Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 39 (2019) 185–192

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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jhtm

The effectiveness of green advertising in the convention industry: An T

application of a dual coding approach and the norm activation model
Woo-Hyuk Kima,∗, Kristin Malekb, Kevin R. Robertsc
a
Department of Consumer Science, Incheon National University, Incheon, Korea
b
Hospitality, Restaurant, and Tourism Management, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA
c
Department of Hospitality Management, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The purpose of the study is to examine the use of green advertising in the convention industry. More specifically,
Message appeals the study involved investigating the role of message types, message appeals, and social norms on convention
Social norms attendees' perceptions. A total of 1077 useable surveys were analyzed. The results revealed that green adver-
Green advertising tising affects the individual's attitude toward the advertisement, attitude toward the convention, and pro-en-
Marketing
vironment intention in the convention industry. As the first empirical investigation into the use of green ad-
Convention
vertising in the context of conventions, this study involved several novel applications of various theories and a
conceptual model, as well as the application of research from several disciplines whose examples can inform
industry-specific green marketing strategies.

1. Introduction
During the past few decades, despite intensified threats of climate
change and mounting concern for environmental degradation, the
misuse of natural resources has increased globally (Landon, Woosnam,
& Boley, 2018). Companies increasingly have incorporated “green
practices” into their business efforts. Among these practices, the focus
on green advertising to consumers, regulators, and other stakeholders
has expanded rapidly across multiple industries. Green advertising re-
fers to a specific range of marketing activities that companies use to
publicize the environmentally friendly aspects of their business opera-
tions and to demonstrate their commitment to pro-environmental ef-
forts (Papadas, Avlonitis, & Carrigan, 2017).
Over the last decade, green advertising has expanded rapidly across
diverse industries, especially in the United States, where consumers
have begun to pay close attention to the environmental impacts of their
actions (Leonidou, Leonidou, Palihawadana, & Hultman, 2011). Ac-
cording to one report, 88% of Americans believe that it is crucial to care
for the planet, and 52% believe that the government should be re-
sponsible for environmental protection (International Trade Centre,
2017). Such concerns affect not only consumers' lifestyles but also their
buying patterns (Xue & Muralidharan, 2015).
The hospitality industry increasingly has “gone green” in a shift that
counters its former reputation for having less than environmentally
friendly methods (Kim, Lee, & Fairhurst, 2017). In decades past and
present, the hospitality industry has been known for adopting various
resource-intensive processes and using energy liberally to provide
transportation, maintenance, print, and accommodations services, often
at the expense of local communities and environments (Modica,
Altinay, Farmaki, Gursoy, & Zenga, 2018). As the popularity of en-
vironmentally friendly initiatives has grown, however, consumers have
increasingly prioritized environmental factors in their purchasing de-
cisions.
This study focused on a specific segment of the hospitality in-
dustry—the convention industry—which has been called the second-
most wasteful industry in the United States only behind construction
(Park & Kim, 2014). Planning and producing conventions is highly re-
source-intensive and can generate numerous environmental problems,
including air pollution, increased food miles, and energy use (Wu,
Cheng, & Hong, 2017). To identify how industry players can mitigate
those problems, researchers examined convention attendees' green
practices and consumer behavior (Han & Hwang, 2017; Han, Hwang, &
Lee, 2017a; Wu et al., 2017). Wu et al. (2017) suggested that the
convention's green practices of convention organizers can influence
attendees' decision making. Most researchers have focused on the lod-
ging and restaurant industries, where they examined message types,
message appeals, and the impact of social norms on customer behavior
(e.g., Hardeman, Font, & Nawijn, 2017; Kim, Kim, & Kim, 2016; Line,
Hanks, & Zhang, 2016). Conversely, research on the role of social norms
in green advertising remains scarce. This study is an attempt to fill this

∗
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: woohyuk@inu.ac.k (W.-H. Kim), drkevents@unl.edu (K. Malek), kevrob@ksu.edu (K.R. Roberts).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.04.007
Received 13 August 2018; Received in revised form 11 April 2019; Accepted 18 April 2019
1447-6770/ © 2019 CAUTHE - COUNCIL FOR AUSTRALASIAN TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY EDUCATION. Published by Elsevier Ltd All rights reserved.
W.-H. Kim, et al.
research gap as it relates to the resource-intensive convention industry,
by investigating the role of message types, message appeals, and social
norms in attendees' perceptions of conventions.
2. Literature review
2.1. Green advertising
As global interest in sustainability and climate change increases,
companies are challenged with integrating environmental issues into
their business strategies (Nidumolu, Prahalad, & Rangaswami, 2009). In
part, such consideration has been a response to the heightened sense of
consumer responsibility and their increasing tendency to make an en-
vironmentally friendly purchase (Haanpää, 2007). According to Ghosh
(2011), effective green product advertising can appeal to consumers,
often by simply applying good marketing principles. Green advertising
generally addresses an environmental issue of interest to consumers as
well as an environmental need (Gheorghiu, Vidrascu, & Niculescu,
2013).
Because advertising is one of the best consumer communication
methods, companies increasingly have adopted green advertising as a
marketing strategy (Atkinson & Kim, 2015). Green advertising plays a
critical role in promoting the environmental image of organizations and
their eco-friendly product characteristics (Leonidou et al., 2011). Green
advertising tends to include promotional messages that appeal to the
needs and desires of consumers (Hartmann, Wiertz, & Arnould, 2015).
By emphasizing joint-marketing efforts, such as messages about both
product characteristics and their environmental impacts, green adver-
tising can reduce uncertainty around promotions and better influence
consumers' purchasing decisions (Dangelico & Vocalelli, 2017).
A significant component of green advertising is the promotion of
sustainability. As media interest in environmental issues has continued
to grow in recent decades, consumers have become increasingly aware
of sustainability. The concept of global sustainability takes a holistic
view of the environmental, social, and cultural well-being of local
economies when evaluating overall developmental success (Aronsson,
2000). In other words, sustainable development plays a fundamental
role in creating social norms and rules worldwide (Pérez & del Bosque,
2014). Implementing sustainability in various industries has trans-
formed established norms and rules of companies worldwide, thus in-
fluencing sustainable development (Engardio, Capell, Carey, & Hall,
2007).
However, consumers' increased awareness of sustainability and
sustainable development has not necessarily improved their response to
green advertising (Xue & Muralidharan, 2015). In many countries,
consumers are skeptical of green advertising claims, mainly due to the
abundance of misleading information, termed “greenwashing”
(Leonidou et al., 2011; Pfanner, 2008, p. 3). Although the public re-
mains somewhat hesitant to accept companies' supposed environmental
concerns and actions, green advertising can nevertheless be effective
when properly prepared and presented (Davis, 1993).
2.2. Sustainability in the convention industry
Encompassing business meetings and events, the convention in-
dustry places massive water, energy, and natural resource demand on
host communities (Hitchings, Browne, & Jack, 2018; Strick & Fenich,
2013). Studies have examined the relationship between customer per-
ception and green practices, and in general, they have two perspectives:
the organizers' and the attendees.
Regarding the organizers' perspective, Park and Boo (2010) ex-
amined how convention stakeholders recognized green concepts, in-
dicating that they intend to use green management. Jung, Tanford, Kim,
and Raab (2018), found that a sustainability reward program was a
significant factor in meeting planners' site-selection intention. They
found that sustainability reward programs were noted as a significant
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 39 (2019) 185–192
factor for planners' site-selection intention. Draper, Dawson, and Casey
(2011) investigated items that would influence sustainable practices at
convention facilities and noted that energy efficiency, recycling, sus-
tainable policies are important for meeting planners. Lee and Slocum
(2015) investigated the perceived value of sourcing local food in the
meeting area, and they suggested that there is a willingness to pay a
price-premium for local products.
Regarding attendees, Jung, Kim, Malek, and Lee (2016) investigated
their perceptions and willingness to participate in sustainable practices
in the meetings, incentives, conferences, and exhibitions (MICE) in-
dustry, indicating that attendee perception tends to focus on water
conservation, recycling bin availability, and biodegradable/reusable
items for food and beverage. Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) explored
convention attendees' perception of green meetings, indicating a posi-
tive perception. Wu et al. (2017) examined the relationships among
experiential quality, green experiential satisfaction, green alternative
attractiveness, green service fairness, green variety seeking, and green
switching intentions. They suggested that interaction quality, physical
environment quality, peer-to-peer quality, affective quality, manage-
ment quality, and green service fairness influence green experiential
satisfaction.
Specific to event venues, Han and Hyun (2017) investigated the
relationship between attendees' decision-making and pro-environ-
mental intentions and found that cognitive, affective, normative, and
moral drivers significantly determined their sustainability-oriented
behaviors. In another study on the relationship between museum at-
tendees' decision-making and pro-environmental intentions, Han and
Hyun (2018) indicated that cognitive triggers, effective triggers, will-
ingness to make personal sacrifices and connectedness to nature posi-
tively affected visitors' pro-environmental intentions. Werner, Griese,
and Hogg (2017) explained sustainable events using dominant service
logic, indicating that sustainable events are at both the micro and
macro levels. Han and Hyun (2017) also predicted visitors' pro-en-
vironmental intentions and found that cognitive triggers (i.e., en-
vironmental value, environmental concern, environmental awareness,
environmental knowledge, and self-efficacy) and effective triggers (i.e.,
anticipated positive and negative effects) positively influenced atten-
dees' willingness to make sacrifices for the environment and their pro-
environmental intentions. While sustainable practices in the convention
industry have received increasing attention in academic research
during the past five years, none of the research specifically addressed
green advertising (e.g., Jung et al., 2018).
2.3. Development of hypotheses
According to the dual coding approach (Paivio, 1990), stimuli are
recorded in memory by verbal coding, visual coding, or both. Of these
three routes, the use of both visual and verbal coding enables the best
absorption, storage, and retrieval of information. Previous research has
shown that using visual and verbal coding to process pictorial in-
formation supported by verbal information provides the best results
(e.g., Xue & Muralidharan, 2015). In particular, visual advertising ac-
tivates visual as well as oral codes for storing information for future
recall (Paivio, 1990).
Although researchers have primarily emphasized the importance of
visual components, which are more influential than verbal ones (Xue,
2014), Walters, Sparks, and Herington (2007) found that visual and
verbal information together, influence consumer response to print ad-
vertising. Other studies have more generally demonstrated that com-
bining visual and verbal elements makes advertising more effective
(Xue & Muralidharan, 2015). Jaeger and MacFie (2001) indicated that
advertisements with both visual and textual information create dif-
ferent consumer expectations than those created by advertising using
verbal information alone. By including verbal and visual elements,
advertising can prompt memory and stronger recall, especially when
the images are interactive (Xue, 2014; Xue & Muralidharan, 2015).
W.-H. Kim, et al.
In studies addressing the hospitality industry's visual and verbal
advertising components, researchers analyzed tourism advertising
message formats. Decrop (2007) identified four components of print
advertising (i.e., images, logos, verbal elements, and headlines) to in-
vestigate the relationship between the message format of a marketing
campaign for an urban tourism destination and the effectiveness of its
print advertising. He found that although logos and headlines were
important in such advertising, images and verbal elements were more
effective. In particular, verbal features were effective in visually at-
tracting consumers, promoting behavioral intentions, and conveying
information. Later, in examining the effects of verbal environmental
messages and corresponding visuals elements on consumer attitudes
toward advertising, Xue and Muralidharan (2015) observed that pairing
verbal and visual claims could enhance responses and attitudes towards
the advertisement. Specific to the hospitality industry, Kim et al. (2016)
investigated the relationship between message types (i.e., verbal and
visual) and cause-related marketing in a restaurant setting. They found
that restaurant messages combining both types were more effective
than only verbal messages, in producing positive consumer attitudes
and behavioral responses.
In addition, message appeals to apply persuasive pressure to sti-
mulate consumers to buy what they want or need (Johanna & Karin,
2016). The use of message appeals stems from the idea that consumer
decisions primarily are either rational or emotional (Hoyer & MacInnis,
2004). In general, a rational message appeal provides practical in-
formation, whereas an emotional message appeal is a psychological
form of outreach derived from a product, service, or brand. Message
appeals play an important role in advertising because they should
create positive consumer impressions (Zhang, Sun, Liu, & Knight,
2014). The type of message appeal not only influences advertising
messages effectiveness and consumer responses but also significantly
influences consumer attitudes and behaviors (Hongxia, Jin, Fang, &
John, 2014; Liu, Wen, Wei, & Zhao, 2013).
Of the various types of message appeals in green advertising, most
are categorized as rational or emotional. According to previous studies,
rational and emotional messages create different responses among
consumers based on their differences, the products advertised, and the
markets in which they are advertised (Dens & De Pelsmacker, 2010; Yoo
& MacInnis, 2005). Rational appeals assume that consumers will make
reasonable decisions; therefore, the goal of a rational advertising ap-
proach is to use arguments and sound reasoning to change the con-
sumer's beliefs about the brand (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999). Thus,
rational advertising appeals should present information objectively
(Stafford & Day, 1995). Johar and Sirgy (1991) observed that rational
appeals often focus on a product's practical benefits, including its su-
perior quality, value, performance, or reliability. Other research shows
that rational appeals succeed by elaborating on the thoughtful refine-
ment of arguments, thereby prompting changes in consumer beliefs and
behaviors (Zinn & Manfredo, 2000).
Emotional appeals target emotions and sensibilities, including the
senses of adventure, fear, love, and status (Cutler & Javalgi, 1993).
Emotional appeals attempt to evoke either positive (e.g., love, pride,
humor, and joy) or negative emotions (e.g., fear and guilt) and stimu-
late psychological arousal to induce individual purchasing actions
(Andreu, Casado, & Mattila, 2015). Because stimulating positive or
negative emotions can affect consumer behavior in particular ways,
brands apply various delivery mechanisms to increase consumer con-
fidence in their ads (Leonidou & Leonidou, 2009; Yoo & MacInnis,
2005).
Studies have demonstrated mixed results on the use of emotional
versus rational appeals (Lwin, Phau, Huang, & Lim, 2014). Some show
that a rational appeal can predict message palatability and brand atti-
tude, though emotional appeals are often more effective because they
promote emotional connections with the brands advertised (Andreu,
Casado-Diaz, & Mattila, 2015). Noble, Pomering, and Johnson (2014)
investigated the relationship between message appeals (i.e., rational,
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 39 (2019) 185–192
negative emotional, and positive emotional) and advertising effective-
ness in pro-environmental social advertising and found that rational
advertising appeals were not as effective as emotional ones. Zhang et al.
(2014) examined emotional and rational advertising appeals in the
restaurant industry and observed that emotional appeals prompted
greater purchase intentions for products promising an experience,
whereas, rational messages prompted greater purchase intentions for
services. More recently, Hardeman et al. (2017) found that emotional
and enthusiastic appeals, not rational ones, spurred pro-sustainability
consumer behavior.
Although it is valuable to classify appeals as either emotional or
rational, some researchers expressed concern about this dichotomy,
arguing that message appeals are not mutually exclusive (Calder &
Gruder, 1989). Nevertheless, it has been recognized that using a com-
bination of both appeals can cultivate a friendly, affluent brand that
leads consumers to positively view buying and experiencing the related
products (Albers-Miller & Stafford, 1999).
In terms of social norms, a wide range of studies focused on the
impact of normative concerns on environmental decision-making and
behavior (Gao, Huang, & Zhang, 2017). Among the norm triggers, so-
cial norms play a critical role in determining how individuals interpret
situations and act within their societies (Lind, Nordfjærn, Jørgensen, &
Rundmo, 2015; van Riper & Kyle, 2014). In general, normative con-
cerns are divided into two norms: descriptive social and injunctive so-
cial. According to Cialdini, Kallgren, and Reno (1991), descriptive so-
cial norms are based on perceptions of how other people behave, which
can inform effective and adaptive behaviors in certain situations.
Conversely, injunctive social norms are based on perceptions of ac-
cepting or rejecting others' behaviors according to social rewards and
punishments related to engaging or not engaging in those behaviors
(Smith et al., 2012). In either case, social norms encourage or limit
social behaviors without necessitating the power of law. Hence, using
injunctive and descriptive appeals can encourage consumers to act
more sustainably (Hardeman et al., 2017).
Steg and Vlek (2009) have suggested that injunctive norms indicate
the extent to which an act is considered worthy of approval or dis-
approval; that is, the injunctive norm concisely tells an individual what
to do (Matthies, Selge, & Klockner, 2012). By indicating which beha-
viors will accrue social rewards or punishments, injunctive norms re-
flect the perception of what others approve or reject. White and
Simpson (2013) tested the effects of manipulating self-interest and so-
cial norms among consumers at the individual and collective levels.
When the collective level of the self is activated (e.g., using pronouns
such as “we” and “us”), consumers respond better to messages using
injunctive norms, because such norms are more involved in fulfilling
social obligations (Jacobson, Mortensen, & Cialdini, 2011) and
achieving a social group's interests (Smith & Louis, 2008). Descriptive
norms, which focus on what others do, are more consistent with col-
lective thinking.
For instance, researchers considered the interaction characteristics
of both injunctive and descriptive norms to identify how they affect
behaviors differently (Johnstone & Tan, 2015). Among them, Schultz,
Khazian, and Zaleski (2008) found that including injunctive norm-or-
iented information can improve potential descriptive norms. White and
Simpson (2013) examined the effects of using social norm appeals at
the levels of individual versus collective consumers. They argued that at
the self-activated collective level, consumers react more strongly to
messages with injunctive rather than descriptive norm claims since the
former focuses on fulfilling social obligations (Jacobson et al., 2011;
Smith & Louis, 2008). Hardeman et al. (2017) suggested that the
combination of message appeals and social norms can result in so-
phisticated, positive responses to messages. Zanon and Teichmann
(2016) suggested that message appeals, especially emotional ones, and
social norms, especially descriptive and conjunctive ones in combina-
tion, are critical antecedents of advertising effectiveness. They in-
dicated that combining descriptive and injunctive norms with
W.-H. Kim, et al.
emotional appeals is a primary antecedent to advertising effectiveness.
In hospitality studies on green hotels, researchers focusing on de-
scriptive normative beliefs found that others' beliefs about environ-
mental behavior have a strong positive correlation with a person's pro-
environmental behavior (Gockeritz et al., 2009; Han, Hwang, & Lee,
2017b; Kiatkawsin & Han, 2017). De Leeuw, Valois, Ajzen, and Schmidt
(2015) reported that descriptive norm beliefs account for 60% of de-
scriptive norms concerning pro-environmental behavior. Their results
indicated that others' environmental behavior positively relates to an
individual's behavior. Because descriptive norms prioritize what others
do, they reflect collective thinking. Therefore, researchers have to
consider the influence of a combination of injunctive and descriptive
norms when discussing the effectiveness of advertising on participants
behavior.
In addition, few studies have investigated the relationship between
message appeal and social norms. Hardeman et al. (2017) suggested
that the combination of message appeal and social norms could result in
sophisticated and positive message responses. Zanon and Teichmann
(2016) indicated that combining descriptive norms and injunctive
norms with emotional appeals serve as primary antecedents to predict
advertising effectiveness. Diedring (2008) suggested that combining
persuasive factors can affect an individual's attitude or behavioral in-
tent. Kim et al. (2016) found that there was a significant relationship
between the type of message and social causes. In other words, these
studies have focused on the relationship between message types, mes-
sage appeal, and social norms in the advertising context. However,
there is still a paucity of research applying green advertising in the
convention industry. Fig. 1 provides the proposed research model.
Based on the studies here discussed, the following hypotheses are
suggested:
H1. Green advertising positively affects attitude toward the
advertisement.
H2. Green advertising positively affects attitude toward the convention.
H3. Green advertising positively affects individual's pro-environment
intention in the convention industry.
3. Methodology
3.1. Measures and questionnaire development
3.1.1. Independent variables
First, to measure message types, this study compared visual and
verbal messages. For example, a visual message about a convention's
pro-environmental efforts was added to two print advertisements. The
Fig. 1. Proposed research model.
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 39 (2019) 185–192
visual image was extracted from the relevant literature (Xue, 2014; Xue
& Muralidharan, 2015).
Second, this study used two types of appeals: emotional and rational
appeals adopted based on Puto and Wells' (1984) categorization. Ac-
cordingly, emotional message appeals should be designed to arouse
profound feelings. By contrast, rational message appeals are direct and
present information. The measurement was taken from Zhang et al.
(2014) and adjusted to suit the study. For green messages with rational
claims, the text read, “Our convention initiatives focus on sustainability
practices that maintain natural resources in the long-term by recycling
and reusing materials.” By contrast, the advertising copy for green
messages with emotional claims read, “Our convention encourages you,
your customers, employees, and other partners to take a thoughtful
approach toward the environment.”
Third, social norms were presented in measurement drawn from
relevant literature (Hardeman, Font, & Nawijn, 2017; Smith et al.,
2012) and adjusted to suit the study. The message with injunctive
norms read, “Our convention attendees approve of those who practice
sustainability while at the convention, such as energy and water con-
servation.” By slight contrast, the message with descriptive norms read,
“Our convention attendees practice sustainability while at the con-
vention, such as energy and water conservation.”
3.1.2. Dependent variables
To evaluate the participant's green message perceptions, this study
measured two dependent variables of all messages in this order: atti-
tude toward the convention and pro-environmental intention. First, the
participants' attitudes toward advertising were measured with state-
ments adapted from Andreu et al. (2015) and Decrop (2007). Six items
with 7-point bipolar adjectives were used to determine attitudes toward
the advertising. The participants were asked to indicate an overall re-
presentation of semantic pairs for the tested advertising: Bad (1) – Good
(7), Unpleasant (1) – Pleasant (7), Unfavorable (1) – Favorable (7), Not
convincing (1) – Convincing (7), Believable (1) – Unbelievable (7), Very
complex (1) – Not complex (7), Very dense (1) – Not dense (7), Very
interactive (1) – Not interactive (7), and With lots of variety (1) – With
no variety (7).
Second, to measure attitudes toward the convention, participants
were asked to indicate the likelihood that they would attend.
Measurement items were drawn from Han and Hyun (2017) and Jung
et al. (2018) and then adjusted to fit this study. Examples include, “In
your opinion, this convention would be of good quality,” “In your
opinion, this convention would be favorable,” “I would be willing to
attend this convention in the future,” “I would plan to attend this
convention in the future,” and “I would expand efforts to attend the
convention in the future.”
W.-H. Kim, et al. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 39 (2019) 185–192

Third, to measure an individual's pro-environmental intention, the Table 1

participants were then asked to indicate the probability that they would Respondents' demographic profiles (N = 1077).
stay at the convention. Measurement items were drawn from Han and Characteristics Frequency %
Hwang (2017) and Jung et al. (2016) and then adjusted to fit the study.
Attendees were prompted with the phrase, “The next time I attend a Gender
Male 688 63.9%
convention …” and then asked to select among the following: “I will try
Female 300 27.9%
to save water and electricity,” “I will avoid using disposable products,” Prefer not to answer 88 8.2%
“I will actively follow the convention's environmental code of conduct”, Age
“I will expend effort on disposing of garbage and recycling properly,” “I 18 to 24 154 14.3%
will actively practice environmentally responsible activities.” 25 to 34 613 56.9%
35 to 44 201 18.7%
45 to 54 75 7.0%
3.2. Data collection process 55 to 64 25 2.3%
65 to 74 9 0.8%
Utilizing Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk), data were collected in Employment
A full-time employee at this company for more than a 999 92.8%
January and February 2018. In exchange for completing the online
year
survey, each respondent received a $0.30 (USD) credit upon submitting Independent business 78 7.2%
a completed questionnaire. Although 2617 potential participants Position
clicked on the link, only 1203 passed the screening questions (e.g., how Upper-level management 474 44.0%
old are you?, Which of the following best describes your work situa- Lower-level management 514 47.7%
Owner/Partner 60 5.6%
tion?, Which of the following best describes your position?, How many
Independent contractor 29 2.2%
times have you attended a convention with at least 100 people in the How many times have you attended a convention
past year?). Each participant was randomly assigned to one of eight 1 134 12.4%
conditions using a Web link. A randomized design provide reliability 2 322 29.9%
and validity for statistical values of manipulation factors by reducing 3 128 11.9%
4 289 26.8%
the influence of individual characteristics factors (Kuehl, 2000). More than four 204 18.9%
In addition, various manipulations of message appeals and type of
social norms were verified. In order to check manipulation, three items
of emotional and rational appeals (logical/emotional; objective/sub- Table 2
jective; and factual/nonfactual) were used (Liu & Stout, 1987). Three Measurement model statistics: mean, standard deviation, correlations
items were used to measure injunctive norms and descriptive norms (N = 1077).
(Smith et al., 2012). An example of an injunctive norm reads, “Would Mean SD 1 2 3
you say that typical attendees approve of those who conserve energy
daily?”; whereas for descriptive norms it would read, “Would you say 1. Message types 5.407 0.795 1 0.112∗ 0.142∗
that the majority of attendees would engage in energy conservation 2. Message appeals 4.998 0.758 0.112∗ 1 0.854∗
3 Social norms 4.887 0.772 0.142∗ 0.854∗ 1
behaviors on a daily basis?”
Note. ∗Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
4. Results
Table 3
Table 1 includes a demographic profile of the sample. By gender, Multiple regression results: convention attendees' perceptions (N = 1077).
66.8% of participants were men, 28.2% women. Most participants
Dependent variables
(58.8%) were 25–34 years old and were full-time employees at their
current occupations for more than a year (92.8%). This corresponds to Attitude toward the Attitude toward Individual's pro-
the screening questions. A slight majority (50.5%) employed in lower- advertisement the convention environmental
level management positions, while participants in upper-level man- intention
agement, owners or partners, and independent contractor accounted for
Beta t-Value Beta t-Value Beta t-Value
40.9%, 5.4%, and 3.2% of the sample, respectively. On attendance,
participants who attended a conference twice formed the largest group Independent variables
(29.9%), while four-time attendees and more-than-four-time attendees Message types 0.804 8.225∗ 0.424 15.195∗ 0.223 3.879∗
accounted for 26.8% and 18.9%, respectively. By ethnicity, Asians were Message appeals 0.134 3.232∗ 0.044 0.823 0.203 2.442∗
Social norms −0.164 −3.955 0.002 0.038 0.152 1.745∗
most populous (33.8%), followed by Caucasians (30.5%), multiracial
individuals (12.4%), African Americans (7.1%), and Hispanics or La- Note. ∗p < .05.
tinos (5.9%).
Discriminate validity was also assessed. Table 2 provides the mean, (3,1070) = 81.415, p < .001), with an R2 of 0.431. Message types
SD, and correlation estimates. Correlation between was not excessively (β = 0.424, p < .001) was found to be positively and significantly
high, and none of the pairs for the 99% confidence interval approached associated with attitude toward the convention. Therefore, Hypothesis
1.00 (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). 2 was supported.
In terms of Hypothesis 1, a multiple linear regression was calculated Lastly, in order to investigate Hypothesis 3, a multiple linear re-
to test the attitude toward the advertisement based on green advertising gression was calculated to examine the individual's pro-environment
in the convention industry (Table 3). A significant regression was found intention based on green advertising in the convention industry
(F(3,919) = 544.930, p < .001), with an R2 of 0.800. Message types (Table 3). A significant regression equation was found (F
(β = 0.804, p < .05) and message appeals (β = 0.134, p < .05) were (3,987) = 10.978, p < .001), with an R2 of 0.180. Message types
found to be positively and significantly associated with attitude toward (β = 0.223, p < .001), message appeals (β = 0.203, p < .001), and
the advertisement. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 was supported. social norms (β = 0.152, p < .001) were found to be positively and
In terms of Hypothesis 2, multiple linear regression was calculated significantly associated with attitude toward the convention. Therefore,
(Table 3). Hypothesis 2 stated that green advertising positively affects Hypothesis 3 was supported.
attitude toward the convention. A significant regression was found (F

189
W.-H. Kim, et al.
5. Discussion and implications
The marketing literature has highlighted the positive role of green
marketing messages in consumers' pro-environmental attitudes and
intentions, but it has been focused primarily on the hotel and restaurant
industry. Few empirical studies in the convention industry have been
conducted, and this study was designed to investigate the effects of
green advertising on convention attendees' perception. Determining if
the same relationships that have been established in the marketing field
apply to the convention industry are integral in truly understanding
convention attendees' perceptions and how those in the industry can
work to become more environmentally friendly.
For Hypothesis 1, the results indicated a positive relationship be-
tween green advertising and attitude toward the advertisement. Find-
ings related to Hypothesis 1 showed that green advertising could in-
fluence attitude toward the advertisement. This corroborates studies
from outside the hospitality field, that attitude toward the advertise-
ment is influenced by green advertising (Xue & Muralidharan, 2015). In
addition, findings related to Hypothesis 2 showed that there was a
significant relationship between green advertising and attitude toward
the convention. This implication is that green advertising can influence
attitude toward the convention.
Lastly, findings related to Hypothesis 3 showed that there was a
significant relationship between green advertising and individual's pro-
environmental intention. Those findings uphold the results of other
studies outside the hospitality field that individual's pro-environmental
intention is influenced by green advertising (Yang, Lu, Zhu, & Su,
2015).
5.1. Theoretical implications
First, according to the dual coding approach, message types plays a
critical role in affecting convention attendees' attitude toward the ad-
vertisement, attitude toward the convention, and the individual's pro-
environment intention. Because the dual coding approach activates
both visual and verbal codes for storing information, this result was not
surprising (Paivio, 1990). However, the importance of these findings
should not be underestimated. According to the results, combining
verbal and visual information is an important factor in the advertise-
ment.
Second, results also showed that message appeal is a critical factor.
The direct application of specific sociopsychological theories often is
considered insufficient when clarifying individuals' complex pro-en-
vironmental decision-making processes and their behavior (Bamberg &
Möser, 2007). Deconstructing the conceptual framework has allowed
travelers to introduce a concept that explains the importance of green
messages to environmentally responsible decision-making processes
(Oreg & Katz-Gerro, 2006). Some researchers observed that anticipated
feelings of pride and guilt respectively representing favorable and un-
favorable aspects of the emotional process had been used with pre-
dicated emotional states, with the expectation to make consumers'
perception (Kim, Njite, & Hancer, 2013; Onwezen, Antonides, & Bartels,
2013).
Third, according to Stern’s (2000) interpretation, normative triggers
suggests that individuals' environmentally responsible behavior is
triggered by an individual norm perceived to be able to reduce threats
to values and order. We found that injunctive norm claims play an
important role in promoting convention attendees' pro-environmental
behavior. Most marketing studies on green consumers, green behavior,
and green consumption are influenced by psychological theories, in-
cluding the theory of reasoned action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), which
relates beliefs about behavior and the results of behavior to attitudes.
The theory of planned behavior is an extension that adds perceived
behavioral control as an antecedent of both intentions and actions
(Ajzen, 1985). Nevertheless, how attitude-behavior relates to green
behavior remains unclear (Black, 2010). There are still mixed results of
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Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 39 (2019) 185–192
pro-environmental intentions. Therefore, a meta-analysis could be
considered an effective tool for future research on pro-environmental
intentions.
5.2. Practical implications
First, based on the results, social norms only can influence an in-
dividual's pro-environmental intention. This implies that to evoke
convention attendees' pro-environmental intention, convention orga-
nizers could consider adopting social norms. More specifically, con-
ventions need to increase their ability to leverage social norms to create
business value, which requires a strategic perspective on convention
marketing. Previous studies have shown that the use of social norms is
limited (Han et al., 2017a). It is essential for convention management to
understand the strategic role that social norms can play in attracting
potential attendees via advertising, particularly given their ability to
efficiently and effectively influence green behavior (Burchell, Rettie, &
Patel, 2012). More specifically, convention organizers should focus on
injunctive norm claims related to attendees' commitments to environ-
mental, social, and economic responsibility in order to attract more
attendees.
Second, in terms of message appeals, this has several implications
for marketing strategies that want to improve the effectiveness of green
advertising promotions. In particular, it suggests that green messages
with message appeals can heighten attendees' attitudes toward con-
vention advertisements and the conventions themselves, as well as their
pro-environmental intentions. In other words, using message appeals
might have become important in advertising conventions. Thus, when
developing green messaging, organizers should select message appeals
to trigger words to inspire their attendees.
Third, convention organizers should consider target market seg-
mentation, especially to individuals through green advertising cam-
paigns. Convention organizers could also offer incentives for attendees
that adopt pro-environmental intentions in convention areas. Fourth, in
terms of service design perspectives, convention organizers need to
consider convention facilities design. Many hospitality industries in-
creasingly are adopting service design for their customers and the en-
vironment. The restaurants and hotels industries already reflected
consumer opinions, especially sustainability aspects, when they re-
modeled (Almanza et al., 2017). Therefore, the convention industry
also should consider sustainability aspects to attract more potential
customers.
5.3. Limitation and future research
Among the limitations of the study, some of the screening questions
may have eliminated participants who could have potentially qualified
to participate but may not have identified their occupation among listed
positions (e.g., K −12 teachers). Lastly, the study was conducted online
via Amazon Mechanical Turk and was thus among the general popu-
lation. Advertisements for specific target markets might have resulted
in different outcomes. Additionally, the results from using developed
advertisements might not be generalizable to print advertisements.
Based on this research, it is suggested that researchers should con-
sider the impact of demographic and psychographic factors on the ef-
fectiveness of green marketing messages. For instance, participants
could be grouped by demographic factors, including age, gender, eth-
nicity, education, and motivation to attend events. More advanced
statistics focusing on factors could also be considered, and researchers
could then understand whether those factors impact eco-marketing ef-
fectiveness. Furthermore, because environmental issues span national
boundaries, it is suggested that future research account for culture.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://
W.-H. Kim, et al.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jhtm.2019.04.007.
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