Middle &

Late
Childhood
Opening
Prayer
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Picture Interpretation
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Learning
Outcomes
Evaluate the Physical & Cognitive
Development in Middle & Late Childhood
Discover the Socio-emotional Development
in Middle & Late Childhood
Deeper understand the discussed topics
through video presentation and activities
Physical Changes &
Health
BODY GROWTH &
CHANGE
The period of middle and late childhood
involves slow, consistent growth. This is a
period of calm before the rapid growth spurt
of adolescence. Proportional changes are
among the most pronounced physical changes
in middle and late childhood. Head
circumference and waist circumference
decrease in relation to body height.
Physical Changes &
Health
HEIGHT &
WEIGHT
The period of middle and late childhood
involves slow, consistent growth. This is a
period of calm before the rapid growth spurt
of adolescence. The weight increase is due
mainly to increases in the size of the skeletal
and muscular systems, as well as the size of
some body organs.
Physical Changes &
Health
THE BRAIN
The development of brain-imaging
techniques, such as magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI), has led to an increase in
research on changes in the brain during
middle and late childhood, and how these
brain changes are linked to improvements
in cognitive development.
Physical Changes &
Health
MOTOR
DEVELOPMENT
During middle and late childhood, children’s motor
skills become much smoother and more coordinated
than they were in early childhood. For example, only
one child in a thousand can hit a tennis ball over
the net at the age of 3, yet by the age of 10 or 11
most children can learn to play the sport. Running,
climbing, skipping rope, swimming, bicycle riding,
and skating are just a few of the many physical
skills elementary school children can master.
Physical Changes & Health
MOTOR SKILLS
Gross Motor Skills
In gross motor skills, it involves large muscle
activity, and boys usually outperform girls.
Fine Motor Skills
Increased myelination of the central nervous
system is reflected in the improvement of fine
motor skills during middle and late childhood.
Physical Changes &
Health
EXERCISE
Elementary school children are far from physical
maturity, so they need to be active. They
become more fatigued by long periods of sitting
than by running, jumping, or bicycling. Physical
action, such as batting a ball, skipping rope, or
balancing on a beam, is essential for these
children to refine their developing skills. It is
becoming increasingly clear that exercise plays
an important role in children’s growth and
development.
Physical Changes &
Health
HEALTH,
ILLNESS &
DISEASE
For the most part, middle and late childhood is
a time of excellent health. Disease and death
are less prevalent at this time than during other
periods in childhood and in adolescence.
 Physical Changes & Health
HEALTH, ILLNESS & DISEASE
Accidents &
Injuries
Injuries are the leading cause
of death during middle and increasing child health problem.
late childhood, and the most
common cause of severe
injury and death in this
period is motor vehicle
accidents, either as a
pedestrian or as a
passenger.
Overweight
Children
Being overweight is an
The increase in overweight
children in recent decades is
cause for great concern
because being overweight
raises the risk for many
medical and psychological
problems.
 Physical Changes & Health
HEALTH, ILLNESS & DISEASE
Cardiovascular Cancer
Disease
Cardiovascular disease is uncommon in Child cancers mainly attack
children. Nonetheless, environmental the white blood cells
experiences and behavior in the (leukemia), brain, bone,
childhood years can sow the seeds for
cardiovascular disease in adulthood. lymph system, muscles,
Many elementary-school-aged children kidneys, and nervous system.
already possess one or more of the
risk factors for cardiovascular disease,
such as hypertension and obesity.
Children with
Disabilities
THE SCOPE OF
DISABILITIES
Students with a learning disability were by
far the largest group of students with a
disability to be given special education,
followed by children with speech or
language impairments, mental retardation,
and emotional disturbance.
Children with Disabilities
LEARNING DISABILITIES
A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning that
involves understanding or using spoken or written language,
and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading,
writing, and spelling.
Dyslexia
is a category reserved for individuals who have a severe
impairment in their ability to read and spell.
Dysgraphia
is a learning disability that involves difficulty in handwriting.
Children with Disabilities
LEARNING DISABILITIES
A child with a learning disability has difficulty in learning that
involves understanding or using spoken or written language,
and the difficulty can appear in listening, thinking, reading,
writing, and spelling.

Dyscalculia
also known as developmental arithmetic disorder, is a
learning disability that involves difficulty in math
computation.
Children with
Disabilities
ATTENTION DEFICIT
HYPERACTIVITY
DISORDER (ADHD)
A disability in which children
consistently show one or more of these
characteristics over a period of time:
inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
Children with
Disabilities
EMOTIONAL AND
BEHAVIORAL
DISORDERS
Emotional and behavioral disorders consist
of serious, persistent problems that involve
relationships, aggression, depression, and
fears associated with personal or school
matters, as well as other inappropriate
socioemotional characteristics.
Children with Disabilities
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Autism spectrum disorders are characterized by problems in
social interaction, problems in verbal and nonverbal
communication, and repetitive behaviors
Autistic Disorder
A severe developmental autism spectrum disorder that has its
onset in the first three years of life and includes deficiencies in
social relationships, abnormalities in communication, and
restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior.
Asperger Syndrome
A relatively mild autism spectrum disorder in which the child
has relatively good verbal language, milder nonverbal language
problems, and a restricted range of interests and relationships.
Children with
Disabilities
EDUCATIONAL
ISSUES
Until the 1970s, most U.S. public
schools either refused enrollment to
children with disabilities or
inadequately served them.
Educational Issues
Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
A written statement that spells out a program that is
specifically tailored for the student with a disability.

Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)

Is a setting that is as similar as possible to the one in
which children who do not have a disability are educated.

Inclusion
The term inclusion describes educating a child with special
education needs full-time in the regular classroom.
Cognitive Changes
PIAGET’S
COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENTAL
THEORY
According to Piaget (1952), the preschool
child’s thought is preoperational. Pre-school
children can form stable concepts, and they
have begun to reason, but their thinking is
flawed by egocentrism and magical belief
systems.
Cognitive Changes
THE CONCRETE
OPERATIONAL
STAGE
Piaget proposed that the concrete operational
stage lasts from approximately 7 to 11 years of
age. In this stage, children can perform concrete
operations, and they can reason logically as long
as reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete
examples. Remember that operations are mental
actions that are reversible, and concrete operations
are operations that are applied to real, concrete
objects.
Cognitive
Changes
Children who have reached the concrete
operational stage are also capable of
seriation, which is the ability to order stimuli
along a quantitative dimension (such as
length). To see if students can serialize, a
teacher might haphazardly place eight sticks
of different lengths on a table.
Another aspect of reasoning about the
relations between classes is transitivity,
which is the ability to logically combine
relations to understand certain conclusions.
 INFORMATION
PROCESSING
Memory Thinking

Metacognition
 MEMORY
Memory, short-term memory
increases considerably during early
childhood but after the age of 7
does not show as much increase.

Long-term memory, a relatively

permanent type of memory that
holds huge amounts of
information for a long period of
time.
 Strategies
If we know anything at all about long-term
memory, it is that long-term memory depends
on the learning activities individuals engage in
when learning and remembering information.
Encourage children to engage in mental
imagery.
Motivate children to remember material
by understanding it rather than by
memorizing.
Repeat with variation on the instructional
information and link early and often.
Embed memory-relevant language when
instructing children.
THINKING
Three important aspects of thinking are being able to think
critically, creatively, and scientifically.
Critical Thinking
thinking reflectively and productively, as well as
evaluating the evidence.
Creative Thinking
the ability to think in novel and unusual ways and to
come up with unique solutions to problems.
Scientific Thinking
like scientists, children ask fundamental questions about
reality and seek answers to problems that seem utterly
trivial or unanswerable to other people.
METACOGNITION
Cognition about cognition, or
knowing about knowing.
Young children do have some
general knowledge about memory.
By 5 or 6 years of age, children
usually already know that familiar
items are easier to learn than
unfamiliar ones, that short lists are
easier than long ones, that
recognition is easier than recall, and
that forgetting is more likely to occur
over time.
 Metacognition
Encourage Intelligence Individual
Brainstorming is one of Problem-solving Differences
Increasing Children’s skills and the ability The stable,
Creative Thinking. A to learn from and consistent ways in
technique in which adapt to the which people are
individuals are different from each
encouraged to come experiences of
up with creative ideas everyday life. other.
in a group, play off
each other’s ideas, and
say practically
whatever comes to
mind.
 Metacognition
Mental Age Intelligence Normal
(MA) Quotient (IQ) Distribution
Binet’s measure of an A person’s mental age A symmetrical
individual’s level of divided by distribution with most
mental development, chronological age, scores falling in the
compared with that of multiplied by 100. middle of the possible
others. range of scores and a
Triarchic Theory few scores appearing
of Intelligence toward the extremes
Sternberg’s theory that intelligence of the range.
consists of analytical intelligence,
creative intelligence, and practical
intelligence.
COGNITIVE
CHANGES
are important because it helps
quickly process or transform
information to make a decision,
including measures of speed of
processing, working memory,
and executive cognitive
function.
 Language
Development
VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR,
AND METALINGUISTIC
AWARENESS
During middle and late childhood, changes occur in
the way children’s mental vocabulary is organized.
When asked to say the first word that comes to
mind when they hear a word, preschool children
typically provide a word that often follows the
word in a sentence.
 Language
Development
VOCABULARY, GRAMMAR,
AND METALINGUISTIC
AWARENESS
These advances in vocabulary and grammar during
the elementary school years are accompanied by the
development of metalinguistic awareness, which is
knowledge about language, such as knowing what a
preposition is or the ability to discuss the sounds of a
language.
Language Development
READING
Before learning to read, children learn to use language to talk
about things that are not present; they learn what a word is;
and they learn how to recognize sounds and talk about them.
Children who begin elementary school with a robust vocabulary
have an advantage when it comes to learning to read.
Whole-Language Approach
An approach to reading instruction based on the idea that
instruction should parallel children’s natural language learning.
Reading materials should be whole and meaningful.
Language Development
READING
Before learning to read, children learn to use language to talk
about things that are not present; they learn what a word is;
and they learn how to recognize sounds and talk about them.
Children who begin elementary school with a robust vocabulary
have an advantage when it comes to learning to read.
Phonics Approach
The idea that reading instruction should teach the basic rules
for translating written symbols into sounds.
Language Development
READING
Rich Mayer (2008) recently described three cognitive
processes involved in being able to read a printed word:
1. Being aware of sound units in words, which
consists of recognizing phonemes.
2. Decoding words, which involves converting
printed words into sounds.
3. Accessing word meaning, which consists of
finding a mental representation of a word’s
meaning.
 Language
Development
WRITING
As they begin to write, children often
invent spellings. Parents and teachers
should encourage children’s early
writing but not be overly concerned
about the information of letters or
spelling. Corrections of spelling and
printing should be selective and made
in positive ways that do not discourage
the child’s writing and spontaneity.
Language
Development
BILINGUALISM
AND SECOND
LANGUAGE
LEARNING
SECOND-
LANGUAGE
LEARNING
For many years, it was claimed
that if individuals did not learn a
second language prior to puberty
they would never reach native-
language learners’ proficiency in
the second language.
BILINGUALISM
The ability to speak two languages,
has a positive effect on children’s
cognitive development. Children who
are fluent in two languages perform
better than their single-language
counterparts on tests of control of
attention, concept formation,
analytical reasoning, cognitive
flexibility, and cognitive complexity.
Emotional &
Personality
Development
THE DEVELOPMENT
OF SELF-
UNDERSTANDING
In middle and late childhood, especially from 8 to 11 years of age,
children increasingly describe themselves with psychological characteristics
and traits in contrast to the more concrete self-descriptions of younger
children. Other children are more likely to describe themselves as
“popular, nice, helpful, mean, smart, and dumb.”
Emotional &
Personality
Development
UNDERSTANDING
OTHERS
In middle and late childhood, children show
an increase in perspective taking, the ability
to assume other people’s perspectives and
understand their thoughts and feelings.
Emotional &
Personality
Development
SELF-ESTEEM
Self-esteem refers to global evaluations of
the self; it is also called self-worth of self-
image. For example, a child may perceive
that she is not merely a person but a good
person.
Emotional &
Personality
Development
SELF-CONCEPT
Self-concept refers to domain-specific
evaluations of the self. Children cake make
self-evaluations in may domains of their
lives-academic, athletic, appearance, and so
on.
Emotional &
Personality
Development
SELF-EFFICACY
Self-efficacy is the belief that one can
master a situation and produce favorable
outcomes. Self-efficacy is the belief that “I
can”; helplessness is the belief that “I
cannot”.
 INDUSTRY
VS
INFERIORITY
 EMOTIONAL
DEVELOPMENT
In middle and late childhood,
children further develop their
understanding and self-regulation
of emotion.
They also show a growing
awareness of the need to control
and manage their emotions to
meet social standards.
Developmental
Changes
Improved emotional understanding
Increased understanding that more than
one emotion can be experienced in a
particular situation
Increased tendency to be aware of the
events leading to emotional reactions
Ability to suppress or conceal negative
emotional reactions
The use of self-initiated strategies for
redirecting feelings
A capacity for genuine empathy
Coping with
Stress
An important aspect of children’s
emotional lives is learning how to cope
with stress. As children get older, they
more accurately appraise a stressful
situation and determine how much
control they have over it. Older children
generate more coping alternatives to
stressful conditions and use more
cognitive coping strategies.
 Moral
Development
According to Piaget, older children
consider the intentions of the individual,
believe that rules are subject to change,
and are aware that punishment does
not always follow wrongdoing.
A second major perspective on moral development was
proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg. Piaget’s cognitive
stages of development serve as the underpinnings for
Kohlberg’s theory, but Kohlberg suggested that there are
six stages of moral development and these stages are
universal.
The Kohlberg Stages
Preconventional reasoning is the lowest level of moral
reasoning, said Kohlberg. At this level, good and bad are
interpreted in terms of external rewards and punishments.
Stage 1.
Heteronomous morality is the first stage of preconventional
reasoning. At this stage, moral thinking is tied to
punishment.
Stage 2.
Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange is the
second stage of preconventional reasoning. At this stage,
individuals reason that pursuing their own interests is the
right thing to do but they let others do the same.
The Kohlberg Stages
Conventional reasoning is the second, or intermediate, level
in Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this level,
individuals apply certain standards, but they are the
standards set by others, such as parents or the government.
Stage 3.
Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and
interpersonal conformity is Kohlberg’s third stage of moral
development. At this stage, individuals value trust, caring,
and loyalty to other as a basis of moral judgments.
Stage 4.
Social systems morality is Kohlberg’s fourth stage of moral
development. At this stage, moral judgments are based on
understanding the social order, law, justice, and duty.
The Kohlberg Stages
Postconventional reasoning is the highest level in Kohlberg’s
theory of moral development. At this level, the individual
recognizes alternative moral courses, explores the options,
and then decides on a personal moral code.
Stage 5.
Social contract or utility and invidual rights is Kohlberg’s fifth
stage of moral development. At this stage, individuals reason
that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the
law.
Stage 6.
Universal ethical principles is the sixth and highest stage in
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development. At this stage, the
person has developed a moral standard based on universal
human rights.
 PROSOCIAL
BEHAVIOR
The study of prosocial moral behavior has
placed more emphasis on the behavioral
aspects of moral development. Children
engage in both immoral antisocial acts
such as lying and cheating and prosocial
moral behavior such as showing empathy
or acting altruistically. Even during the
preschool years, children may care for
others or comfort others in distress, but
prosocial behavior occurs more often in
adolescence than in childhood.
Moral Personality
MORAL
IDENTITY
Individuals have a moral identity when
moral notions and moral
commitments are central to their lives.
They construct the self with reference
to moral categories.
Moral Personality
MORAL
CHARACTER
A person with moral character has
the willpower, desires and integrity to
stand up to pressure, overcome
distractions and disappointments, and
behave morally.
Moral Personality
MORAL
EXEMPLARS
Moral exemplars are people who have
lived exemplary moral lives. Their
moral personality, identity, character,
and set of virtues reflect moral
excellence and commitment.
GENDER
Gilligan’s claim that Kohlberg’s
theory of moral development
reflects gender bias reminds us
of the pervasive influence of
gender on development. Here we
will examine gender stereotypes,
gender similarities and
differences, and gender-role
classification.
GENDER
STEREOTYPES
Broad categories that reflect our
impressions and beliefs about
females and males.
Gender Similarities and
Differences
Physical Development
Women have about twice the body fat of men,
most concentrated around breasts and hips. In
males, fat is more likely to go to the abdomen. On
the average, males grow to be 10 percent taller
than females. Other physical differences are less
obvious. From conception on, females have a
longer life expectancy than males, and females
are less likely than males to develop physical or
mental disorders. Males have twice the risk of
coronary disease as females.
Gender Similarities and
Differences
Cognitive Development
No gender differences in general intelligence have been
revealed but some gender differences have been found
in some cognitive areas. Research has shown that in
general girls and women have slightly better verbal skills
than boys and men, although in some verbal skills areas
the differences are substantial.
Socioemotional Development
One of the most consistent gender differences is that
boys are more physically aggressive than girls are.
Although boys are consistently more physically
aggressive than girls, verbal aggression is more
pronounced in girls.
Gender-Role
CLASSIFICATION
Not long ago, it was accepted that boys
should grow up to be masculine and girls to
be feminine. In the 1970s, however, as both
females and males became dissatisfied with
the burdens imposed by their stereotypical
roles, alternatives to femininity and
masculinity were proposed. Instead of
describing masculinity and femininity as a
continuum in which more of one means less
of the other, it was proposed that individuals
could have both masculine and feminine
traits.
Gender in
CONTEXT
Both the concept of androgyny and
gender stereotypes talk about
people in terms of personality traits
such as “aggressive” or “caring.”
However, which traits people
display may vary with the situation.
Thus, the nature and extent of
gender differences may depend on
the context.
Developmental
Changes in Parent-
Child Relationships
As children move into the middle and late
childhood years, parents spend considerably
less time with them. In one study, parents
spent less than half as much time with their
children aged 5 to 12 in caregiving,
instruction, reading, talking, and playing as
when the children were younger. Although
parents spend less time with their children in
middle and late childhood than in early
childhood, parents continue to be extremely
important in their children’s lives.
 Parents as Managers
Parents can play important roles as managers of children’s
opportunities, as monitors of their behavior, and as social
initiators and arrangers. Mothers are more likely than fathers to
engage in a managerial role in parenting.

Stepfamilies
As in divorced families, children living in stepparent families
have more adjustment problems than their counterparts in
nondivorced families. However, a majority of children in
stepfamilies do not have adjustment problems. Children in
complex (blended) stepfamilies have more problems than
children in simple stepfamilies or nondivorced families.
Developmental
Changes
As children enter the elementary
school years, reciprocity becomes
especially important in peer
interchanges. Researchers estimate
that the percentage of time spent in
social interaction with peers increases
from approximately 10 percent at 2
years of age to more than 30 percent
in middle and late childhood.
Peer Status
• Popular children are frequently nominated as
a best friend and are rarely disliked by their
peers.
• Average children receive an average number
of both positive and negative nominations from
their peers.
• Neglected children are infrequently nominated
as a best friend but are not disliked by their
peers.
• Rejected children are infrequently nominated
as someone’s best friend and are actively
disliked by their peers.
• Controversial children are frequently
nominated both as someone’s best friend and
as being disliked.
Social
Cognition
Children’s social cognition, or thoughts
about social matters, about their peers
becomes increasingly important for
understanding peer relationships in
middle and late childhood. Of special
interest are the ways in which children
process information about peer relations
and their social knowledge.
Social
Cognition
Social knowledge also is involved in
children’s ability to get along with
peers. They need to know what goals
to pursue in poorly defi ned or
ambiguous situations, how to initiate
and maintain a social bond, and what
scripts to follow to get other children
to be their friends.
 Bullying
In this study, bullying was
defined as verbal or physical
behavior intended to disturb
someone less powerful.
 Bullying
Children who said they were bullied reported
more loneliness and difficulty in making
friends, while those who did the bullying
were more likely to have low grades and to
smoke and drink alcohol. Researchers have
found that anxious, socially withdrawn, and
aggressive children are often the victims of
bullying. Anxious and socially withdrawn
children may be victimized because they are
nonthreatening and unlikely to retaliate if
bullied, whereas aggressive children may be
the targets of bullying because their
behavior is irritating to bullies.
 FRIENDS
Like adult friendships, children’s
friendships are typically
characterized by similarity.
Throughout childhood, friends are
more similar than dissimilar in
terms of age, sex, race, and
many other factors. Friends often
have similar attitudes toward
school, similar educational
aspirations, and closely aligned
achievement orientations.
Six Functions of
Children's
Friendships
• Companionship. Friendship provides children
with a familiar partner and playmate,
someone who is willing to spend time with
them and join in collaborative activities.
• Stimulation. Friendship provides children
with interesting information, excitement, and
amusement.
• Physical support. Friendship provides time,
resources, and assistance.
Six Functions of
Children's
Friendships
• Ego support. Friendship provides the expectation of
support, encouragement, and feedback, which helps
children maintain an impression of themselves as
competent, attractive, and worthwhile individuals.
• Social comparison. Friendship provides information
about where the child stands vis-à-vis others and
whether the child is doing okay.
• Affection and intimacy. Friendship provides children
with a warm, close, trusting relationship with another
individual. Intimacy in friendships is characterized by
self disclosure and the sharing of private thoughts.
Contemporary
Approaches to
Student Learning
CONSTRUCTIVIST
APPROACH
Instruction is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes the importance of
individuals actively constructing their knowledge and understanding with
guidance from the teacher. In the constructivist view, teachers should not
attempt to simply pour information into children’s minds. Rather, children should
be encouraged to explore their world, discover knowledge, reflect, and think
critically with careful monitoring and meaningful guidance from the teacher.
Contemporary
Approaches to
Student Learning
DIRECT INSTRUCTION
APPROACH
By contrast, it is a structured, teacher-centered approach that is characterized
by teacher direction and control, high teacher expectations for students’
progress, maximum time spent by students on academic tasks, and efforts by
the teacher to keep negative affect to a minimum. An important goal in the
direct instruction approach is maximizing student learning time.
Socioeconomic
Status, Ethnicity,
and Culture
Children in poverty face many barriers to learning at school
as well as at home. The effects of SES and ethnicity on
schools are intertwined as many U.S. schools are
segregated. Low expectations for ethnic minority children
represent one of the barriers to their learning. American
children are more achievement-oriented than children in
many countries but are less achievement-oriented than
many children in Asian countries such as China, Taiwan,
and Japan. Mindset is the cognitive view, either fixed or
growth, that individuals develop for themselves. Dweck
argues that a key aspect of children’s development is to
guide them in developing a growth mindset.
Reference
Santrock, John W. Life-span
development / John Santrock.
— 13th ed. p. cm. ISBN-13:
978-0-07-353209-7; ISBN-10:
0-07-353209-6.
Thank
You!
Closing
Prayer