+ “S Steuisties DA Coat hatin] Ouslitetiva dehy Quanttubie Deby Cen z) c Contiwson ) Repasmbdon of debe “Tabulation Drawing Drawing DisyramaXe Ribrrambation Graphical Repzssundaion tf Save Chey Drew toby) (Gee Combinerin ohuy) Carte yram L-dimmpions) 2-dim Pieroviel . Diogremy, Diaywmp — OY Mea nB C Picdograma) Pig -Diagrrr y ~s ‘Wixtegnams Frcaquangy Tan—— OF at: REPRESENTATION OF DATA Diagrams and graphs play a very important role in the representation of data. Diagrams and graphs are helpful in conveying the significance of the data quickly, There are many ways of displaying statistical data by diagrams and graphs. Following main forms of such presentation are as 1 Diagrammatic presentation 9. Graphical presentation Z 3. Pictures Maps tance of Diagrams and Graphs AROnk Diagrams and graphs are simple, attractive and impressive. Diagrams and graphs are appealing to a common man. Oso Diagrams and graphs have universal acceptability. Diagrams and graphs explore the facts at a glance. Diagrams and graphs facilitate comparison. Bens imitations |, Too much should not be read in the diagrams 2. Too much detail is not obtained in the diagrams 3. The construction of diagrams is time consuming. uss FOR CONSTRUCTING DIAGRAMS The following are some rules for constructing diagrams : 1. Every diagram should be suitably and briefly titled. 2, A proper scale should be used so that the d unnecessarily large or small. 3. The diagrams should be simple, impressive and alternative. 4, An index must be given for identification of different shades or colours used. Diagrams s! figures. The details in the jiagram. should not be ould ‘contain footnotes and a proper spacing between the diagram should be self-explanatory. 'S OF DIAGRAMS jing are the main diagramsr 6 PHARM CSS Ofe-Dimensi + One dimensional diagrams, also called Bar-diagra * are Fig isc ase eee cual presentation of data, A bar can be ae either to a common horizontal base or vertical base. Vertical base on horizontal p, are more popular and proper comparisons can be made by them. Bardiagrams are «, ft the following types : # - \U Simple Bar-Diagrams ~ 2. Multiple Bar-Diagrams 3. Subdivided Bar-Diagrams 4, Percentage Bar-Diagrams 5. Deviation Bar-Diagrams 6. Broken Bars. cae ‘Simple Bar-Diagrams : In simple bar diagrams only one variable is presented, |, is generally used to show changes in the magnitudes of a phenomenon over time (chronological) or place (geographical). In bar diagrams equal bases on a horizontal or vertical line are selected and rectangle of equal width are constructed with the length proportional to the given data. The width of bars is an arbitrary factor. The distance between two bars should be taken about are half of the width of a bar. We can use bar diagram when the given figures do not vary much and the proportion between the figures is small. Bar-diagram can be used to represent data on one variable only. Example 1. Draw bar diagram to represent the following data. Years 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 Wheat in Quintals 200 350 450 550. 600 Solution : Maximum value = 600 © Scale (1 cm) = 100 quintals.Diagrammatic Representation of Data Collective Z watnod of imple bar diagram to the following data relating to the 3 6 7 8 9 10 37, 15 15 20 40 20 9 46 8 20 | 7 18 een 26 25 5 >) G5 av ° 2 = z 35 @ 3 30 2 25 1 20 o 6 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 Marks of Students ———> \GMfultiple Bar-Diagrams : A multiple-bar diagram is used when a comparison is iple-bar diagram is also used for to be made between two or more variables. A multi ing magni , aa itudes of one-variable in two or three aspects. Two or more shades for different series but for the same period are drawn together on a bars in a multiple bar-diagram to represent the following data 1999 2000 2001 95 110 120 160 170 165 a” 95 110 . So, a multiple bar-diagram should be used. le, year wise data on the three aspects (MBA, MCA,pHARMACEUTIOAL BIOSTATISTIOS 300 Faculty-wise Enrolment (1999-2001) ee olument in college. Sub-dived Bar diagram wll the parts with the total can by dividing a single bar into .r-diagram showing em ent bar diagram) : Multiple ba 43, Sub-divided Bar Diagram (Compon is used when a given quantity can be bro} be shown by means of sub-divided bars. ib-divisions ©} ken in parts, This is done f the given aggregate. several parts representing, various sul Example 4. Represent the following data by a sub-divided bar@iagram Examinations No. of Students 2000 2001 2002 B, Pharma, 200 250 400 B, Tech. 250 250 = 300 M.B.A. 150 200 300 he total number of students for each year which are 600, Soiution : First we find tl 700 and 1000 for the years 2000, 2001 and 2002 respectively. Sub-ivides Bar 1000 wat $yy yetnod percentage Bar-Diagram : Percentage bar-diagram is similar ¥ (Oat Te different tetween the two is that, Tetidelicdivel ar dager ment parts are shown in absolute quantities, while in the fain ae Saga, the component parts are transformed into the percentages of bar dag a nent parts are transformed into the percentages of the total, The main naval ntage f this diagram Is that all the bars are drawn with equal heights ting a total of 100. These bars are then sub-divided in terms of percentages of Collective Data, Diagrammatic Representation of Data ... 9 of the components. gsample 3, Represent the following data by the help of percentage bar- diagram Classes College A College B College C B. Tech. 300 qo coed B. Pharma 200 20 | ___ 300 BSc. 100 40 J Solstion ¢ BORE er ip Classes B.Tech. BPharma | BSc iy] A 50.0% 33.3% 16.7% | B 26.7% 33.3% 40.0% c 22.2% | 33.3% 44.5%) Percerage Ba Diagram showing Trerporcntage of ste phoma fl ~sebh Were ok coleges —— Deviation bar-diagrams are used to show the net that is, net profit, net Joss, net exports or imports. Bars Fath negative and postive valves data related to export and import by @yTicAL BIOS es es representing data-on trade balane suis loin showing Balance of Trade tt series having variation in values d others very large. In such a situation date smaller and larger ‘Dewaton Bar-aingram (6 Broken Bars : Some tim ues may be very small an some val difficulty arise in choosing a suitable scale to accommo’ je values together. The difficulty is overcome by using broken bars for representing the larger values. Example 7. Use a suitable bar-diagram to represent the following data. [ Firms A B B i Fs | Sates (In lakhs Rs) 25 38 300 200 56 aint : Sales in Lakhs Rs.9 x360 that is 2: 3600" 360 that is 35°,of Collective Data, Diagrammatic Representation of Data 8 Timber ; 18% { Labour 25% llaneous 12% the data by Pre-Diagram. (U.P.T.U. 2091-2002) ina metropolitan city, the persons are using the foliowing methods of birth contro! a Methods of Birth Control Diaphragm Gelly Nirodth Pill Others percentage 8% 18% 35% 30% 9% pepresent the data by Pre-Diagram (UPTU 2003-08) Represent the following data by a subdivided bar diagram. via 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 export (Cromes Rs.) 100 115 120 130 122 import (CroresRs.) 86 90 104 115 120 Represent the data in problem No. 10 by using 2 multiple bar diagram Use Pre-diagram to represent the following data 10. 11 12. Items Food Clothing Rent Medical Others Expenditure (Rs) 1650 650 700 250 © 800 | 13. Use rectangle diagram to present the following data Items Expenditure (R | Family X { Family Y | Food 1500 4200 | Clothing 650 | 550 | Rent 300 750 Education 400 360 | ‘ “Miscellaneous 750 850 | angle diagram on percentage basis to represent the data in problem No. 13. diagram to represent the following data, Murder Robbery | Lost | 115 88 330 145 120 400 470 130 420fev GRAPHICAL PRESENTATION Covbinnouy Graphical Presentation gives a visual effect. Graphica| Presentation conditions when we observe some functional relations ip between th variables. The graphical presentation mainly classified as 1. Graphs of the frequency distribution. 2. Graphs of the time services of line graphs. 'S Used jj © Values of \ & Graphs of Frequency Distribution We can represent frequency distribution in forms of graphs graphs are used in frequency distribution. a. The Histogram b. The Frequency Polygon The Frequency curve . Cumulative Frequency curve or Ogive. Histogram : A frequency distribution can be represented by means of g ( istograms. A histogram is a chart consisting of a set of vertical bars and is constructed as follows : (i) _ Each bar represent just one class, the bar width Corresponds to the class width and the bar height generally corresponds to the class frequency. are joined together. ertical axis and the horizontal axis must both be scaled and labeled ainly four types of le must have a title. an be divided into two parts :mple 1. Tuberculin reaction measured in 206 Persons is as follows Reaction in] 8-10 | 10-12 | 124 ae 4 | 14-416 | 16-18] 18-20] 20-22 | aa, { Frequency uw | 2 | a [iw [2 [os | 6 Represent the above data by means of histogram. (WPT. 2001) “Solution. 60 Histogram 50 40 30 Frequency 20 @ 10 12 1 16 18 2 22 24 Reaction in mm Represent the following data by a histogram. Daily Wages (Rs.) No. of Workers 110-115 0624 eee a OSTATISy, a leg eee Daily wages | No. of workers Aajarimtat cor Freese) 100-115 6 1 18 115-120 18 120-125 1 ! 38 125-130 15 LL 18 —1e 130-140 2 2 $ 140-160 12 - 2 160-180 8 s z = Histogram 24 ie | 22 20 18 16 5 14 3 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 M10 115 120 125 130 Daily wages Polygon and Curves ibution can also be represented Pictorially using a frequency of drawing vertical bars, a line chart is connected. The discription is given below : sented by a single point. The height of the point frequency. The position of the point must be directly nding class mid-point. by straight lines, relled and described in the same way as those for a fam as a whole must have a title. Same structure as the of a frequency polygon with a smooth curve.| a ‘of Collective Data, Diagrammatic Representation of Data ... 25 mple 3. Using suitable scale, draw a frequency polygon. 0-10 10-20 | 2030 | 30-40 40-50 | 50-40 i oe 6 12 16 18 a 4 solutions | Classes | Mid-Values | Frequency 0-10 5 6 10-20 15 2 | 20-30 25 16 30-40 35 16 : 40-50 45 18 50-60 35 4 | 2 30 35 40 45 50 55 curve is a smooth shape of frequency polygon. various points of the frequency polygon. Frequency hat the angularity of the polygon is removed and the equal to the area of the frequency polygon. . Mowing data :yethod of Collective Data, Diagrammatic Representation of Data . Frequency Curve or Ogive cumulative Frequency Curve or Ogive is a graphical representation of a cumulative frequency distribution. yxample 5. Draw the cumulative frequency curve for the following distribution, ‘Wages in (Rs) No. of Persons 100-200 3 3 200-300 10 13 300-400 14 22 400-500 24 St 500-600 rl 67 600-700 14 FL Solution. i ‘Wages (in Rs.) | No. of persons Wages (in Rs.) No. of Persons less than More than 200 3 100 82+3—5 32) 300 3+10=13 200 7T2+10=82 FF 300 58+ 14=72 a: 400 34424=58 SSIs 300 17+ 17=34 3h 600 3+14=17 It Less than ogiveYe ethod of Collective Data, Diagrammatic Representation of Data 29 > GRAPHS OF THE TIME SERIES ‘A series of observations recorded over time is called a time series. The data related with business and economic activities, in general, recorded over time gives rise to a time series. The variations | in a time series are most important to an economist. The variations in the time series can also be presented graphically. These graphs are called time graphs. PROBLEM SET - 4 4, Give the brief description of the following: (a) Frequency Polygon and Histogram (b) Frequency Polygon and Frequency Curves 2. What are the various methods used for representing a frequency distribution graphically? (U.P.T.U. 2001) What do you understand by a cumulative frequency distribution? 3. 4 are different forms of a frequency curve? 5,/Prepare histogram for the following cumulative frequency distribution Class Frequency Class Frequency | Less than 10 6 Less than 50 36 | Less then 20 8 Less than 60 45 4 Less than 30 15 Less then 70 53 Less than 40 29 ‘Less then 80 60 | wee Prepare : (@) Histogram (b) Frequency Polygon for the following frequency cistibution of grades in a final examination. a Frequency | __ Clase Frequency | 9 6 50-59 12 | 12 60-69 8 | 20 70-79 6 14 80-89 2 | siency polygon and frequency curve from the following data : 250 350 450 | 550 12 Giallo al Erails. 0 tuency polygon from the following data 70-20 | 20-30 | 30-40 | 40-50 | 50-60 19 26 24 16 6z i &, N44 ‘tts Dosw HARMACEUTICAL BIOSTATISTiog CLASSIFICATION AND TABULATION OF DATA > CLASSIFICATION OF DATA ‘According to Secrist “Classification is the process of arranging data into sequences and groups according to their common characteristics or separating them inty different but related parts. Thus, classification is grouping of data according to them identity, similarity, or resemblances. For example students in a class may be grouped in respect of sex, age, marital status etc. > OBJECTS OF CLASSIFICATION ‘The main objects of classification are as following : lify the observed data (1) To condense and simp! (2) To make logical arrangement of data (3) To show points of likel (4) To eliminate all undesirable details (5) To make the data comparable (6) To serve as a foundation for sound judgment and selected conclusions, Jiness and unlikeliness > TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION Data are classified in respect to their characteristics. Mainly, there are four basic types of classification. J. Chronological or temporal classification Collected data are arranged according to the order of time expressed in years, months, weeks. The data are classified in ascending order of time. For example, the imates of birth rates in India during (1990-1999) are : a 1994 1995 |1996 |1997 |1998 |1999 33.0 1990 [1991 [1992_ [1993 378 1379 [366 [345 [353 [343 [33.0 [333 [332 | graphical or Spatial Classification are arranged according to geographical region or place. For exampie, ion of paddy in different states in India, production of wheat in different ification classified on the basis of some attributes or quality like se ‘employment. This type of classification is called simple oF Male Students, mange fenoien= Female Students characteristic, aei cacoenegeiemenen tins Ditrmgame ts Revvenertaten of Data " FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION Frequency distribution is an arrangement of data accordi ey) possessing the individual or grouped ines ae Tome ae Resa tabular frm ofthe daa in which the frequencies ofthe eee worgven along with them is called a frequency distribution et w Univariate Frequency Distribution : A frequency distribution which sho ws that frequency of occurrence of different val in i i ey tort values of a single variable is called a Q Bivariate Frequency Distribution : A fre istributi TABULATION Itis a process of summarizing classified or grouped data in the form of a table so that it is easily understood an investigator is quickly able to locate the dis information. Merits of Tabulation 1. Tabulation simplifies complex data and the data presented are easily facilitates comparison of related facts. facilitates computation of various statistical measures like ion, correlation etc. presents information in minimum possible space and itions and explanations are avoided. By tabulation, the can be easily located. good for references and they make it easier to present the form of graphs and diagrams.— PHARMACEUTICAL BLOSTATISTI¢g Row designations 4. 5. Body of the table 6. Footnotes 7. Sources of data Model of Ideal Table Table Number t Title of the table ee <—————Column Heading, ayes, Headings |< ____Column Sub-Headings—_____, aon 3 3 = z BODY a an Bl {Total Foot Notes Sources Note. ~ TYPES OF TABLES (1) Simple or one-way table : One-way table is the simplest table which contains data of one characteristic only. For example, the number of adults in different occupations in a locality. Occupations No. of adults Total ‘able : Two-way table contains data on two characteristic. In this is divided into the co-ordinate parts. For example, the number in respect of occupation and sex. Belisne No. of Adults No. of adultsSe (3) Mi ifold Table : A table in which more than two characteristi sonsidered, is called a manifold table. For example, the aeaber ot sae ¥ ocality is respect of occupation, sex and marital status. * ‘Occupations ____No. of Adults Total Male Female M u Total M U Total | = Total | PROBLEM SET - 3 4, Explain classification and different ways of classification. 2. Explain the following terms: a. Class-interval Class-frequency Class-limits Class marks or class mid-point. Frequency distribution ‘Cumulative frequency table |. Relative frequency table. 3, Whatis tabulation ? What are its uses ? 4. Prepare a discrete sources from the following data. so | 57 | 58 | 51 64 55 55 e-gpa0e 60 58 56 62 | 60 62 | 54 | 54 ea | 8 es | 52 | 53 s3 | 61 | 61 | 99 4 frequency distribution of group of persons are 25, 32, 38, 46, 53, 64 65 63 60 B\S/B|8/s zg (b) The class boundaries inuous frequency distribution. Also find the 1 ‘less than’ quencies = 35 45 55 9 4 2 of marital status is . (b) Geographical (d) None of these