Human Cancer: Known Causes and Prevention by Organ Site

IARC Monographs on the Identification of Carcinogenic Hazards to Humans and Handbooks of Cancer Prevention

Monographs 1-132, Handbooks 1-19, updated 18 October 2022 Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Lung Acheson process
Agents classified as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1) (in red) Eye Ultraviolet emissions from welding
Ultraviolet-emitting tanning devices
Brain and central X-radiation, gamma-radiation (occupational exposure)
Aluminium production
nervous system Absence of excess body
Interventions with sufficient evidence of a cancer-preventive effect (in green) fatness (meningioma) Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
Asbestos (all forms)
Beryllium and beryllium compounds
Nasal cavity and Isopropyl alcohol manufacture using Bis(chloromethyl)ether; chloromethyl methyl ether (technical grade)
paranasal sinus strong acids Cadmium and cadmium compounds
Oral cavity Alcoholic beverages Pharynx (oro-, Alcoholic beverages Leather dust Chromium (VI) compounds
Betel quid with tobacco hypo- and/or Betel quid with tobacco Nickel compounds Coal, indoor emissions from household combustion
Betel quid without tobacco NOS) Human papillomavirus type 16 Radium-226 and its decay products Coal gasification
Human papillomavirus type 16 Quitting smoking Radium-228 and its decay products Coal-tar pitch
Quitting alcohol consumption Tobacco smoking Tobacco smoking Coke production
Quitting tobacco smoking
Wood dust Diesel engine exhausts
Quitting use of areca nut products
(including betel quid) with or without tobacco Nasopharynx Epstein–Barr virus Larynx Acid mists, strong inorganic Gamma-radiation
Smokeless tobacco Formaldehyde Alcoholic beverages Haematite mining (underground)
Tobacco smoking Salted fish, Chinese-style Asbestos (all forms) Iron and steel founding
Wood dust Opium (consumption of) MOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen mustard-procarbazine mixture)
Tonsil Human papillomavirus type 16 Quitting smoking Nickel compounds
Tobacco smoking Opium (consumption of)
Salivary gland X-radiation, gamma-radiation
Outdoor air pollution
Pleura or peritoneum Asbestos (all forms) Outdoor air pollution, particulate matter in
(mesothelioma) Erionite Painter (occupational exposure)
Thyroid Absence of excess body fatness Firefighter (occupational exposure) Plutonium
Radioiodines, including iodine-131 Fluoro-edenite fibrous amphibole Quitting smoking
(exposure during childhood and adolescence) Painter (occupational exposure) Radon-222 and its decay products
X-radiation, gamma-radiation Rubber manufacturing industry
Silica dust, crystalline
Breast Alcoholic beverages Soot
Stomach Absence of excess body fatness Absence of excess body fatness Sulfur mustard
(gastric cardia) (postmenopausal) Tobacco smoke, secondhand
Helicobacter pylori Diethylstilbestrol Tobacco smoking
Quitting smoking Estrogen–progestogen contraceptives Welding fumes
Rubber manufacturing industry Estrogen–progestogen menopausal X-radiation
Tobacco smoking therapy
X-radiation, gamma-radiation Mammography screening (50–74 years)
Upper aerodigestive tract Acetaldehyde associated with consumption of Regular physical activity
alcoholic beverages X-radiation, gamma-radiation
Oesophagus Acetaldehyde associated with consumption of Urinary bladder Aluminium production
Liver Absence of excess body fatness alcoholic beverages 4-Aminobiphenyl
(hepatocellular Aflatoxins Alcoholic beverages Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds
carcinoma) Alcoholic beverages Absence of excess body fatness (adenocarcinoma) Auramine production
Kidney Absence of excess body fatness
Estrogen–progestogen contraceptives Betel quid with tobacco Benzidine
Quitting smoking
Hepatitis B virus Betel quid without tobacco Chlornaphazine
Tobacco smoking
Hepatitis C virus Quitting smoking (squamous cell carcinoma) Cyclophosphamide
Trichloroethylene
Plutonium Smokeless tobacco Firefighter (occupational exposure)
X-radiation, gamma-radiation
Thorium-232 and its decay products Tobacco smoking Magenta production
Tobacco smoking (in smokers and in X-radiation, gamma-radiation 2-Naphthylamine
smokers’ children) Opium (consumption of)
Renal pelvis Aristolochic acid, Painter (occupational exposure)
Gall bladder Absence of excess body fatness and ureter plants containing
Liver (angiosarcoma) Vinyl chloride Thorium-232 and its decay products Quitting smoking
Phenacetin
Rubber manufacturing industry
Phenacetin, analgesic mixtures
Colon and rectum Alcoholic beverages Schistosoma haematobium
Biliary tract 1,2-Dichloropropane containing
Absence of excess body fatness Tobacco smoking
Clonorchis sinensis Tobacco smoking
Regular physical activity ortho-Toluidine
Opisthorchis viverrini Processed meat (consumption of) X-radiation, gamma-radiation
Screening with gFOBT
Pancreas Absence of excess body fatness Screening with FIT
Quitting smoking Screening with sigmoidoscopy
Smokeless tobacco Screening with colonoscopy Leukaemia/ Absence of excess body
Tobacco smoking Tobacco smoking lymphoma fatness (multiple myeloma)
X-radiation, gamma-radiation Azathioprine
Bone Plutonium Benzene
Anus Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Radium-224 and its decay products Busulfan
Human papillomavirus type 16 Radium-226 and its decay products 1,3-Butadiene
Radium-228 and its decay products Chlorambucil
X-radiation, gamma-radiation Cyclophosphamide
Cyclosporine
Corpus uteri Absence of excess body fatness Epstein–Barr virus
(endometrium) Estrogen menopausal therapy Etoposide with cisplatin and bleomycin
Estrogen–progestogen menopausal therapy Penis Human papillomavirus type 16 Fission products, including strontium-90
Tamoxifen Formaldehyde
Helicobacter pylori
Uterine cervix Conventional cytology screening Multiple sites Cyclosporine Hepatitis C virus
Diethylstilbestrol (exposure in utero) Vagina Diethylstilbestrol (exposure in utero) (unspecified) Fission products, including strontium-90 Human immunodeficiency virus type 1
Estrogen–progestogen contraceptives Human papillomavirus type 16 X-radiation, gamma-radiation (exposure in Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1
Human papillomavirus nucleic acid (DNA or mRNA) utero) Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus
testing Vulva Human papillomavirus type 16 Lindane
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 All cancers 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-
Melphalan
Human papillomavirus types 16, 18, 31, 33, 35, 39, 45, combined para-dioxin
Ovary Absence of excess body fatness MOPP (vincristine-prednisone-nitrogen
51, 52, 56, 58, 59 Asbestos (all forms) mustard-procarbazine mixture)
Liquid-based cytology screening Estrogen menopausal therapy Pentachlorophenol
Group 1 agents 2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran Skin Polychlorinated biphenyls
Quitting smoking Tobacco smoking Phosphorus-32, as phosphate
with less than Polychlorinated biphenyls with a WHO TEF (“dioxin-like”) (melanoma) Solar radiation
Tobacco smoking Rubber manufacturing industry
sufficient evidence 4,4′-Methylenebis(2-chloroaniline) (MOCA) Ultraviolet-emitting tanning devices
in humans Alpha- and beta-particle emitters Semustine [1-(2-Chloroethyl)-3-(4-
Areca nut Skin (other Arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds methylcyclohexyl)-1-nitrosourea, or
Aristolochic acid malignant Azathioprine methyl-CCNU]
Benzidine, dyes metabolized to neoplasms) Coal-tar distillation Thiotepa
Benzo[a]pyrene Coal-tar pitch Thorium-232 and its decay products
Ethanol in alcoholic beverages Cyclosporine Tobacco smoking
Ethylene oxide Methoxsalen plus ultraviolet A Treosulfan
Etoposide Mineral oils, untreated or mildly treated X-radiation, gamma-radiation
Ionizing radiation (all types) Shale oils
Neutron radiation Solar radiation
N′-Nitrosonornicotine (NNN) and 4-(N-nitroso-methylamino)-1-(3- Endothelium
Soot Human immunodeficiency virus type 1
pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) (Kaposi
X-radiation, gamma-radiation Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus
Ultraviolet radiation sarcoma)