duration.

The build phase is where duration of runs is traded for intensity or heart
rate zones 3-5. An easy method to obtain intensity is interval training
and interval training starts to happen in the build phase. Through interval
training during the build phase the athlete can achieve higher lactate
threshold and in some athletes VO2 max is increased. Because interval
training is demanding on the body, a professional coach should be
consulted. In the very least the athlete should do a warm up and active
stretching before the interval session and static stretch or yoga after
hard interval sessions.

It is also advisable to have days of rest or easy workouts the day after
interval sessions. Finally the race phase of the periodization approach is
where the duration of the workouts decreases but intense workouts
remain so as to keep the high lactate threshold that was gained in the
build phase. In Ironman training, the race phase is where a long "taper"
occurs of up to 4 weeks for highly trained Ironman racers. A final phase
is designated transition and is a period of time, where the body is
allowed to recover from the hard race effort and some maintenance
endurance training is performed so the high fitness level attained in the
previous periods will not be lost.

Traditionally, strength training (the performance of exercises with

resistance or added weight) was not deemed appropriate for endurance
athletes due to potential interference in the adaptive response to the
endurance elements of an athlete's training plan. There were also
misconceptions regarding the addition of excess body mass through

59
muscle hypertrophy (growth) associated with strength training, which
could negatively affect endurance performance by increasing the
amount of work required to be completed by the athlete. However, more
recent and comprehensive research has proved that short-term
(8 weeks) strength training in addition to endurance training is beneficial
for endurance performance, particularly long-distance running.

Devices to Assess Endurance Fitness

The heart rate monitor is one of the relatively easy methods to assess
fitness in endurance athletes. By comparing heart rate over time fitness
gains can be observed when the heart rate decreases for running or
cycling at a given speed. In cycling the effect of wind on the cyclists
speed is difficult to subtract out and so many cyclists now use power
meters built into their bicycles.

The power meter allows the athlete to actually measure power output
over a set duration or course and allows direct comparison of fitness
progression. In the 2008 Olympics Michael Phelps was aided by
repeated lactate threshold measurement. This allowed his coaches to
fine tune his training program so that he could recover between swim
events that were sometimes several minutes apart. Much similar to
blood glucose for diabetes, lower priced lactate measurement devices
are now available but in general the lactate measurement approach is
still the domain of the professional coach and elite athlete.

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Core Stability
Core stability relates to the bodily region bounded by the abdominal wall,
the pelvis, the lower back and the diaphragm and its ability to stabilise
the body during movement. The main muscles involved include the
transversus abdominis, the internal and external obliques, the quadratus
lumborum and the diaphragm. The diaphragm is the main muscle of
breathing in the human and so breathing is important in providing the
necessary core stability for moving and lifting. It is the action of these
muscles contracting together upon the incompressible contents of the
abdominal cavity (i.e. the internal organs or viscera) that provides
support to the spine and pelvis during movement.

Core stability is a misunderstood term. Typically, the core is associated

with the abdominal muscles groups and stability is associated with
isometric or static strength. However, in actuality, the core consists of
the abdominal muscles groups (transverse abdomens, internal obliques,
external obliques, rectus abdomens), hip abductors/ adductors, hip
flexors, the pelvic floor, and the lumbar spine. In addition, it is the lumbar
spine that is primarily responsible for posture and stability thus providing
the strength needed for the stability especially utilized in dynamic sports.

61
Performance Training
Sports performance training simply put is a type of training that is
designed to improve your fitness level for the purpose of improving your
ability to perform a given sport. It includes corrective and restorative
exercise, strength training, conditioning and cardiovascular training,
sports specific techniques and drills, periodization (devoting certain
periods of time during a given year to different types and intensities of
exercise depending on when optimal performance is needed), nutritional
advice, mental and psychological training, and constant and consistent
accountability and monitoring by a qualified trainer.

Over Training
Overtraining can be described as a point where a person may have a
decrease in performance and plateauing as a result from failure to
consistently perform at a certain level or training load exceeds their
recovery capacity. They cease making progress, and can even begin to
lose strength and fitness. Overtraining is also known as chronic fatigue,
burnout and overstress in athletes.

It is suggested that there are different variations of overtraining, firstly

monotonous program over training suggest that repetition of the same
movement such as certain weight lifting and baseball batting can cause
performance plateau due to an adaption of the central nervous system
which results from a lack of stimulation.

62
A second example of overtraining is described as chronic overwork type
training where the subject may be training with too high intensity or high
volume and not allowing sufficient recovery time for the body. It is
important to note the difference between overtraining and over-reaching;
over-reaching is when an athlete is undergoing hard training but with
adequate recovery, overtraining however, is when an athlete is
undergoing hard training without the adequate recovery. Up to 10% of
elite endurance athletes and 10% of American college swimmers are
affected by overtraining syndrome (unexplained underperformance for
approximately 2 weeks even after having adequate resting time).

Physiology
A number of possible mechanisms for overtraining have been proposed:
Microtrauma to the muscles are created faster than the body can heal
them. Amino acids are used up faster than they are supplied in the diet.
This is sometimes called "protein deficiency". The body becomes
calorie-deficient and the rate of break down of muscle tissue increases.
Levels of cortisol (the "stress" hormone) are elevated for long periods of
time.The body spends more time in a catabolic state than an anabolic
state (perhaps as a result of elevated cortisol levels).Excessive strain to
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the nervous system during training. Systemic Inflammation which results
in the release of cytokines activating an immune response.
.

Other Symptoms
Overtraining may be accompanied by one or more symptoms:

 Persistent muscle soreness

 Persistent fatigue this is different from just being tired from a hard
training session, this occurs when fatigue continues even after
adequate rest.
 Elevated resting heart rate - a persistently high heart rate after
adequate rest such as in the morning after sleep, this can be an
indicator of overtraining.
 Reduced heart rate variability
 Increased susceptibility to infections
 Increased incidence of injuries
 Irritability
 Depression
 Mental breakdown/Burnout

Effects
Laboratory rats and mice have been used as animal models for studies
of overtraining. Results in studies with rats show that overtraining can
cause negative changes in the immune system which is suggested to
arise from the physiological stress on the body. A study conducted at the
University of Wisconsin in Milwaukee on overtraining and cycling also
showed signs of physiological danger in the participants such as
increased resting heart rate, decreased maximum heart rate and a

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decline in the body's ability to deliver oxygen to its muscles. Listed below
are some of the common effects and cited signs of overtraining. Not all
of the following effects will occur. The presence of any of these
symptoms does not imply that an individual is overtrained.

Physiological Effects
 Lymphocytopenia
 Excessive weight loss
 Excessive loss of body fat
 Increased resting heart rate
 Decreased muscular strength
 Increased submaximal heart rate
 Inability to complete workouts
 Chronic muscle soreness
 Fatigue
 Increased incidence of injury
 Depressed immune system
 Constipation or diarrhea
 Absence of menstruation
 Frequent minor infections/colds
 Insomnia
 Heart Palpitations
 Lower Testosterone Levels
 Higher Cortisol Levels

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Psychological Effects
 Depression
 Loss of appetite
 Mood Disturbance
 Irritability
 Loss of motivation
 Loss of enthusiasm
 Loss of competitive drive
 Insomnia
 Difficulty in concentrating

Performance Effects
 Early onset of fatigue
 Decreased aerobic capacity
 Poor physical performance
 Inability to complete workouts
 Delayed recovery

It is also important to remember that the effect of overtraining is not

isolated only to affecting the athlete's athletic ability but it can have
implications on other areas of life such as performance in studies or the
work force. An over trained athlete who is suffering from physical and or
psychological symptoms could also have trouble socialising with friends
and family, studying for an exam or prepping for work.

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Treatment
Allowing more time for the body to recover:
 Taking a break from training to allow time for recovery.
 Reducing the volume and/or the intensity of the training.
 Suitable periodization of training.
 Splitting the training program so that different sets of muscles are
worked on different days.
 Increase sleep time.
 Deep-tissue or sports massage of the affected muscles.
 Self-massage or rub down of the affected muscles.
 Cryotherapy and thermotherapy.
 Temperature contrast therapy (contrast showers etc.). The
different hot and cold stimuli can stimulate the immune system,
influence release of stress hormones and encourage blood flow
which ultimately lessens the bodies pain sensitivity.
 Short sprints with long resting time once the athlete is able to
continue with light training.

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Changing Diet:
 Ensuring that calorie intake at least matches expenditure.
 Ensuring total calories are from a suitable macronutrient ratio.
 Addressing vitamin deficiencies with nutritional supplements.

Preventative Methods
Seeing as there are many non-beneficial results of overtraining and the
main treatment is taking time out to rest, so to avoid taking time off
training prevention is very important for many athletes. The gradual
varying of intensity and volume of training is an effective way to prevent
overtraining. The athlete should be closely monitored by keeping records
of weight, diet and heart rate and the training program should be
adjusted in accordance to different physical and emotional stresses.

Planned Overtraining
Overtraining can be used advantageously, as when a bodybuilder is
purposely over trained for a brief period of time to supercompensate
during a regeneration phase. These are known as "shock micro-cycles."

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Sports Nutrition
Sports nutrition is the study and practice of nutrition and diet as it relates
to athletic performance. It is concerned with the type and quantity of fluid
and food taken by an athlete, and deals with nutrients such as vitamins,
minerals, supplements and organic substances such as carbohydrates,
proteins and fats.

Carbohydrates
A diet rich in carbohydrates increases endurance performance because
of the extra store of carbohydrates in the muscles and liver, called
glycogen. It has been shown that if athletes did not consume a diet high
in carbohydrates on a daily basis, they would experience chronic fatigue
and poor performance. It is well documented that endurance athletes
need to replenish carbohydrate stores in the body, especially during
periods of intense training.

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The Glycaemic Index (GI) was originally devised for patients suffering
from diabetes mellitus. High Glycaemic Index foods e.g. soft drinks,
cakes does not maintain blood sugar level constantly, there are peaks
and troughs. However low Glycaemic Index foods e.g. oats, pulses
maintain a constant blood sugar level. These later foods are better in
maintaining an even blood sugar level in the body.

Consuming carbohydrates during workouts lasting over one hour can

also benefit performance and delay onset of fatigue. Several recent
studies have shown that athletes who participate in stop-and go sports,
such as basketball and soccer, may also need to focus on consuming
more carbohydrates during training and competition. This is not
surprising since it is well-known that carbohydrates, when compared to
protein and dietary fat, are the most efficiently broken down and
metabolized form of energy for the body. Athletes doing stop-and-go
activities were found to have better speeds and delayed fatigue when
consuming a higher carbohydrate diet.

Recommended Intake of Carbohydrates

Depending upon the training routine, athletes should consume at least
50 percent, but ideally 60-70 percent of their total calories from
carbohydrates. This percentage is only a guideline for estimating
carbohydrate needs. Depending upon the length of training sessions, an
athlete’s carbohydrate intake should be between 2.5-6.0 grams per
pound of body weight, with longer training times reflecting the higher
number of grams needed

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Before Exercise:
The pre-exercise or pre-training meal serves two purposes:

1/ It keeps the athlete from feeling hungry before and during exercise
2/ It maintains optimal levels of energy for the exercising muscles.

Athletes who train early in the morning, before eating or drinking, risk
developing low blood glucose levels, as well as a poor performance, due
to a decreased ability to concentrate and an increased perceived
exertion. Blood glucose, the sugar found in the blood, is the energy
delivered to the working muscles and organs that allows your body to
complete activity. Low blood glucose levels cause you to feel more
sluggish than normal and decrease your ability to focus, which inevitably
will decrease performance.

Carbohydrate intake before exercise can help to restore sub-optimal

glycogen stores, which is critical for prolonged periods of exercise. While
allowing for personal preferences and psychological factors, the pre-
event meal should be high in carbohydrates, non-greasy, and readily
digestible. Fatty foods should be limited as they delay the emptying time
of the stomach and take longer to digest.

The following are guidelines for the pre-event meal:

1/ The meal should be eaten 3-4 hours before an event.

2/ 150-350 grams of carbohydrates (1.5 grams per lb of body weight).

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3/ To avoid stomach upset, the carbohydrate content of meals should be
reduced the closer the meals are to the event.

Adding small amounts of protein can aid in regulating energy levels by

slowing down carbohydrate absorption, delivering the carbohydrates to
the working muscles at a more consistent rate over time. Pay attention
to salty cravings. If competing in hot/humid climates, make sure to
replace electrolyte losses with salty snack foods, such as pretzels or
sport drinks with added sodium.

Eating At All-Day Events:

It is important that athletes eat after competing to make sure that they
will have enough energy in the muscles for the next race or competition,
whether it be in the same day or the following days. The same dietary
intake principles used to plan the pre-exercise meal can also apply to
foods eaten at all-day events. If an athlete races at 10:00 a.m. and again
after two hours, foods that are high in protein and fat will more than likely
still be in the stomach potentially causing stomach or gastrointestinal
(GI) distress.

The following guidelines have been recommended to help athletes make

wise food choices at all-day events.

One hour or less between events or heats:

1/ Stick with carbohydrates that are in liquid form, such as sports drinks.

2/ If something solid needs to be eaten, try fruits like oranges,

watermelon, cantaloupe, peaches, pears, applesauce, or bananas.
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These foods consist of mostly carbohydrates and water. They are
digested very fast and therefore, will not cause as much of a problem
with stomach cramping or GI distress.

Another key point to making food choices with limited time between
events, is limiting the quantity of the food eaten. The more an athlete
eats, the longer it will take to digest, especially with any pre-competition
nerves or stress.

Two to three hours between events or heats:

1/ Solid foods in the form of carbohydrates can be eaten, as there is

enough time to digest them before competition.

2/ Try eating bagels, hot or cold cereal with nonfat milk, or english
muffins along with fruit like bananas, apples, oranges, peaches, or
pears.

3/ Be sure to drink plenty of fluids, like water or a sports drink, for

hydration, electrolyte replacement, and restoration of glycogen stores.
Avoid drinks that contain caffeine, carbonation and other stimulants.

Four or more hours between events or heats:

With four or more hours between events or heats, an athlete may want a
meal, which should be composed primarily of carbohydrates. Keep the
meals simple.

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During Exercise:
Consuming carbohydrates during exercise lasting longer than 60
minutes ensures that the muscles receive adequate amounts of energy,
especially during the later stages of the competition or workout. This has
also been found to improve performance. The form of carbohydrates
consumed does matter. Some athletes prefer to use a sports drink,
whereas others prefer to eat solid or gel forms of carbohydrates. Use the
following guidelines when consuming sports drinks with carbohydrates.
Consume 6 to 12 ounces of a sports drink with 6-8% carbohydrate
concentration every 15-30 minutes during exercise.

Water is needed to aid in absorption of the carbohydrate. Drinks with a

concentration greater than 10 percent are often associated with
abdominal cramps, nausea, and diarrhea. For high intensity activities,
sports drinks and gels containing multiple forms of sugar can increase
absorption and delivery of carbohydrates.

After Exercise:
Consuming a carbohydrate snack within 30 minutes after training will
allow the body to start replenishing glycogen stores in the body.
Additionally, consuming a couple of mixed meals high in carbohydrates
within six hours after training or a competition ensures that the muscles
continue with glycogen restoration. The first two hours after exercise is
the most efficient in restoring glycogen reserves, the next 4 hours is the
next efficient period.

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Athletes who may benefit from recovery nutrition include those who are
competing in tournament play or have multiple competitions over the
course of one or several days, have skipped meals throughout the day,
did not consume enough calories, and want to improve strength and
power. The recommendation is 0.65 grams of carbohydrates per pound
of body weight consumed within 30 minutes after exercise. This should
be followed by an additional carbohydrate meal two hours later. The first
feeding can be a high carbohydrate beverage, followed by eating a high
carbohydrate meal.

Protein
Protein has always been a particularly popular nutrient with athletes
because of its role in building and maintaining muscles. Indeed, athletes
need to consume a wide variety of high-quality protein foods in their
diets. However, while protein is necessary, it is not the primary fuel for
working muscles, and consuming more protein than what the body can
use is not going to give athletes larger and stronger muscles. While
research shows that protein requirements are higher for athletes to aid in
muscle repair and growth, most athletes are already consuming more
protein than the body can use. Use the following formulas as guidelines
to ensure proper amounts of protein are included in your dietary intake.

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Building Body Mass
Many athletes want to add more bulk to their bodies in the form of lean
muscle. Many supplement products claim to build muscles. Athletes
should take special caution when considering supplementation. Due to
the limited regulations of the dietary supplement industry, there is a risk
of products being contaminated with sport-prohibited or unknown
substances with or without the manufacturer knowing. There is no
guarantee that the product contents match with those listed on the label.
Taking a lot of extra protein either from supplements or food does not
guarantee bigger muscles. If it did, athletes could spend time lounging
instead of lifting to build muscles.

Endurance Athletes 1.2-1.4g protein x body weight kg

Strength Athletes 1.4-1.8g protein x body weight kg

A healthier regimen for building muscles would include:

 Following a strength training program that challenges muscles

 Adding 500 to 1,000 more calories each day to current dietary
intake, to allow the body to use protein already present in the diet
for muscle growth and not be broken down to fuel activity
 Eating foods that are both high in carbohydrates and proteins like
grilled chicken sandwiches, peanut butter sandwiches, and Greek
yogurt with granola
 Choosing low-fat sources of both carbohydrates and protein
 Eating several small meals that include about 30 grams of protein
throughout the day will support training and muscle-building
 Choosing lean animal sources of protein (i.e. dairy and meats)
which are more efficiently absorbed by the body
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Protein After Exercise
The body’s ability to recover from games, practices, or intense workouts
requires adequate rest and proper nutrition. An important component of
the recovery process is consuming both carbohydrates and protein
shortly after exercise to restore muscle glycogen and stimulate muscle
protein synthesis.

 Keep in mind that food is fuel and athletes should not come to
practice or games without having had enough food to support the
energy requirements for their sport. To keep athletes properly
fueled and have protein needs met, use the EAT guidelines:
 Eat breakfast. It is the best way to start the day well fueled. Include
foods that contain carbohydrates and protein such as nonfat milk,
yogurt, or eggs.
 Add carbohydrates and protein to post-exercise meals. Some
energy bars provide carbohydrates to replenish muscle glycogen
stores and protein to help build and repair muscles.
 Athletes should rely on protein from food sources first, instead of
supplements. This helps ensure that diets are balanced for health
and performance. In addition to meat sources of protein, dairy
products, nuts, and seeds are all rich sources of protein and can
easily be added to any meal or snack.

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Dietary Fat
Fat is the primary fuel for light to moderate intensity exercise. Although
fat is a valuable metabolic fuel for muscles during endurance exercise
and performs many important functions in the body, no attempt should
be made to consume more fat. With that said, some studies have
shown, athletes that consume high-fat diets typically consume fewer
calories from carbohydrates.

The more efficient an athlete becomes in their respective sport, the

easier it is for them to operate at a lower intensity while maintaining the
same level of work or maintaining the same speed (metabolic efficiency).
At this lower intensity, stored fat in the muscle can be used as a fuel
source. The average 70kg athlete carries 1,500-2,000 calories in the
form of carbohydrates but up to 80,000 calories in the form of fat. The
old saying, “Fat burns in a carbohydrate flame” holds true, as fat cannot
be used without the presence of carbohydrates. Thus, for efficient
endurance and ultra endurance athletes, carbohydrates are still
important, but stored fats help them reach the finish line as well.

Athletes should consume 20 to 30 percent of their calories from fat.

Aside from decreasing overall calories, limiting consumption of dietary
saturated fat is the first step toward losing excess body fat. Doing so
eliminates excess calories, but not nutrients. Following a low-fat, high
carbohydrate diet is also important for health reasons, because diets
high in saturated fat have been associated with cardiovascular disease,
obesity, diabetes, and some types of cancer.

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Vitamins, Minerals & Supplements
Vitamins and minerals are classified as dietary supplements. Amino
acids, botanicals, herbs, and substances such as enzymes, organ
tissues and glandulars, and metabolites, are also classified as dietary
supplements. Many athletes believe they do not get enough vitamins
and minerals in their diet and wonder if they should start taking some
sort of supplement; while other athletes are on a constant quest to find
the latest diet or supplement that will give them a competitive edge. The
reality is that making wise food and beverage choices are crucial for
peak performance and contribute to endurance and repair of injured
tissues. A good working knowledge and understanding of foods that
provide essential nutrients will aid in an athlete reaching their greatest
potential.

Athletes have increased energy needs, which allows for more

opportunities to obtain the nutrients they need through a balanced diet
composed of a variety of natural foods. Most sports medicine
professionals agree that unless an individual has a nutrient deficiency,
supplementation may not improve athletic performance.

79
Athletes should always choose food over dietary supplementation. The
body needs more than 40 nutrients every day and supplements do not
contain all the nutrients that are found in food. Supplements cannot
make up for a poor diet or poor beverage choices.

Natural foods contain a matrix of various nutrients that researchers are

continuing to discover and learn more about. Often individual nutrients
don’t work as effectively when isolated in a pill or supplement form.
Self-prescribed supplement users should heed overdose warnings and
look for symptoms of toxic levels of supplementation, such as diarrhea,
skin rashes that do not fade, and unexplained joint pain. Fat soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, and K) can be toxic when misused. Unlike water
soluble vitamins in which excess amounts are excreted in the urine, fat
soluble vitamins are stored in body fat and remain in the body.

Antioxidant Supplements
Antioxidants are man-made or natural substances that may prevent or
delay some types of cell damage. Diets high in vegetables and fruits,
which are good sources of antioxidants, have been found to be healthy;
however, research has not shown antioxidant supplements to be
beneficial in preventing diseases. Examples of antioxidants include
vitamins C and E, selenium, and carotenoids, such as beta-carotene,
lycopene, lutein, and zeaxanthin.

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Branch Chain Amino Acids
A branched-chain amino acid (BCAA) is an amino acid having aliphatic
side-chains with a branch (a central carbon atom bound to three or more
carbon atoms). Among the proteinogenic amino acids, there are three
BCAAs: leucine, isoleucine and valine.

Creatine
A protein made from 3 amino acids, arginine, glycine, and methionine. It
is stored mostly as phosphocreatine in muscles. Phosphocreatine
generates rapid energy during high intensity activity.

Conjugated Linoleic Acid

Conjugated linoleic acids (CLA) are a family of at least 28 isomers of
linoleic acid found mostly in the meat and dairy products derived from
ruminants. CLAs can be either cis- or trans-fats and the double bonds of
CLAs are conjugated and separated by a single bond between them.
CLA is marketed as a dietary supplement on the basis of its supposed
health benefits. CLA is a chemical variant of the omega 6 essential fatty
acid, linoleic acid. It can reduce body fat while increasing muscle mass.

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 Glutamine
It is a non-essential amino acid found in muscle cells, the major fuel for
the immune system. It may prevent muscle break down and suppress
exercise induced immune depression.

ZMA
ZMA (Zinc Monomethionine Aspartate, Magnesium Aspartate and
Vitamin B6) is a supplement used primarily by athletes, gymnasts, and
bodybuilders. It is most often used as a recovery aid; notably, studies
show that ZMA helps the body achieve deeper levels of REM sleep.It
may boost anabolic hormone levels (testosterone and IGF-I by
correcting zinc and magnesium deficiency.

Fluids & Hydration

Hydration is one of the most important nutritional concerns for an
athlete. Approximately 60 percent of body weight is water. As an athlete
trains or competes, fluid is lost through the skin through sweat and
through the lungs while breathing. If this fluid is not replaced at regular
intervals during practice or competition, it can lead to dehydration.

A dehydrated athlete has a decreased volume of blood circulating

through the body, and consequently:

 The amount of blood pumped with each heart beat decreases

 Exercising muscles do not receive enough oxygen
 Exhaustion sets in and the athlete’s performance suffers
 By-products of exercise are not flushed out of the body as
regularly as they should be
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 Research has shown that losing as little as 2% of total body weight can
negatively affect athletic performance. For example, if a 150-pound
athlete loses 3 pounds during a workout or competition, their ability to
perform at peak performance due to dehydration is reduced. Proper fluid
replenishment is the key to preventing dehydration and reducing the risk
of heat injury in athletes engaged in training and competition.

Preventing Dehydration
The best way to prevent dehydration is to maintain body fluid levels by
consuming plenty of fluids before, during, and after a workout or
competition. Often, athletes do not realize that they are losing body
fluids or that they are impacting their performance through dehydration.

Athletes who are not sure how much fluid to drink can monitor hydration
using two helpful techniques:

 Weighing themselves before and after practice. For every pound

lost during the workout, drink three cups of fluid in order to
rehydrate the body.

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 Checking urine color. Urine that is dark gold in color indicates
dehydration. Urine similar in color to pale lemonade or weak tea is
a sign of a hydrated athlete.

Many times athletes wait to drink until they are thirsty. Thirst is not an
accurate indicator of how much fluid an athlete has lost. Athletes who
wait to replenish body fluids until feeling thirsty are already dehydrated.
As a matter of fact, most individuals do not become thirsty until more
than 2 percent of body weight is lost. Waiting until you are thirsty can
affect your performance. When athletes only drink enough to quench
their thirst, they may still be dehydrated.

For best results, keep a bottle of fluid available when working out and
drink as often as desired, ideally every 15-20 minutes.

Guidelines for Proper Hydration

 Monitor fluid losses: Weigh-in before and after training, especially

during hot weather and conditioning phases of the season
 For each pound lost during exercise, drink three cups of fluid
 Do not restrict fluids before, during, or after the event
 Do not rely on thirst as an indicator

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Sports Psychology
Sport psychology is an interdisciplinary science that draws on
knowledge from many related fields including biomechanics, physiology,
kinesiology and psychology. It involves the study of how psychological
factors affect performance and how participation in sport and exercise
affect psychological and physical factors. In addition to instruction and
training of psychological skills for performance improvement, applied
sport psychology may include work with athletes, coaches, and parents
regarding injury, rehabilitation, communication, team building, and
career transitions.

Commonly Used Techniques

Below are five of the more common techniques or skills sport
psychologists teach to athletes for improving their performance.

Arousal Regulation
Arousal regulation refers to entering into and maintaining an optimal
level of cognitive and physiological activation in order to maximize
performance. This may include relaxation if one becomes too anxious
through methods such as progressive muscle relaxation, breathing
exercises, and meditation, or the use of energizing techniques (e.g.,
listening to music, energizing cues) if one is not alert enough. The use of
meditation and specifically, mindfulness, is a growing practice in the field
of arousal recognition. The Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment (MAC)
Theory is the most common form of mindfulness in sport and was
formed in 2001. The aim of MAC is to maximize human potential for a
rich, full and meaningful life. It includes specific protocol that involve

85
meditation and acceptance practices on a regular basis as well as
before and during competition.

Goal Setting
Goal setting is the process of systematically planning ways to achieve
specific accomplishments within a certain amount of time.[51] Research
suggests that goals should be specific, measurable, difficult but
attainable, time-based, written down, and a combination of short-term
and long-term goals. A meta-analysis of goal setting in sport suggests
that when compared to setting no goals or "do your best" goals, setting
the above types of goals is an effective method for improving
performance. Each long-term goal should also have a series of short-
term goals that progress in difficulty. For instance, short-term goals
should progress from those that are easy to achieve to those that are
more challenging. Having challenging short-term goals will remove the
repetitiveness of easy goals and will give one an edge when striving for
their long-term goals.

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Imagery
Imagery (or motor imagery) can be defined as using multiple senses to
create or recreate experiences in one's mind. Additionally, the more vivid
images are, the more likely they are to be interpreted by the brain as
identical to the actual event, which increases the effectiveness of mental
practice with imagery. Good imagery, therefore, attempts to create as
lifelike an image as possible through the use of multiple senses (e.g.,
sight, smell, kinesthetic), proper timing, perspective, and accurate
portrayal of the task. Both anecdotal evidence from athletes and
research findings suggest imagery is an effective tool to enhance
performance and psychological states relevant to performance (e.g.,
confidence). This is a concept commonly used by coaches and athletes
the day before an event.

Pre-Performance Routines
The pre-performance routines refer to the actions and behaviors athletes
use to prepare for a game or performance. This includes pregame
routines, warm up routines, and actions an athlete will regularly do,
mentally and physically, before they execute the performance.
Frequently, these will incorporate other commonly used techniques,
such as imagery or self-talk. Examples would be visualizations done by
skiers, dribbling by basketball players at the foul line, and preshot
routines golfers or baseball players use prior to a shot or pitch. These
routines help to develop consistency and predictability for the player.
This allows the muscles and mind to develop better motor control.

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Self-Talk
Self-talk refers to the thoughts and words athletes and performers say to
themselves, usually in their minds. Self-talk phrases (or cues) are used
to direct attention towards a particular thing in order to improve focus or
are used alongside other techniques to facilitate their effectiveness. For
example, a softball player may think "release point" when at bat to direct
her attention to the point where the pitcher releases the ball, while a
golfer may say "smooth stroke" before putting to stay relaxed. Research
suggests either positive or negative self-talk may improve performance,
suggesting the effectiveness of self-talk phrases depends on how the
phrase is interpreted by the individual. The use of words in sport has
been widely used. The ability to bombard the unconscious mind with one
single positive phrase, is one of the most effective and easy to use
psychological skills available to any athlete.

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