EMI 

stands for electromagnetic interference and is an electronic

emission that interferes with components, RF systems, and most
electronic devices. ... The difference between EMI and EMC is
that EMI is the term for radiation and EMC merely is the ability for a
system to operate within the presence of radiation.

EMI (electromagnetic interference) is the disruption of operation of an

electronic device when it is in the vicinity of an electromagnetic field
(EM field) in the radio frequency (RF) spectrum that is caused by
another electronic device. The internal circuits of personal computers
generate EM fields in the RF range.

Electromagnetic interference
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
.

Electromagnetic interference in analog TV signal

Electromagnetic interference (EMI), also called radio-frequency interference (RFI) when in
the radio frequency spectrum, is a disturbance generated by an external source that affects an
electrical circuit by electromagnetic induction, electrostatic coupling, or conduction.[1] The
disturbance may degrade the performance of the circuit or even stop it from functioning. In the case
of a data path, these effects can range from an increase in error rate to a total loss of the data.
[2]
 Both man-made and natural sources generate changing electrical currents and voltages that can
cause EMI: ignition systems, cellular network of mobile phones, lightning, solar flares,
and auroras (northern/southern lights). EMI frequently affects AM radios. It can also affect mobile
phones, FM radios, and televisions, as well as observations for radio astronomy and atmospheric
science.
EMI can be used intentionally for radio jamming, as in electronic warfare.
 EMI sound sample 1

MENU

0:00
A GSM mobile phone signal
interferes with a speaker system.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

EMI sound sample 2

MENU

0:00
A Wi-Fi signal interferes with a
speaker system.

Problems playing this file? See media help.

History
Since the earliest days of radio communications, the negative effects of interference from both
intentional and unintentional transmissions have been felt and the need to manage the radio
frequency spectrum became apparent.
In 1933, a meeting of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) in Paris recommended the
International Special Committee on Radio Interference (CISPR) be set up to deal with the emerging
problem of EMI. CISPR subsequently produced technical publications covering measurement and
test techniques and recommended emission and immunity limits. These have evolved over the
decades and form the basis of much of the world's EMC regulations today.
In 1979, legal limits were imposed on electromagnetic emissions from all digital equipment by
the FCC in the USA in response to the increased number of digital systems that were interfering with
wired and radio communications. Test methods and limits were based on CISPR publications,
although similar limits were already enforced in parts of Europe.
In the mid 1980s, the European Union member states adopted a number of "new approach"
directives with the intention of standardizing technical requirements for products so that they do not
become a barrier to trade within the EC. One of these was the EMC Directive (89/336/EC)[3] and it
applies to all equipment placed on the market or taken into service. Its scope covers all apparatus
"liable to cause electromagnetic disturbance or the performance of which is liable to be affected by
such disturbance".
This was the first time there was a legal requirement on immunity, as well as emissions on
apparatus intended for the general population. Although there may be additional costs involved for
some products to give them a known level of immunity, it increases their perceived quality as they
are able to co-exist with apparatus in the active EM environment of modern times and with fewer
problems.
Many countries now have similar requirements for products to meet some level of electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) regulation.

Types
Electromagnetic interference can be categorized as follows:

 Narrowband EMI or RFI interference typically emanates from intended transmissions, such

as radio and TV stations or mobile phones.
 Broadband EMI or RFI interference is unintentional radiation from sources such as electric
power transmission lines.[4][5][6]
Conducted electromagnetic interference is caused by the physical contact of the conductors as
opposed to radiated EMI, which is caused by induction (without physical contact of the conductors).
Electromagnetic disturbances in the EM field of a conductor will no longer be confined to the surface
of the conductor and will radiate away from it. This persists in all conductors and mutual inductance
between two radiated electromagnetic fields will result in EMI.

ITU definition[edit]
Interference with the meaning of electromagnetic interference, also radio-frequency
interference (short: EMI | RFI) is – according to Article 1.166 of the International Telecommunication
Union's (ITU) Radio Regulations (RR)[7] – defined as «The effect of unwanted energy due to one or a
combination of emissions, radiations, or inductions upon reception in a radiocommunication system,
manifested by any performance degradation, misinterpretation, or loss of information which could be
extracted in the absence of such unwanted energy».
This is also a definition used by the frequency administration to provide frequency assignments and
assignment of frequency channels to radio stations or systems, as well as to
analyze electromagnetic compatibility between radiocommunication services.
In accordance with ITU RR (article 1) variations of interference are classified as follows:

 Permissible interference
 Acceptable interference
 Harmful interference

Conducted interference[edit]
Conducted EMI is caused by the physical contact of the conductors as opposed to radiated EMI
which is caused by induction (without physical contact of the conductors).
For lower frequencies, EMI is caused by conduction and, for higher frequencies, by radiation.
EMI through the ground wire is also very common in an electrical facility.

Susceptibilities of different radio technologies[edit]

Interference tends to be more troublesome with older radio technologies such as
analogue amplitude modulation, which have no way of distinguishing unwanted in-band signals from
the intended signal, and the omnidirectional antennas used with broadcast systems. Newer radio
systems incorporate several improvements that enhance the selectivity. In digital radio systems,
such as Wi-Fi, error-correction techniques can be used. Spread-spectrum and frequency-
hopping techniques can be used with both analogue and digital signalling to improve resistance to
interference. A highly directional receiver, such as a parabolic antenna or a diversity receiver, can be
used to select one signal in space to the exclusion of others.
The most extreme example of digital spread-spectrum signalling to date is ultra-wideband (UWB),
which proposes the use of large sections of the radio spectrum at low amplitudes to transmit high-
bandwidth digital data. UWB, if used exclusively, would enable very efficient use of the spectrum, but
users of non-UWB technology are not yet prepared to share the spectrum with the new system
because of the interference it would cause to their receivers (the regulatory implications of UWB are
discussed in the ultra-wideband article).

Interference to consumer devices[edit]

In the United States, the 1982 Public Law 97-259 allowed the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) to regulate the susceptibility of consumer electronic equipment.[8][9]
Potential sources of RFI and EMI include:[10] various types of transmitters, doorbell
transformers, toaster ovens, electric blankets, ultrasonic pest control devices, electric bug
zappers, heating pads, and touch controlled lamps. Multiple CRT computer monitors or televisions
sitting too close to one another can sometimes cause a "shimmy" effect in each other, due to the
electromagnetic nature of their picture tubes, especially when one of their de-gaussing coils is
activated.
Electromagnetic interference at 2.4 GHz can be caused by 802.11b and 802.11g wireless
devices, Bluetooth devices, baby monitors and cordless telephones, video senders, and microwave
ovens.
Switching loads (inductive, capacitive, and resistive), such as electric motors, transformers, heaters,
lamps, ballast, power supplies, etc., all cause electromagnetic interference especially at currents
above 2 A. The usual method used for suppressing EMI is by connecting a snubber network, a
resistor in series with a capacitor, across a pair of contacts. While this may offer modest EMI
reduction at very low currents, snubbers do not work at currents over 2 A
with electromechanical contacts.[11][12]
Another method for suppressing EMI is the use of ferrite core noise suppressors, which are
inexpensive and which clip on to the power lead of the offending device or the compromised device.
Switched-mode power supplies can be a source of EMI, but have become less of a problem as
design techniques have improved, such as integrated power factor correction.
Most countries have legal requirements that mandate electromagnetic compatibility: electronic and
electrical hardware must still work correctly when subjected to certain amounts of EMI, and should
not emit EMI, which could interfere with other equipment (such as radios).
Radio frequency signal quality has declined throughout the 21st century by roughly one decibel per
year as the spectrum becomes increasingly crowded.[additional citation(s) needed] This has inflicted a Red
Queen's race on the mobile phone industry as companies have been forced to put up more cellular
towers (at new frequencies) that then cause more interference thereby requiring more investment by
the providers and frequent upgrades of mobile phones to match.[13]

Standards[edit]
The International Special Committee for Radio Interference or CISPR (French acronym for "Comité
International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques"), which is a committee of the International
Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) sets international standards for radiated and conducted
electromagnetic interference. These are civilian standards for domestic, commercial, industrial and
automotive sectors. These standards form the basis of other national or regional standards, most
notably the European Norms (EN) written by CENELEC (European committee for electrotechnical
standardisation). US organizations include the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the US Military (MILSTD).

EMI in integrated circuits[edit]

Main article: Electromagnetic compatibility
Integrated circuits are often a source of EMI, but they must usually couple their energy to larger
objects such as heatsinks, circuit board planes and cables to radiate significantly.[14]
On integrated circuits, important means of reducing EMI are: the use of bypass or decoupling
capacitors on each active device (connected across the power supply, as close to the device as
possible), rise time control of high-speed signals using series resistors,[15] and IC power supply
pin filtering. Shielding is usually a last resort after other techniques have failed, because of the
added expense of shielding components such as conductive gaskets.
The efficiency of the radiation depends on the height above the ground plane or power plane (at RF,
one is as good as the other) and the length of the conductor in relation to the wavelength of the
signal component (fundamental frequency, harmonic or transient such as overshoot, undershoot or
ringing). At lower frequencies, such as 133 MHz, radiation is almost exclusively via I/O cables; RF
noise gets onto the power planes and is coupled to the line drivers via the VCC and GND pins. The
RF is then coupled to the cable through the line driver as common-mode noise. Since the noise is
common-mode, shielding has very little effect, even with differential pairs. The RF energy
is capacitively coupled from the signal pair to the shield and the shield itself does the radiating. One
cure for this is to use a braid-breaker or choke to reduce the common-mode signal.
At higher frequencies, usually above 500 MHz, traces get electrically longer and higher above the
plane. Two techniques are used at these frequencies: wave shaping with series resistors and
embedding the traces between the two planes. If all these measures still leave too much EMI,
shielding such as RF gaskets and copper tape can be used. Most digital equipment is designed with
metal or conductive-coated plastic cases.
RF immunity and testing[edit]
Any unshielded semiconductor (e.g. an integrated circuit) will tend to act as a detector for those
radio signals commonly found in the domestic environment (e.g. mobile phones).[16] Such a detector
can demodulate the high frequency mobile phone carrier (e.g., GSM850 and GSM1900, GSM900
and GSM1800) and produce low-frequency (e.g., 217 Hz) demodulated signals.[17] This demodulation
manifests itself as unwanted audible buzz in audio appliances such
as microphone amplifier, speaker amplifier, car radio, telephones etc. Adding onboard EMI filters or
special layout techniques can help in bypassing EMI or improving RF immunity.[18] Some ICs are
designed (e.g., LMV831-LMV834,[19] MAX9724[20]) to have integrated RF filters or a special design
that helps reduce any demodulation of high-frequency carrier.
Designers often need to carry out special tests for RF immunity of parts to be used in a system.
These tests are often done in an anechoic chamber with a controlled RF environment where the test
vectors produce a RF field similar to that produced in an actual environment.[17]

RFI in radio astronomy[edit]

Interference in radio astronomy, where it is commonly referred to as radio-frequency interference
(RFI), is any source of transmission that is within the observed frequency band other than the
celestial sources themselves. Because transmitters on and around the Earth can be many times
stronger than the astronomical signal of interest, RFI is a major concern for performing radio
astronomy. Natural sources of interference, such as lightning and the Sun, are also often referred to
as RFI.
Some of the frequency bands that are very important for radio astronomy, such as the 21-cm HI
line at 1420 MHz, are protected by regulation. This is called spectrum management. However,
modern radio-astronomical observatories such as VLA, LOFAR, and ALMA have a very large
bandwidth over which they can observe. Because of the limited spectral space at radio frequencies,
these frequency bands cannot be completely allocated to radio astronomy. Therefore, observatories
need to deal with RFI in their observations.
Techniques to deal with RFI range from filters in hardware to advanced algorithms in software. One
way to deal with strong transmitters is to filter out the frequency of the source completely. This is for
example the case for the LOFAR observatory, which filters out the FM radio stations between 90-
110 MHz. It is important to remove such strong sources of interference as soon as possible,
because they might "saturate" the highly sensitive receivers (amplifiers and analog-to-digital
converters), which means that the received signal is stronger than the receiver can handle.
However, filtering out a frequency band implies that these frequencies can never be observed with
the instrument.
A common technique to deal with RFI within the observed frequency bandwidth, is to employ RFI
detection in software. Such software can find samples in time, frequency or time-frequency space
that are contaminated by an interfering source. These samples are subsequently ignored in further
analysis of the observed data. This process is often referred to as data flagging. Because most
transmitters have a small bandwidth and are not continuously present such as lightning or citizens'
band (CB) radio devices, most of the data remains available for the astronomical analysis. However,
data flagging can not solve issues with continuous broad-band transmitters, such as
windmills, digital video or digital audio transmitters.
Another way to manage RFI is to establish a radio quiet zone (RQZ). RQZ is a well-defined area
surrounding receivers that has special regulations to reduce RFI in favor of radio astronomy
observations within the zone. The regulations may include special management of spectrum and
power flux or power flux-density limitations. The controls within the zone may cover elements other
than radio transmitters or radio devices. These include aircraft controls and control of unintentional
radiators such as industrial, scientific and medical devices, vehicles, and power lines. The first RQZ
for radio astronomy is United States National Radio Quiet Zone (NRQZ), established in 1958.[21]

RFI on environmental monitoring[edit]

Transmissions on adjacent bands to those used by passive remote sensing, such as weather
satellites, have caused interference, sometimes significant.[22] There is concern that adoption of
insufficiently regulated 5G could produce major interference issues. Significant interference can
significantly impair numerical weather prediction performance and incur substantially negative
economic and public safety impacts.[23][24][25] These concerns led US Secretary of Commerce Wilbur
Ross and NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine in February 2019 to urge the FCC to cancel
proposed spectrum auctioning, which was rejected.[26]

Electromagnetic compatibility
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Anechoic RF chamber used for EMC testing (radiated emissions and immunity). The
furniture has to be made of wood or plastic, not metal.

Log-periodic antenna measurement for outdoors

Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is the ability of electrical equipment and systems to function
acceptably in their electromagnetic environment, by limiting the unintentional generation,
propagation and reception of electromagnetic energy which may cause unwanted effects such
as electromagnetic interference (EMI) or even physical damage in operational equipment.[1] The goal
of EMC is the correct operation of different equipment in a common electromagnetic environment. It
is also the name given to the associated branch of electrical engineering.
EMC pursues three main classes of issue. Emission is the generation of electromagnetic energy,
whether deliberate or accidental, by some source and its release into the environment. EMC studies
the unwanted emissions and the countermeasures which may be taken in order to reduce unwanted
emissions. The second class, susceptibility, is the tendency of electrical equipment, referred to as
the victim, to malfunction or break down in the presence of unwanted emissions, which are known as
Radio frequency interference (RFI). Immunity is the opposite of susceptibility, being the ability of
equipment to function correctly in the presence of RFI, with the discipline of "hardening" equipment
being known equally as susceptibility or immunity. A third class studied is coupling, which is the
mechanism by which emitted interference reaches the victim.
Interference mitigation and hence electromagnetic compatibility may be achieved by addressing any
or all of these issues, i.e., quieting the sources of interference, inhibiting coupling paths and/or
hardening the potential victims. In practice, many of the engineering techniques used, such as
grounding and shielding, apply to all three issues.

Contents
 1Introduction
 2Types of interference
o 2.1Continuous interference
o 2.2Pulse or transient interference
 3Coupling mechanisms
o 3.1Conductive coupling
o 3.2Inductive coupling
 3.2.1Capacitive coupling
 3.2.2Magnetic coupling
o 3.3Radiative coupling
 4EMC control
o 4.1Characterising the threat
o 4.2Laws and regulators
 4.2.1Regulatory and standards bodies
 4.2.2Laws
o 4.3EMC design
 4.3.1Grounding and shielding
 4.3.2Other general measures
 4.3.3Emissions suppression
 4.3.4Susceptibility hardening
o 4.4EMC testing
 4.4.1Emissions testing
 4.4.2Susceptibility testing
 5History
 6EMC test equipment manufacturers (alphabetic)
 7See also
 8References
 9External links
o 9.1Web sites
o 9.2General introductions
o 9.3Specific topics

Introduction[edit]
While electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a phenomenon - the radiation emitted and its effects -
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is an equipment characteristic or property - not to behave
unacceptably in the EMI environment.
EMC ensures the correct operation, in the same electromagnetic environment, of different
equipment items which use or respond to electromagnetic phenomena, and the avoidance of any
interference effects. Another way of saying this is that EMC is the control of EMI so that unwanted
effects are prevented.
Besides understanding the phenomena in themselves, EMC also addresses the countermeasures,
such as control regimes, design and measurement, which should be taken in order to prevent
emissions from causing any adverse effect.
Types of interference[edit]
Main article: Electromagnetic interference
Electromagnetic interference divides into several categories according to the source and signal
characteristics.
The origin of interference, often called "noise" in this context, can be man-made (artificial) or natural.
Continuous interference[edit]
Continuous, or continuous wave (CW), interference arises where the source continuously emits at a
given range of frequencies. This type is naturally divided into sub-categories according to frequency
range, and as a whole is sometimes referred to as "DC to daylight".

 Audio frequency, from very low frequencies up to around 20 kHz. Frequencies up to 100 kHz
may sometimes be classified as audio. Sources include:
o Mains hum from: power supply units, nearby power supply wiring, transmission lines and
substations.
o Audio processing equipment, such as audio power amplifiers and loudspeakers.
o Demodulation of a high-frequency carrier wave such as an FM radio transmission.
 Radio frequency interference (RFI), from typically 20 kHz to an upper limit which constantly
increases as technology pushes it higher. Sources include:
o Wireless and radio frequency transmissions
o Television and radio receivers
o Industrial, scientific and medical equipment (ISM)
o Digital processing circuitry such as microcontrollers
 Broadband noise may be spread across parts of either or both frequency ranges, with no
particular frequency accentuated. Sources include:
o Solar activity
o Continuously operating spark gaps such as arc welders
o CDMA (spread-spectrum) mobile telephony
Pulse or transient interference[edit]
An electromagnetic pulse (EMP), sometimes called a transient disturbance, arises where the source
emits a short-duration pulse of energy. The energy is usually broadband by nature, although it often
excites a relatively narrow-band damped sine wave response in the victim.
Sources divide broadly into isolated and repetitive events.

 Sources of isolated EMP events include:

o Switching action of electrical circuitry, including inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, or
electric motors.
o Power line surges/pulses
o Electrostatic discharge (ESD), as a result of two charged objects coming into close proximity
or contact.
o Lightning electromagnetic pulse (LEMP), although typically a short series of pulses.
o Nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NEMP), as a result of a nuclear explosion. A variant of this
is the high altitude EMP (HEMP) nuclear weapon, designed to create the pulse as its
primary destructive effect.
o Non-nuclear electromagnetic pulse (NNEMP) weapons.
 Sources of repetitive EMP events, sometimes as regular pulse trains, include:
 o Electric motors
o Electrical ignition systems, such as in gasoline engines.
o Continual switching actions of digital electronic circuitry.

Coupling mechanisms[edit]
Some of the technical words which are employed can be used with differing meanings. These terms
are used here in a widely accepted way, which is consistent with other articles in the encyclopedia.
The basic arrangement of noise source, coupling path and victim, receptor or sink is shown in the
figure below. Source and victim are usually electronic hardware devices, though the source may be
a natural phenomenon such as a lightning strike, electrostatic discharge (ESD) or, in one famous
case, the Big Bang at the origin of the Universe.

The four electromagnetic interference (EMI) coupling modes.

There are four basic coupling mechanisms: conductive, capacitive, magnetic or inductive,
and radiative. Any coupling path can be broken down into one or more of these coupling
mechanisms working together. For example the lower path in the diagram involves inductive,
conductive and capacitive modes.
Conductive coupling[edit]
Conductive coupling occurs when the coupling path between the source and the receptor is
formed by direct electrical contact with a conducting body, for example a transmission line, wire,
cable, PCB trace or metal enclosure.
Conducted noise is also characterised by the way it appears on different conductors:

 Common-mode or common-impedance[2] coupling: noise appears in phase (in the same

direction) on two conductors.
 Differential-mode coupling: noise appears out of phase (in opposite directions) on two
conductors.
Inductive coupling[edit]
Inductive coupling occurs where the source and receiver are separated by a short distance
(typically less than a wavelength). Strictly, "Inductive coupling" can be of two kinds, electrical
induction and magnetic induction. It is common to refer to electrical induction as capacitive coupling,
and to magnetic induction as inductive coupling.
Capacitive coupling[edit]
Capacitive coupling occurs when a varying electrical field exists between two adjacent conductors
typically less than a wavelength apart, inducing a change in voltage on the receiving conductor.
Magnetic coupling[edit]
Inductive coupling or magnetic coupling occurs when a varying magnetic field exists between two
parallel conductors typically less than a wavelength apart, inducing a change in voltage along the
receiving conductor.
Radiative coupling[edit]
Radiative coupling or electromagnetic coupling occurs when source and victim are separated by
a large distance, typically more than a wavelength. Source and victim act as radio antennas: the
source emits or radiates an electromagnetic wave which propagates across the space in between
and is picked up or received by the victim.

EMI filter for conducted emission suppression

EMC control[edit]
The damaging effects of electromagnetic interference pose unacceptable risks in many areas of
technology, and it is necessary to control such interference and reduce the risks to acceptable
levels.
The control of electromagnetic interference (EMI) and assurance of EMC comprises a series of
related disciplines:

 Characterising the threat.

 Setting standards for emission and susceptibility levels.
 Design for standards compliance.
 Testing for standards compliance.
For a complex or novel piece of equipment, this may require the production of a dedicated EMC
control plan summarizing the application of the above and specifying additional documents required.
Characterising the threat[edit]
Characterisation of the problem requires understanding of:

 The interference source and signal.

 The coupling path to the victim.
 The nature of the victim both electrically and in terms of the significance of malfunction.
The risk posed by the threat is usually statistical in nature, so much of the work in threat
characterisation and standards setting is based on reducing the probability of disruptive EMI to an
acceptable level, rather than its assured elimination.
Laws and regulators[edit]
Regulatory and standards bodies[edit]
Several organizations, both national and international, work to promote international co-operation on
standardization (harmonization), including publishing various EMC standards. Where possible, a
standard developed by one organization may be adopted with little or no change by others. This
helps for example to harmonize national standards across Europe.
International standards organizations include:

 International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which has several committees working full-time

on EMC issues. These are:
o Technical Committee 77 (TC77), working on electromagnetic compatibility between
equipment including networks.
o Comité International Spécial des Perturbations Radioélectriques (CISPR), or International
Special Committee on Radio Interference.
o The Advisory Committee on Electromagnetic Compatibility (ACEC) co-ordinates the IEC's
work on EMC between these committees.
 International Organization for Standardization (ISO), which publishes standards for the
automotive industry.
Among the main national organizations are:

 Europe:
o Comité Européen de Normalisation (CEN) or European Committee for Standardization).
o Comité Européen de Normalisation Electrotechniques (CENELEC) or European Committee
for Electrotechnical Standardisation.
o European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI).
 United States:
o The Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
o The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
o The Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA); see DO-160
 Britain: The British Standards Institution (BSI).
 Germany: The Verband der Elektrotechnik, Elektronik und Informationstechnik (VDE) or
Association for Electrical, Electronic and Information Technologies.
Laws[edit]
Compliance with national or international standards is usually laid down by laws passed by individual
nations. Different nations can require compliance with different standards.
In European law, manufacturers of electronic devices are advised to run EMC tests in order to
comply with compulsory CE-labeling. EU directive 2004/108/EC (previously 89/336/EEC) on EMC
defines the rules for the distribution of electric devices within the European Union. More are given in
the list of EMC directives.
In 2019 the USA adopted a program for the protection of critical infrastructure against an
electromagnetic pulse, whether caused by a geomagnetic storm or a high-altitude nuclear weapon.[3]
EMC design[edit]
A TV tuner card showing many small bypass capacitors and three metal shields: the PCI
bracket, the metal box with two coax inputs, and the shield for the S-Video connector
Main article: EMC problem (excessive field strength)
Electromagnetic noise is produced in the source due to rapid current and voltage changes, and
spread via the coupling mechanisms described earlier.
Since breaking a coupling path is equally effective at either the start or the end of the path, many
aspects of good EMC design practice apply equally to potential emitters and to potential victims.
Further, a circuit which easily couples energy to the outside world will equally easily couple energy in
and will be susceptible. A single design improvement often reduces both emissions and
susceptibility.
Grounding and shielding[edit]
Grounding and shielding aim to reduce emissions or divert EMI away from the victim by providing an
alternative low-impedance path. Techniques include:

 Grounding or earthing schemes such as star earthing for audio equipment or ground

planes for RF. The scheme must also satisfy safety regulations.
 Shielded cables, where the signal wires are surrounded by an outer conductive layer that is
grounded at one or both ends.
 Shielded housings. A conductive metal housing will act as an interference shield. In order to
access the interior, such a housing is typically made in sections (such as a box and lid); an RF
gasket may be used at the joints to reduce the amount of interference that leaks through. RF
gaskets come in various types. A plain metal gasket may be either braided wire or a flat strip
slotted to create many springy "fingers". Where a waterproof seal is required, a
flexible elastomeric base may be impregnated with chopped metal fibers dispersed into the
interior or long metal fibers covering the surface or both.
Other general measures[edit]

 Decoupling or filtering at critical points such as cable entries and high-speed switches,
using RF chokes and/or RC elements. A line filter implements these measures between a device
and a line.
 Transmission line techniques for cables and wiring, such as balanced differential signal and
return paths, and impedance matching.
 Avoidance of antenna structures such as loops of circulating current, resonant mechanical
structures, unbalanced cable impedances or poorly grounded shielding.
 Eliminating spurious rectifying junctions that can form between metal structures around and
near transmitter installations. Such junctions in combination with unintentional antenna
structures can radiate harmonics of the transmitter frequency.
Emissions suppression[edit]

Spread spectrum method reduces EMC peaks. Frequency spectrum of the heating up
period of a switching power supply which uses the spread spectrum method incl. waterfall
diagram over a few minutes
Additional measures to reduce emissions include:

 Avoid unnecessary switching operations. Necessary switching should be done as slowly as is

technically possible.
 Noisy circuits (with a lot of switching activity) should be physically separated from the rest of the
design.
 High peaks can be avoided by using the spread spectrum method, in which different parts of the
circuit emit at different frequencies.
 Harmonic wave filters.
 Design for operation at lower signal levels, reducing the energy available for emission.
Susceptibility hardening[edit]
Additional measures to reduce susceptibility include:

 Fuses, trip switches and circuit breakers.

 Transient absorbers.
 Design for operation at higher signal levels, reducing the relative noise level in comparison.
 Error-correction techniques in digital circuitry. These may be implemented in hardware, software
or a combination of both.
 Differential signaling or other common-mode noise techniques for signal routing
EMC testing[edit]
Testing is required to confirm that a particular device meets the required standards. It divides
broadly into emissions testing and susceptibility testing.
Open-area test sites, or OATS, are the reference sites in most standards. They are especially useful
for emissions testing of large equipment systems.
However RF testing of a physical prototype is most often carried out indoors, in a specialised EMC
test chamber. Types of chamber include anechoic, reverberation and the gigahertz transverse
electromagnetic cell (GTEM cell).
Sometimes computational electromagnetics simulations are used to test virtual models.
Like all compliance testing, it is important that the test equipment, including the test chamber or site
and any software used, be properly calibrated and maintained.
Typically, a given run of tests for a particular piece of equipment will require an EMC test plan and
follow-up test report. The full test program may require the production of several such documents.
Emissions testing[edit]
Emissions are typically measured for radiated field strength and where appropriate for conducted
emissions along cables and wiring. Inductive (magnetic) and capacitive (electric) field strengths are
near-field effects, and are only important if the device under test (DUT) is designed for location close
to other electrical equipment.
For conducted emissions, typical transducers include the LISN (line impedance stabilisation
network) or AMN (artificial mains network) and the RF current clamp.
For radiated emission measurement, antennas are used as transducers. Typical antennas specified
include dipole, biconical, log-periodic, double ridged guide and conical log-spiral designs. Radiated
emissions must be measured in all directions around the DUT.
Specialized EMI test receivers or EMI analysers are used for EMC compliance testing. These
incorporate bandwidths and detectors as specified by international EMC standards. An EMI receiver
may be based on a spectrum analyser to measure the emission levels of the DUT across a wide
band of frequencies (frequency domain), or on a tunable narrower-band device which is swept
through the desired frequency range. EMI receivers along with specified transducers can often be
used for both conducted and radiated emissions. Pre-selector filters may also be used to reduce the
effect of strong out-of-band signals on the front-end of the receiver.
Some pulse emissions are more usefully characterized using an oscilloscope to capture the pulse
waveform in the time domain.
Susceptibility testing[edit]
Radiated field susceptibility testing typically involves a high-powered source of RF or EM energy and
a radiating antenna to direct the energy at the potential victim or device under test (DUT).
Conducted voltage and current susceptibility testing typically involves a high-powered signal
generator, and a current clamp or other type of transformer to inject the test signal.
Transient or EMP signals are used to test the immunity of the DUT against powerline disturbances
including surges, lightning strikes and switching noise.[4] In motor vehicles, similar tests are
performed on battery and signal lines.[5][6] The transient pulse may be generated digitally and passed
through a broadband pulse amplifier, or applied directly to the transducer from a specialised pulse
generator.
Electrostatic discharge testing is typically performed with a piezo spark generator called an "ESD
pistol". Higher energy pulses, such as lightning or nuclear EMP simulations, can require a
large current clamp or a large antenna which completely surrounds the DUT. Some antennas are so
large that they are located outdoors, and care must be taken not to cause an EMP hazard to the
surrounding environment.

History[edit]
The earliest EMC issue was lightning strike (lightning electromagnetic pulse, or LEMP) on ships and
buildings. Lightning rods or lightning conductors began to appear in the mid-18th century. With the
advent of widespread electricity generation and power supply lines from the late 19th century on,
problems also arose with equipment short-circuit failure affecting the power supply, and with local
fire and shock hazard when the power line was struck by lightning. Power stations were provided
with output circuit breakers. Buildings and appliances would soon be provided with input fuses, and
later in the 20th century miniature circuit breakers (MCB) would come into use.
As radio communications developed in the first half of the 20th century, interference
between broadcast radio signals began to occur and an international regulatory framework was set
up to ensure interference-free communications.
Switching devices became commonplace through the middle of the century, typically in petrol
powered cars and motorcycles but also in domestic appliances such as thermostats and
refrigerators. This caused transient interference with domestic radio and (after World War II) TV
reception, and in due course laws were passed requiring the suppression of such interference
sources.
ESD problems first arose with accidental electric spark discharges in hazardous environments such
as coal mines and when refuelling aircraft or motor cars. Safe working practices had to be
developed.
After World War II the military became increasingly concerned with the effects of nuclear
electromagnetic pulse (NEMP), lightning strike, and even high-powered radar beams, on vehicle and
mobile equipment of all kinds, and especially aircraft electrical systems.
When high RF emission levels from other sources became a potential problem (such as with the
advent of microwave ovens), certain frequency bands were designated for Industrial, Scientific and
Medical (ISM) use, allowing emission levels limited only by thermal safety standards. A variety of
issues such as sideband and harmonic emissions, broadband sources, and the ever-increasing
popularity of electrical switching devices and their victims, resulted in a steady development of
standards and laws.
From the late 1970s, the popularity of modern digital circuitry rapidly grew. As the technology
developed, with ever-faster switching speeds (increasing emissions) and lower circuit voltages
(increasing susceptibility), EMC increasingly became a source of concern. Many more nations
became aware of EMC as a growing problem and issued directives to the manufacturers of digital
electronic equipment, which set out the essential manufacturer requirements before their equipment
could be marketed or sold. Organizations in individual nations, across Europe and worldwide, were
set up to maintain these directives and associated standards. This regulatory environment led to a
sharp growth in the EMC industry supplying specialist devices and equipment, analysis and design
software, and testing and certification services. Low-voltage digital circuits, especially CMOS
transistors, became more susceptible to ESD damage as they were miniaturised and, despite the
development of on-chip hardening techniques, a new ESD regulatory regime had to be developed.
From the 1980s on the explosive growth in mobile communications and broadcast media channels
put huge pressure on the available airspace. Regulatory authorities began squeezing band
allocations closer and closer together, relying on increasingly sophisticated EMC control methods,
especially in the digital communications domain, to keep cross-channel interference to acceptable
levels. Digital systems are inherently less susceptible than analogue systems, and also offer far
easier ways (such as software) to implement highly sophisticated protection and error-
correction measures.
In 1985 the USA released the ISM bands for low-power mobile digital communications, leading to
the development of Wi-Fi and remotely-operated car door keys. This approach relies on the
intermittent nature of ISM interference and use of sophisticated error-correction methods to ensure
lossless reception during the quiet gaps between any bursts of interference.
EMC test equipment manufacturers (alphabetic)[edit]
 Aeroflex
 Anritsu
 Keysight (formerly Agilent and before that the test and measurement division of Hewlett-
Packard)
 MILMEGA
 National Instruments
 Rohde & Schwarz
 Tektronix
 Teseq (formerly Schaffner Testsystems)
 Würth

See also[edit]
 Conducted electromagnetic interference
 EMC-aware programming
 IEEE Electromagnetic Compatibility Society
 International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP)
 List of common EMC test standards
 Television interference

References[edit]
1. ^ DIN EN 61000-2-2 VDE 0839-2-2:2003-02 - Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC).
VDE. 2003.
2. ^ LearnEMC Web Site: Common-Impedance Coupling.
3. ^   This article incorporates public domain material from the United States
Government document "Executive Order on Coordinating National Resilience to
Electromagnetic Pulses".
4. ^ EMC Testing and Standards in Transient Immunity Testing, RF Immunity.
Electronics-project-design.com. Retrieved on 2011-07-19.
5. ^ ISO 7637-2:2004/Amd 1:2008. Iso.org (2011-03-01). Retrieved on 2011-07-19.
6. ^ ISO 7637-3:2007 – Road vehicles – Electrical disturbances from conduction and
coupling – Part 3: Electrical transient transmission by capacitive and inductive
coupling via lines other than supply lines. Iso.org (2010-09-06). Retrieved on 2011-
07-19.