THE GEOMETRY OF RENE DESCARTES This is an unabridged re-publication of the definitive English: trans. lation of one of the very greatest classics of science. nally published in 1697, it has been characterized as "'the greatest single step ever made in the progress of the exact sciences" (John Stuart ll); as @ book which “remade geometry and made modern geometry possible," (Erie Temple Bell). It “revolutionized the entire conception ‘Of the object of mathematical science,” (J. Hadamord) With this valume Descartes founded modern analytical geometry. Reducing geometry to algebra and analysis, and conversely showing that analysis may be translated into geometry, it opened the way for modern mathematics. Descartes was the first to classify curves systematically, and to demonstrate algebraic solution of geometric fis geometric interpretation of negative quantities led to later concepts of continuily and the theory of function. The third book contains important contributions to the theory of equations. This edition contains the entire definitive Smith-Lathom translation ‘of Descairies' three books: Problems the Construction of which Requires Only Straight Lines and Circles; On the Nature of Curved Lines; On the Construction of Solid or Supersolid Problems. Interleaved. page: by page with the translation is ¢ complete fecsinile of the 1697 French text, fogether with all Descartes’ original illustrations, 248 footnotes explain the text and add further bibliograohy. Translated by David E, Smith and Marcia L. Latham. Preface. Index. 50 figures. ii-}-24dpp. 5% x 8. 368 Poperbound $1.50 Fey ‘THIS DOVER EDITION 1S DESIGNED FOR YEARS OF USE THE PAPER is chomizolly tho sams quality ot you would rd in books pried $500 or more, docs ool dixolar or bachme brite with age. Not erally tolkedsthes this edilon fs an unabridged fullength, book, but i all 29) te hand THE BINDING: The pouer in this book ore SEWN In signatres, ithe mathod fsiionlly Usd for the best books Thety Boeke open Ast for ey reading O76 ference, Poges do nol drop ou, the binding dees net cack ond tpl (os the ih many poporbacks eld Together wth gveh THE TYPE 1S LEGIBLE: Horgin ore ample ond cllow for cloth rebindingRene Descartes translated from the French and Latin by David Eugene Smith and Marcia L. Latham Udus Dover Publications, Inc. New York 10, N.Y.translation made by David Eugene Smith and Martha Manufactured in the United States of America Preface 11 a mathematiclan were asked to name the great epoch-making works in is scence, he might well hesitate in hia elsion concaraing the product of the nineteenth century he might even estate with respect to the eighteenth century; bit sto the prodact ofthe sixteenth seventeznth centuries, and partciarly as to the works of the Greeks in casscal times, He would probably have very defnite views He would certainly include the works of Euclid, Archimedes, and Apollonss mong the products of the Greck ciillzation, while arnong inbee which contsbated to the great renaissance of mathematics ip the sevententh century he would-as certainly inshude La Ceomdtric of Bescaries asd the’ Principia of Newton But it is one of the curfous facts in the study of historical material that although we have Tong. had the works of sell Archimedes, Apotonus'ind Newton in English, the epock-maldng treatise of Des: Gates as aver been printed ove langage, or, 4, nly in some chscure and long-since-forgotien edition, Weiten originally in French, itivas soon after translated into Latin by Van Schooten, and this was Jong held tc be sulficient for any scholars who might cae to follow thetwork of Descartes inthe fist printed reatice that ever appesred om analytic geometry.” At present ie doubtful if many mathemati Glas read the work in Eatin indeed, is doubtfol if many except the French scholars consti very often in the original language in which it appeared, But certainly a work ofthis Kind ought to be exly acess ible fo American and British stadents of the history of mathematics, and in a language with which they are entirely famine ‘On this steount, The Open Court Publishing Company has agreed withthe translators that fhe work shotld appear in Ets sod ith ich notes a nay add to fhe ease with whieh it wil berread. To This Grganization the transistors are indebted for the pablletion of the oak, a tbr of love on ts part a8 well as on theirs ‘Ss to the sransltion tect an atergr bas been made fo give the ‘meaning of ie original in sinpie English rather than to add tothe Jif Faulty Sf the reater by muking it'a verbatim reproduction. It is Ielieved thatthe student will welcome this poliy, belng contest to to the orighal in ease a stricter translation is seeded. One of the translators laving used chiefly the Latin edton of Van Schooten, and the other the orginal French edition, is belleved that the meaning tthich Descartes fad in mind bs Been adequately preservedTable of Contents’ BOOK I Prosuesss THe Consraverion or waren Reguires Oxty Stearcnt Lines asp Cinetts How the calculations of arithmetic ane related tothe operations of geometry... 297 How mutiplieation, division, and the extraction of ware root are performed ‘geometrically - 23 How we use arithmetic symiols ia geometry 20 How we use equations in solving problems 30 Plane probleme and thsi solution x Example fom Pappas 4 Solation of the problem of Pappus ae Flow we shoul choose the terme in arsiving atthe equation inthis case...» 310 How we ‘tht this problem is plane when not more than five lines are given 313 Tt should be recalled that the fret edition of this worl appeared as a kind of appendis to the Discours de le Mothode, and hence began on page 297. For cone Nenience of reference, the original paging has been retained in the facsimile. A new folio number, appropriate to the present edition, will also be found at the foot ff cach gage. For convenience of reference to the origina, this table of contents follows the paging ofthe 167 edition. TABLE Des matieres de la GEOMETRIE Liure Premier. DES PROBLESMES QU'ON PEVT confteuire fans y employer que des ercles & des lignes droites. Onsen x lecaleuldArichmetiqne rapport aux open poe ore atanpieaiod’? cmment fe owt Geometriquement la Mahiplicaton yl Dini, 6 Leverton de lavacne artis 398 Comment on peu ofr de eifves en Geometrie 299 Commas as ceri as Equa gu ferent asad pon lets. 300 Ques fit la problfnesplansy Ex comament fe reiluent. yea Exemple ivi de Papp. 34 Refpon ala quefion de Pappu, 307 Coment on doe pofer le termes pose yenira ! Equation en cet exiple.310 Kkk ComBOOK II (Ow rue Navune or Coven Lives What curved lines are admited in goometry. ceopretsegenseneeee SS ‘The method of distinguishing all curved lines of eeriin caeies, and of know= ‘nu the ratios connecting their pots on certain straight Lins, ....00+ 319 “There follows the explanation of the problem of Pappus mentioned in the pre- ceding. Boole = 3 Sotution of thie problem for the case of ony thrse or four lines se Demonstration of thin soletion. +s. a Pane and solid Tock and the method of fining them oe "The frst and simplest ofall the curves needed in solving the ancient probles for the cate of Biv Hines ocd Geometric carves that can be described by fading a number of thei points... 340 ‘Those which can be desered with a string... 7 340 “To find the propetties of carver itis necessary to now the relation oftheir ofnts to points on certain straight lines, and the method of drawn ‘ther Hines which ent thom im all thse points at right anges + a General method for finde straight Hiner which est given curves and make right angles with then Fi = 2 Example ofthis operation in the case of an ellipse and of & parabola of the record class «. ee ‘Another example fm the ease of an ovat ofthe second class ‘Example of the construction ofthis problem is the case of the conchaid 38 34 351 Explanation of four new classes of ovals which enter into C32 ‘The properties of these ovale esting to refletion and refraction. oovoss.oss4 387 Demonstration of these properties Petoccecneecee 36 Taare, mmo te eee pe pt pap Difeours Second. DE LA NATURE DES LIGNES COURBES. elles fnt ke lignes courbes qu'on pent seceussen Geometric. 31 Redeem lrigpn gin rt poe cnet ge Siizedeteplcaton dla gueion de Pappns if at le peed 33 Solution decete gneftion quand cle wef? propofed qu cn 5 om lignes, 34 . Demsnftrason de cet flacin, sat “Ques fntles ens: plans jalides & a fags dele ronner ts. 3 Fa aap ier a ae ferneas alqueftion des anciens quand lle ef prope encingliuese 335. Quelle fxs les igus courbes quton defers ronan plfenrs de ears eins gu peasent ere recenés en Geameriz 34° Quelle fort af eles quo deferitanea eve chorde qui pent y fire Pehle 440 Qe panreranaer toutes les proprictesdes lignes courbes lf de (eax eon rr ares gos isles cope ences pans anges . Gat Eagan gencale pow trouner dis lignes draites qui conppent les courbes ample ce cere operasionen yne Ellipfe+ Ex eu cme parabale die (Feond tan flee B Exemple de laconftruftion de ce problefne en ls eanchosde. oh Explication deg nonveax genres & Onalesqui ferent a Optique Epler grees eng an «fiess4 Demonffrstion de ces proprietes, 360 Comm"TABLE OF CONTENTS How itis possibe to make a fens as convex: or concave as we with, in one of its surfaces, which sall cause to converge in a given point all he rays which proceed from another given point : How it possible to make @ lens which aperates Tike the preceding and such thatthe convexity of one of is surfaces shall have a given ratio to the fonvenity of concavity of the other How iis possible to apoly wat has boon ssid here concerning curved fines “descr on a vlane surface fo those which are described in 2 space of three dimensions, or on « curved surface BOOK IIT (Ow tHe Consrauction oF Sot ox Supensa.id PronLens (On those curves which can be used in the construction of every problem ‘Example releting to the finding of several mean proportonals. (On the nature of equations ‘iow many roots each equation ean Fave What are false rots : How iti posible to lower the degree of an equation when one of the roots is town : How fo determine H€ any given quantity is root ‘How many true roots sa equation may hae. Hon the flac roots may become trae, an the true roots false. How to increste or decrease the roots of an entation. : "That by increasing the true roots we decrease the false ones, and vice versa. How to remove the second term of an equation. ean ‘How to mate the false roots trve without making the tru ones false ‘How to fil ll the places of an equation... How to multiply or divide the roots of an eqiation. How to eliminate the fractions in an equation. 368 366 368 30 370 m1 me ar ar m3 ws a3 a4 a5 316 37 3m a9 79 How to make the known quantity of any term of an equation equal to any given quantity 380 Ds La Gtomarare. Connon on pene fie om vere antant connexe ot cencateo Pon de es fuperfies, qe on woudea, quiralfemblea vn poive downd rows les ragged on att 1 4 st anen pene fare om qa face le mefne, gut la connexite ened pees ale poperion toc he aes o caine oe 366 emment on pene rapporte tut ce qui etd dit des gues comer ifevzes fire fiperficieplteva cles qui fe defrinent dane vw efpase ‘qivia 3 dimenfions, oubien fur one faperficie courbes 368 Liure Troifefine DE LA CONSTRUCTION DES problefimes folides,ou plufque folides. [Eee ent on pet fe ir a confrtin de chafe epi deh a! xemple tonshant inuention de plans meyenes proportions. 378 Delmar des Eatine me yt Combien il pou yanvirderacines en chafiue Equation, a7 Dales fine bs fanfesracines. 372 ‘Commenson ent diminuér le nombre des dioserfions ume Equation, lovfqi om comnoif quelgn’ one de fesracnes. 372 Comment on ent examiner fi quelgne quantiré dane ff la valenr Poneracne, 373 Combin ip ani de sg rains erin natin, 373 eminent a aie que les fanffesracines dewienent vrayee 5 G les orayes fanffes. 373 Comment on pene angmenteron dimins les racines d'oneEquation 574 Qian angenintant aif le rages racine on dninn les ffs 5 8 a Carnet on toler efeand terme done Eqvaton, is Commer on fait que es fanffes racines deionent vrayes fins que leg ‘unagerdenienent fails. a7 (Gommenson jit que tomes lex places Cone Equation fies remplcs 378 Comment on pent moniter odie les racines ove Equations 319 Comorens on fe les nombres vompaa done Egnation, 379 (Cornment om end laquaseté coma de on des termes d'one Equation afgaleateleantre icon vent. 380 Kkk 2 Que xsboth the true and the flee roots say’ be real or ima 330 ‘The reduction of cubic equations vchen the problem is plane 30 ‘The metho of diving an equntion by a binomial which contains 3 root... 381 Probleme sthichaze slid when the equation is eubie : 383 ‘he reduction of squtions of the fourte dagree when the problem i plane. ‘Solid peablems - vee 383 Example showing the wee of these reductions... .sesversos es 367 General rule for reducing eqations above che Fourth degeee.... ) [General method for constaeting all solid problems which reduce to an equs- tion ofthe thd or the Fourth degree. oe co “The finding of two moan proportions. BS ‘The irleetion af an s0gle 98 ‘The all slid problems ca be reduced to these wo constoctions.wvvsesserees 397 ‘The method of expressing all the roots of cobie equations and hence of sll ‘uations extending to the fourth degree. ++ a0 ‘Why solid problems cannot be constructed without conie sections, nor those problems which are more complex without other Hines that are also more complex : ee : 4 General method for constricting sil probleme which remuire equations of de- tree not higher then the sixth, + 402 ‘The finding of four mean proportional . CI a Tasre De LA Gromerare. Qe le racinestans-vrajes qe funfespennent etre rcles ow imaginate we 380 Laredetlion des Equations ebiqneslrfqe le probe ftplan. 380 La fue de dusiferone Eqeation par vu binense qui comicr (i racine. aft. _Qiacls proefne fit flee lorfque PEquation eft cabigne, 83 ee Ce lle paler qoute dma lenfgue le problef= oeell plan Ex quel [oe sense qu int fides. 303 Exemple ee ofage de ces reduttions. a7 ‘Regle generale pour reduie toutes les Eqeations gus pant le quar’ de quar 389 ason generate pou conloive tos les probleme ides redaits "one “Equation de trois ox quatre dinienfons. 389 Liinseotisn de dens: mayeves propartionelles 395 Ladinifin de angle ensroi, 398 “Que tonslesproblefnes (ides fe penent reve ces dose conflate ‘ion. 497. Lea facondexprimer la valenr do toues les racnes des Equations exbi= (guess Even te de tones cller qi ne woven: qe iaies en quar~ Fog sprain li ere con toes Parguiy les prblefives lide ne. ponent efie confrnits jn les fen ‘hanson np ces qf plas compos ane ques anes Tiguesples compet at Facan generale por confruire or les problefmes reduits a ve Eqit~ on gui n'a poins plo def dzafi 402 Linsention de quatre soay es proportioneles. on FIN LesBOOK FIRSTThe Geometry of René Descartes BOOK I Proniens tHe CoNsrauction or Waren Regurres Onty Stnaicur Lives anp Cincies, AX. problem in geometry can easily be reduced to such terms that a knowledge of the lengths of certain straight lines is sufficient for its construction.” Just as arithmetic consists of only four o five operations, namely, addition, subtraction, matiplication, division and the extraction of roots, which may be cansidered a kind of division, so in ‘geometry, to find required lines itis merely necessary to add or subtract ther lines ; or els, taking one line which T shall eall unity in order to relate it as closely as possible to numbers," and which canin general be chosen arbitrarily, and having given two other fines, to find a fourth Tine which shall be to one of the given lines as the other is to unity Cwhich is the same as multiplication) ; or, again, to find a fourth fine which is to one of the given lines as unity is'to the other (which is equivalent fo division) ; or, finally, to find one, two, or several’ mean proportionals between sity and some other line (which is the same © Large callections of probs of this nature are contained in the ftlewing works: Wheenuo Rictat and Gioia Saladae, atationes nayscoe, Bologna, WEEE Mace Goetns Agnes faust natch, Mag, 1748: Cate Rabo Gominentttes our te Geomtrie de Mf: Descartes Lyons, 1730 (realtor referred CRUE nds chs ofthe suse period eter. ‘9 tan Schoten, in his Latin edition of 168, hs ths note: "Per ona, intetige inca gsandes trata qa ad aganes reiqaro Inara er elitr ines quem untaw ad‘ceram lige mumerum” “Geometry ‘Resate Ber Cores! ang com nots Borimond te Benue, epere alae talia eantlck & Schoolnt” Rnsterdam, 1688, p 168 (herentiercetered 10 a8 Vad se eeseral, the tral fs 1. 0: i geperal, the tanlation cums page for gage with the facing original O2 accom uc a ote, Sp cant vr i ok 2 LA GEOMET LIVRE PREMIER. et Des problefines quan pewst conftrnire fans “y eanployer que des cercles er des lignes dvottess R426 quiiln’ett befoin par aprésque de connoi- S) PI® fire laloagenr de quelques lignes droites, (OHO pour les conftruire. Etcommetoutel'Arichmetique n'eft compofée, que comme de quatre ou cing operations, qui font PaAddition, ta'g slew! Souftraétion, la Multiplication, laDiuiffon, &V'Extra- she @iion des racines, qu’oa peut prendre pour wae efpece MF. de Diuifion : Ainfi n‘av’on autre chofe a faire en Geo- s8r ore snetrie rouchant les lignes qu’on cherche, pour les pre- —— nreraeftre contités, que leuren adioufter d'autres , ou énofter, Oubien en ayant vne, que te nommeray ['vaité- “pour larapporterd’aucant mieux-aux nombres , & qui peutordinairement eftre prifé a difcretion,puss en ayant encore deux autres, en trouner vne quatriefme, qui foit, al'vnedeces deux,comme autre eftal'vnité, ce quiet Jemefineque laMultiplication; oubien en trouuer vnc quatriefne ,quifoital'nedecesdeux,, comme I'vnité Pp eft 3298 La Geomertnre. eft al'autre, cequieftle mefine que la Divifion, ou enfin, trouuervne,on deux ,on plafieurs moyentes proportion nelles entre!'vnité, & quelque autre ligne, ce quieftle snefme que tirer la racine quarrée, oncubique,é&c. Et ie ne craindray pas dintroduire ces termes dArithmeti- que en la Geometric , affin de me rendre plas intel- ligibile, ‘LaMulei- gic. piston Soit par exemple a ABI vnité, & quill fal- le multiplier BD par ¢ BG, ien'ay qu’aioindre les poins A & C, puis ti- ser DE paralleleaC A, & BEelt le produit de pA cete Multiplication. 1s Dive Oubiensil faut divifer BE par BD, ayant ioine fes a poins E & D, ie tire AC parallele a DE, & BCeftle rea Produit de cete divifion- @iion dela, Ou s'il faut tirer la racine Sunde, L quarrée de GH, ie Iny ad. joufte en ligne droite FG, quieftPvnité, ge divifane FH SmG a en deux parties efgales au point K, du centre K ie tire lecercle F1H, puisefleuant du point G vne ligne droite iufques a 1,a angles droits fur FH, c‘eft GI laracine cherchée. Ienedisrien icy de la racine cubique, ny des autres, 2 canfe que ‘en parleray plus commodement cy ss. Sonn Mais founent onn'a pas befoin de tracer ainfi ces li- gne 1s extracting the square root, cube root, etc, of the given Tine!” And T shall not Fesitate to introduce these arithmetical terms into geometry, for the sake of greater clearness. For example, let AB be taken as unity, and let it be required to multiply BD by BC. I have only to join the points A and C, and draw DE parallel to CA; then BE is the product of BD and BC. If it be required to divide BE by BD, T join E and D, and draw AC parallel to DE ; then BC is the result of the division. Tf the square root of GH is desired, I add, along the same straight line, FG equal to unity; then, bisecting FIT at K, I describe the circle FTH about K as a center, and draw from G a perpendicular and extend it to T, and Gl is the required root. I do not speak here of cenbe root, ex other roots, since I shall speals more conveniently of them is not necessary thus to draw the lines on paper, but it is, sufficient to designate each by a single letter. Thus, to add the lines BD and GH, [ call one a and the other b, and write a+ B, Then a—b will indicate that B is subtracted from a; ab that a is multiplied by By § that o is divided by b; aa or o that a is multiplied by itself; a that this result 's multiplied by a, and so on, indefinitely.” Again, if I wish to extract the square root of a*-+b%, I write VOU; if 1 wish to extract the cube root of a'—b?--obs, I write Ye—B FAR, and sim- ilarly for ether roots." Here it must be observed that by af, b%, and similar expressions, I ordinarily mean only simple fines, which, how- fever, Tname squares, cubes, ec, 60 that I may make use of the terms employed in algebra." "White in arithmetic the only exact roots oblainble are those of perfect powers in geomerty length at be found which will represent exactly the square Pea eh a ght fing, rent though this ine be not commenserable with unity. OF ter roots, Descartes speaks later. Ta'Beseace cscs at gr of and 0 on, to represent the respective powers cof o, bute tes both co end & without Uetineion. For example, he often has bb, bt Me alo uses ‘ Descartes writes: YEa—PEABE. See original, page 29, Tine 9 (Ae the time this was writen, @ was commonly considered to mean the sur- face of square whose side iva. and 6" to sean the volume of a cue whose side Fe SD vere unintelligible se geomettic forms, Descartes here 628 hat of does ot ftv this meaning, but means the Line ebiained by constracting a ‘hid proportional to land 4, and so 0% 51 should e Hine should ab J expressed by the same nimber of dimensions, provided unity is sot ietermined by the condiGions of the problem, Thus, a? contains as many dimensions as ab? or &, these being the component parts of the tie noted that all parts of fine which Thave called Ya=bYFate, Te is not, however, the same thing when unity is determined, because unity can always be under: staod, even where there are toa many or too few dimensions; thus, if it be required to extract the cube root of a#*—b. we must consider the quantity o°b* divided once by unity, and the quantity & multiplied twice by unity." Finally, so that we anay be sure to remember the names of these lines, ‘a separate fist should always be made as often as names are assigned tr changed. For example, we may write, ABe=L, that is AB is equal to 1" GH=4, BD=2, and so on, I, then, we wish to salve any problem, we first suppose the solution already effected," and give names to ll the lines that seem needful for its construction,—to those that are unknown as well as to those that are known." Then, making no distinction between known and unknown Tines, we must unravel the diffeslty in any way that shows most natur- ee gas 9 bers iy a8 fe eon wiickan hci acti Ua Bett Me iene My a fa Fen age att re Pe bat ek Teer rats Pa ae eg pacer tnts ahaa ket ea Esa Pact pct deleted oh sre Eee th leat T etal ered erik eek hy st ae Cole “ett esi ost nw ea 28,8 sc eenlgrae a css etm ola hi Pe psc aC" wena ale sir ORES Toe eles Metacafe ony Wy Sota, cai gece mets tana ied Baretrahct il ih Ie te tt oes lo GASES Rt te a aS bey nommée YC. ab + ab / pas de mefine lorfque Penité eft déterminde, a canfo Livre PREMIER. 299 gnes farle papier, Scilfufift de les defigner par quelques yar ge letcres, chafcune par vue feule. Comme pour adioulter eifises laligneB Da GH, ie nomme 'vne a &I autre 8,8 eferis wie a-t b; Eta- b,pour foultraire bd’ a; Bt ab,pourtesmul- ier 'yne par Pautre; Et ¢, pour dinifer epards Et aa, ow a, pour multipliers par foy mefine; Eta, pour Ie mulkiplier encore vne fois par « , &ainfi a Vinfiai ; Be V a+ 6, pour tires la racine quarrée d’ a + 6; Et ¥ Cab -tabb,pourtirerla racine cubique d'o--6° tab), fainfides autres. Onilefta remarquer que par a ou b oufemblables, iene congoy ordinairement que des lignes toutes fim- ples, encore que pour me feruir des noms vfités en! Al gebre, iz les nomme desquattds ou descubes, &c. Helbanfly 2 remarquer que toutes les pastiesd'vne mefmeligne,fe doiuent ordinairement exprimer par atte tant de dimenfions!'ve quel'autre,lorfque I'vaiten'eft P tientautant qu’6% oa b dont fe compote la ligne que tdeterminge enla queftion, comme icy «'en cone mais que ce n’eft qu'elle peut eftre foufentendue par toutouil ya trop ow troppeude dimenfions: comme sil faut tirer la racine cabique de aab5-+5 , il fauc penfer que la quantité acbbek diuifée vne fois parl'vnite, & quelautse quan tite b eft multiplice deus fois parla mefme, Ppa Au300 La GEomMETRIE. ‘An refte affin de ne pas manquer a fe fauuenir des nomsde ceslignes, il en fauc toufiours faire vn regiftre fepard , mefure qu’on les pofe ou qu’onleschange, efcriuant parexemple, AB2r, ceftadire,ABelgal at. GH»a@ BD 26, ‘2c. comme: Ainfi voulant refoudre quelque problefine, on doit d’a~ iifutye- bord le confiderer comme defia fat, 8e donner des noms Eqamaés atoutes les lignes, quifemblent neceffaires pour le con- 4 © Qruive, aufly bien acelles qui font inconnués , qu’anx {Gude le antres, Pais fans confiderer aucune difference entre ces RetlE Tienes connués, zinconnués , on doit parcouns la diffi culté, felon Fordre qui monftre Je plus aturellement Ae tous enqu'elle forte elles dependent mutuellement, les vnes des autres, iufques.a ce qu’on ait trouné moyen “dexprimer vne mefime quantitéen deus fagons: ce qui fenomme vne Equation; carlestermes de I'vne de ces deux fagons font efgaux aceux de Vaurre. Et on doit troutier autant de elles Equations,qu’ona fuppofé de li- gnes, qui eftoientinconnués:, Oubiensilnes‘en trouue ‘pas tant, & que nonobitant on n’ometteriende ce qui eft defirden la queftion,cela tefmoigne qu'elle n’eft pasen~ tierement determinée, Et lors on peut prendre a difere~ tion des lignes conus, pour toutes lesinconaués aut qu’elles ne correfpond aucune Equation. Aprés cela il enrefte encore pluficurs , il fe faue feruir par ordre de chafcune des Equations qui reftent aufly foit en la con- fiderant toute feule,foit en la comparantauec lésautres, pour espliquer chafcune de ceslignesinconnués; 8 faire ainfi ally the relations between these Iines, until we find it possible to express a single quantity in two ways! This will constitute an equation, since the terms of one of these two expressions are together equal to the terms of the other, ‘We must find as many such equations as there are supposed to be unknown lines but if, after considering everything involved, so many cannot be found, it is evident that the question is not entirely deter- mined. Ih such a case we may choose arbitrarily ines of known length for each unknown line to which there corresponds no equation." Tf there are several equations, we must use each in order, either con- sidering i alone or comparing it with the others, so as to obtain a value for each of the unknown lines; and so we must combine them until there remains a single unknown line which is equal to some known line, or whose square, cube, fourth power, fifth power, sixth power, fete, is equal to the sum or difference of two or more quantities," one of which is known, while the others consist of mean proportionals hhetween unity and this square, or cube, or fourth power, etc., multiplied by other known fines. I may express this as follows: That is, 4, which T take for the unknown quantity, is equal to b; oF, the square of 2 is equal to the square of & diminished by a multiplied by 2; of, the eube of = is equal to ¢ multiplied by the square of 2, plus the square of & multiplied by 3, diminished by the cube of ¢; and sim- ilarly for the others, SS Tht Js, we est slog the resting sinallancous equations. Van Schooten (p18) ives to problems to igstrate this statement. OF these the rat as follows? Elven a fine egmest AB cgntaining any posit C, required tc produce AB to) ao tat the rectangle AD.DB shall be equ (0 the squire on CD. He kes AC—e, CH=? and SD= Then AD i and CD=6-+ +, whence ar bets! ohh, 9 Raduel adds this note: “We may say thu every indeterminate problem isan infinity of determinate probleme, that every grllem i determined ier By {uct by em ho connects (021) rhe ir Tne represented by 22%, x4, tne older French, “ie evar, ole ebe. 0 solide, oe qureé de cube ey” ay een on Bae i quneré de quae, ou le sur- ‘origina age 53). 9cromerRy ‘Thus, all the unknown quantities can be expressed in terms of @ sin- gle quantity" whenever the problem can be constructed by means of tireles and straight lines, or by conic sections, or even by some other curve of degree not greater than the third or fourth." Bat I shall not stop to explain this in more detail, because T should deprive you of the pleasure of mastering it yourself, as well as of the ‘advantage of training your mind by Working over it, which is im my ‘opinion the principal benefit to be devived from this science. Because, Tfind nothing here so dificult that it cannot be worked out by any one at all fasiliar with ordinary geometry and with algebra, who will con~ Sider carefully all that is set forth inthis treatise. "ene 2 te pn as rt Se gee rete eos te eo cago Fe Gem, Dace ae ules io 0 lt fg Gee a greece, Yt Stal ya yan Pat latiebattothny cam hat ital Saget ERE oie? St leer Ben ake y als Pa Rages op Th oes oe Saas areca! 00 lg tea lh See a ag a cle a his Cael Bors reiite hoe BO AGrY da el et ee greta aa “Va pore eae Sa Re A'S fares Ie is noes“ ove or Ne etn eh ati eh ne ae Gee eSintt Wath gam ae eae Tits Ned meee” EAST Ae tse a (ov ion ley te en te Fo yt ene ee fact that my, treatin Is hard) ngerstand i wl my ati ar teak pines ant hae Spe ie Era! he Bee te Pl cout Yo Bat cect Ea Ue Ante get at 16, Det ate a feuds hid Na it ARNG, Da a SEP am Aah elf ure ah Fs See EUS Sete et erase eee oe Wald a ge als a Fag iinet ae" cata Bey ke OPES he Pi With Becta m:n he aon of cones Bue PD Pe: ta a ih eee BRN Us USSG ac ppt ae Sa each eb er chan ares oS tat al det wy ar wo ates” Ca, cas rt “ guise foxrqued’ Livng Pewter or sinfien les demeflane, qu'il n’endemeure qu'vne fente, efgales quelqueantre, qui foie connué , cubien dont le quarté, oulecube, ou le quarréde quarré, oule farfo de, oule quarrede cube, Sc. foitefgal a ce, qui fe pro- duilt parl'addition, ou fouttraétion dedenx oa plafieurs autres quantités , dont Pyne foi connué , & les autres foient compolées de quelques moyennes proportions nellesentrel'vnitd, & ce quatré, ou cube , ou quarré de, quarre, cc. multiplies par d'autres connués. Ce quei’e- ferisencete forte, xmbow . / ~ {im bag bbgee. on gc0-6 g- bb on gin ay, < ey ds Bec. Creftadire, z, que ieprens pour la quantitd inconnué, cltefgaldad, oule quarré de % eft efgal au quarré de 6 moinsa multiplig par z, ou le cube de xeft efgala a multipliopar le quarrede xplasle quatré de & muleiplié| parxmoinslecubede c, scainfi des autres. Eton pent tonfiours reduire ainfitoutes les quantités inconnués ne fenle, lorfgue le Problefme fe peut con- ftruire par des cercles & des ligaes droites, ou aufly par ‘Aes feétions coniques,ou mefme par quelque autreligne ou deus degrés plus compofée. Mais ie ne m’arefte point a expliguer cecy plus en detail, a canfe que ie vous ofterois le plaifir de l'apprendre de vous mefme, & I'vtilité de cultiuer voftre efpric en vous yexerceant, qui eft a mon auis laprincipale,qu’on puitfe Pps tireea La Grometais, trerdecetefcience, Anfly que ien ysemarque rien de fidificile, que ceux qui feront vapeu verfés en la Geo- metric commune, & en 'Algebre, & qui prendront gar- deatout ce quieft ence traité, ne puiffenetrouner. C’eft pourquoy ie me contenteray icy de vous auer= tir, que pourvd qu’en demeflane ces Equations on ne manque point afefervir de toutesles diuifions, qui fe- yont poflibles, on aura infalliblement les plus fimples termes, aufquelsla queftion puiffe eftre reduite. Qu Ex que fiellepenteftre refolue par la Geometric ordi= problet naire, c'eftadire, en ne fe feruant que de lignes droites ‘mespltts &- circulaires tracées far ynefaperficie plate, lorfque la demnicre Equation aura efté entierement démeflee,iln'y sefteratontanplus gu'vn quarréinconnn, efgal a ce qui feproduift de I'Addition,, ou fonftrastion de faracine multiplice par quelque quantitéconnue , & de quelque autre quantité anf connue ‘aCa, Blots cere racine, ouligne inconnue fetrouue ayfe~ Eiebit ment. Car fivayparexemple xDagtbb iefais le triangle rectan- gle N LM, dont le co- REL Melt efgal a bra- cine quarrée de la quan- tité connue 64, & Tau- b= yy, tre Neft £4, lamoi ti¢ de Fautre quantité connue, quicftoie multipli¢e par z queie fuppofe eftre la ligne inconnue. puis prolongeant M N labaze de ce tri- angle, T shall therefore content myself with the statement that if the stu- dent, in solving these equations, does not fail to make use of division wherever possible, he will surely reach the simplest terms to which the problem can be reduced, ‘And if it ean be solved by ordinary geometry, that is, by the use of straight lines and circles traced on 2 plane surface, when the last equation shall have been entirely solved there will remain at most only the squere of an unknown quantity, equal to the product of its root by some known quantity, inezeased or diminished by some other quan- tity also known. Then this root or unknown line can easily be found. For example, if T have 2*—=az + 62 I construet a right triangle NUM with ons side LM, equal to , the square root of the known quan- tity J, and the other side, LN, equal to 44, that is, to half the other known quantity which was multiplied by 2, which T supposed to be the rnknown line. Then prolonging MIN, the hypotenuse™ of thi triangle, to O, so that NO is equal to NL, the whole fine OM is the requiree line 2, This is expressed in the following way:™" 1 ji ater flere 2tNG where + is the quantity whose value ILM, and on the hypote- But if T have y?—=_—ay-+ is desired, T construct the same right triangle ow zyr a scion of. the possiity of cosrton by the compstes sn sign Sa af ine deepen Conan suet stent aes Jae seed hiner feten rvics, Berlin, 183, "For brafer FL Ae ae at tage ‘der Eleneyir-Geomtrie, Lei, 13s siete, Eisai d Clone, tani by Dena oud Sly Boston, Biot rns waiucae' tlle Ser 'Bleuentren, Gennes, Lape. HE Meee Mani Ds sonete 2 cpst, Pasa 7, ee Ete a el io Tut ancoeson ofthe frm de raustbatoa salearin eS en mie Fee ee Sy coun Se pe 2, "Baga ac al ae produit oelqae quantte conse. tine 1 opposite page: TetDeseartes proposes t0 show how @ quadratic may be solved geometrical "1 Deseartss says “prolongeant MIN Ta Daze de ce triangle,” becasse the hypote- fuse was commonly taken as the base in earlier times a, sed since fa negative, 6ceomeray nse MIN hy off NP equal to NL, andthe remainder POE is 9, the desired root. Thus I have ae ve bey fle bet besa Inthe sine way, 37H sae ast PA woul bes and should have and so for other eases Finally, #f J hav #, Tmake NI equal to $ to b as before; then, instead of joining the poi and LM equal ‘M and N, T draw MOR parallel to LN, and with Nas a center describe a circle through L cutting MOR in the points Q and R; then s, the line sought, is either MQ or MR, for inthis case it can be expressed in two ways, namely: and and 20 sire, Teng O be Use mié-point of OR, iiicres a1g=oM—09= end MR=uO+OR= pet /bo— Dewar ie th se a re oe, TE AER get te ire, nt 16 terse wl be ems wile 4 > Se het ER x, ot the cree and both roots will be imaginary. leo since RM. pam RMON shee ° 4 Livre Premier 303 angle, inguesa O,, en forte qu'N O feitefgalea NL, latoute OM elt glaligne cherchée. Et elle s‘exprime encete forte ghar yaa bb. Quefiiayyy20 -- ay + bb, 8 qu’y foit la quantité quilfuctronier , ie fais te mefine triangle rectangle NLM, Xdefabaze MNi'ofteN Pefgalea NL, &le refte P'M eft y la racine cherchée. De fagon que iay yo-sa+Viva-Fbb, Ettout de mefme fi’ ois @ = ax seb, PM feroits. & Faurois x 0 Voda 7 fae bb: Sainki des autres. Enfinfitay ie x00 ag—bb: ie fais NL efgale 2 $0, &LM efgale Abcéme deni, puis,au lien Ni deioindreles poinsM N,, ie tire MQR paralleleaL N. &ducen- tre NparL, ayant defcrit vn cer- cle qui lacouppe aux poins Q & t ig Ryle ligne cherchée x eft MQz oubiMR, cat ence caselle sexe primeen deuxfagons,afeauoiry20 gar 7 500-6), fa. sg 0 ba~ 7 gaan bb, ” Hefilecercle, quiayant fon centre au point N, pale parle pcint L, ne couppe ny ne touche la ligne droite MQR, iln’yaaucune racine enlEquation, de fagon qu’on peut affurer que la conftruétion du probleime propoléeftimpoffible. aw 8308 La Gsomerniz. Au refte ces mefmes racines fe peuuent trouuer par ‘vne infinite d'autres moyens , & ay fealement yeulu mettre ceuxcy, commefort fimples, afin de faire voir q‘on pent conftruire tousles Problefines de la Geome- trie ordinaite, fans faire autre chofe que le peu qui eft comprisdans les quatre figures queiay expliquées. Ce queienecroy pas quelesanciens ayent remarqué, car autrement ilsn‘euffent pas prislapeined’en eferire tant de grosliures, owle feul ordre de leurs propofitions nous fait connoiftre qu’ils n'ont point eu lavraye methode pourles trouuer toutes,mais qu'ls ont feulement ramat fécelles qu’ilsont rencontrées, Bremple Eronle peut voir aufly fort clairement de ce que Pap- Pappus. Pusamis an commencement de fon feptiefme liure, ou apres s‘eftre arefté quelque tems a denombrer tout ce quiauoit eft¢ efcriten Geometrie par ceux qui 'auoient preceded, ilparleenfind vnequeftion , qu’ildit que ny Euclide, ny Apollonius, ny aucun autre n'auoient feeu entierement refoudre. 8 voycy fes mots, Hse Quem autemdicie (Apollonias) in tertin libra locum ad Polenta. tres, quatuor linens ab Euclide perfeftum noneffe, neque sinegne le ipfe perfcere potorat ,neque aliquis aliusss fed neque pau- afin qus lulumquidaddereits, que Euclides feripfit,per ea tantum dat conic , que-ufjue ad Euclidir tempora pramonfirata plu ayjee funt, Bo. vw" “Ee-vn peu aprésilexplique ainfi quelle eft cete que- ftion, Aclocus adtres, 8 quatuor lineas , én quo (Apollonius) magnifce eiattat, 8 oftentat,nulla habita gratia et , qué priusferipferat , eff bujufinodi. Si pofitione datis tribus rele 6 FIRST BOOK And if the cizele deseribed about N and passing through L neither cents nor touches the Tine MOR, the equation has no root, so that we ‘may say that the construction of the problem is impossible. ‘These same roots can be found by many other methods! T have iziven these very simple ones to show that it is possible to construct all the preblems of ordinary geometry by doing no more than the little covered ir the four figures that I have explained." This is one thing which T believe the ancient mathematicians did not observe, for other- wise they would not lave put so much lahor into writing so many books in which the very sequence of the propositions shows that they did not have a sure method of finding all," but rather gathered together those propositions on which they had happened by accident ‘This is also evident from shat Pappas has done in the beginning of his seven book," where, after devoting considerable space to an ‘enumeration of the books on geometry written by his predecessors," he finaly refers to a question which he says that neither Euclid nor Apollonits nor any one else had been able to solve completely" and these are his words: “Quem autem dicit (Apollonius) in tertio libro locum ed tres, & quatuor kincas ab Euclide perfectum on esse, neque ipse perficere poterat, neque aliguisalins; sed neque paululum quid addere iis, que © For interesting contraction, eee Rabu, p23, ese. : eet aetna coe on eg of he, xa SUR ps ater been ae 9 ie mal pom id ang SUES CRS SRam a aSlarBehae SET cata bs no owe rots. R “8 “Qu'ils n’ont point eu la yraye methode pour les trouuer toutes.’ 1 See Note (9) / oes Papp Vol. 1,9 697. Par bce aes it af book ta eat tage ell uh: in We es ea Jhetrephde ater, ordo hc ea Euelis datum Tiber urs Apaionit de pro See ee dc pall mslons dan de secigne determina, do, de Fe er fee tsa ber ten Aplin! fclnatonar i do eer oe canta foo emitram, oc, Arias! Ieorom sora irl SEE esiaty Lerten eden of Paps, 100) ede, wp. 24 forthe hry of ths grblem ace Zethen: Dic Lehre tow don Kel. shan ae tee Eepethegen Ts Also, Adan and Tannery, Oowres Bare 9 72. ”ceomeray Euclides scripsit, por ea tontunn conica, que upqite ad Buclidie tempora pramonstrata sunt, &." A ittle farther on, he states the question as follows: “Ab locus ad tres, & quatuor lineas, ix quo (Apollonius) magnifice se jactat, & ostentat, nulla habite gratia ei, qui prius scripseret, est Ijusmodi™ Si positione dats tribus rectis lineis ab io & eodem puncto, ad tres Fineas in dots angulis recta line ducantur, & data sit Proportio rectanguli conten duabus ductis ad quadratum religue: Puotum contingit pasitione datum solidum locum, hoc est unant ex tribus conics sectionitus, Et si ad quatuor rectas lincas postione datas in dats ongulis linea ducontur; & rectanguli duabus ductis contenti ad contentum duabus requis proportio data sit; smiliter punctu datwon coni sectionom postione continget. Si quidem igitur ad duos toxtum Tocns planus ostensus est. Quod si ad plures quam quatuor, puxctum continget locos non odlite cognitoe, sed linear tantum dictas; quales autem snt, vel quom habeant proprictatem., non constat: earus ways, neque primes, & que mauifestissima videtur, composuerust osten- dentes utilen esse. Propositiones autem ipsaruon he sunt. “Stab eliquo puncto ad positione datas rectas Incas quingue ducantur recta linee in datis enguls, & data sit proportio solidi parallelepiped rectanguli, quod tribus ducis ines continetur ad solidum aralelepipe- dura rectongulua, quod continetur reliquis duabus, & data quapiam Tinea, punctum positione datem linea continget. Si autem ad sex, & data sit proportio solidi tribus Tncis contenti ad solidum, quod tribus religuis continetur: rursus punctum continget positione data linea Quod si ad plures quam sez, non adhe habent dicere, an data sit pro- porto exjuspiam contenti quatuor lineis ad id quod religuis continetur, Peppa, Vol. TT. no. 677, ct son, Commandinas eition of 1660, m. 251 Literally, "Moreover, he (Apollonius) says that the problem of the focus related to three or four Tines was not entirely solved by Esc, as that atther e hime self, nor any ane else has been able t solve it completely, nor were they able to ‘add anything at all to those things whick Euclid had written, by means of the ‘onic sections only which had been demonstrated before Buel” Deveartes arived at the solution of this problem four years before the publication of hi geometry, after spending five of sbe weeks on it See his letters, Consin, Wol. VE, p. 294, and Vol. VI, p. 24. * ‘Giver as follows in the edition of Parpus by Hilts previously quoted: “Sed hie ad tres et quatuor Tineas locus quo magnopere gloristur simal adens et ‘gil eonseripsert gratiam habendain case, st se habe." ry Livre PREMIE 305 rolls linet ab uno & coder punto, ad tres lineas in datis'ane agulis refbe line ducantur, @ date fit proportio reflangalé Fontentiduabns duttis ad quadratum religue: pandbumn con ingie paftione datum [alidum locum , pc ef unarn ex tribus coincis{eBionibus, Et fi ad quatuor rotias lineas pafitione datasindacis angulislinee ducanturs @ reftanguls daabus dullis cancenti ad contentum duabus reliquis proportio data Jit: fimiliser punflum datum coni {oionem pofitione contine ‘get. Siquidemigiturad dues tantum lacus planus oftenfiss ef Quidfiadplores quam quatuar, punttum continget loo cos non aibuc cognites, fod lineas tentum diflas ; quales a= tem fut, vel quam habeant proprietatem, non conftats eorum nam, neque primam, & que manifefiffima videtur, compo~ uerunt olendentes utilemefe. propoftiones autemipfaram he fun. St abaliquo punto ad pofitione datas reftas lineas quin~ gue ducentur refte linee in datis angulis , 8 datafis propor= a alidi porallelepipedirettanguli, quod iribus dulfislineis continetur ad olidum parallelepipedum reftongulum , quod continetur reliquis duabus, G data quapiam linea, punttum poftions datamlineam continget. Siautem ad{ex, & date Jit propertio folidi tribus Hineis contenti ad folidam , quod ‘tribusreliguis contineturs rurfus puntbum continget pofitiane atom linear. Quod fiad plures quam fex, non adbuc babent dicere,en data fie proportio euinfpia contenti quatuar linteis “vad id qzod reliquiscontinetur, quoniom non eft aliquid cone tentumn pluribus quam tribus dimenfionibus. Ouie vous priederemarquer en paffant, que le feru- pale, qzefaifoient les anciens d'vfer des termes del'A~ richmezique enlaGeometrie, quine pouuoit proceder, oq que 1»306 La Geomerrie, que de ce qu’ils ne voyoient pas affés clairement leus rapport, canfoit beaucoup d’obleurité, & d’embaras, en Jafagon dontits sexpliquoient, car Pappus pourfuit en ceteforte, Acquiefeunt autem his, qui paulo ante talia interpretaté fient. neque unum aliquo patto comprebenfiilefgnifecontes quod bis continetur.Licebis auté per coniunttasproportiones hac, & dicere, 8 demanftrare univerfe in diftis proportion’ dus, atquebisin bunemodum. Si ab aliquo puntto ad pofi- tione datarretlaslineas dacantur rette lines in datis ange lis, & data fe proportio coniuntta ex eo, quam habet wna due Horumadunam, & altera adalteram,@ aliaad alia, reu Uguacad datarelineam, f fine feptem; fiveraotte, & religua ‘ad reliquam: punttum continget poftione dati lineax. Et Similiter quotewmgue fit impares vel pares multitudine, ‘umn bec, ut dixi loco ad quatuor lineas re(pandeant, nullum ‘igitur pofverantita ut linea nota fit, Sc. Ce Laqueftion donc qui auoit eftécommencee a refou- dre par Euclide, & pourfiuie par Apollonius, fans avoir eftéachende par perfonne,,eftoit telle, Ayane trois on quatre ou plas grand nombre de lignes droites données Parpofition; premicrement on demande vn point, da- quelon puiffe tirerautant d'autres lignes droites, vane fur chafcune des donnees, qui fagent auec elles des angles donnés, & que le reétangle contenu en deux de celles, gui feront ainfitirées d’vn mefme point, ait ta propor- tion donnée anec le quarré de la troificfine, s'il n’yena que trois; oubienauec lerectangle des deux autres, s'ily enaquatrejoubien,sily ena cing,que le parallelepipede compoféde trois aitla proportion donnée auec le paral lelepipede 2 quoniam non est aliguid contentum pluribus quam tribus dimensioni- us." Here I beg you to observe in passing that the considerations that forced ancient writers to use arithmetical terms in geometry, thus mak- ing it impossible for them to proceed beyond a point where they could see clearly the relation between the two subjects, caused much obseur- ify and embarrassment, in their attempts at explanation, Pappus proceeds as follows: “Aequiescunt autem his, qui paulo ante tala interpretati sunt; neque unum aliguo pacto comprehensibile significantes guod his continetur. Licebit autem per conjunctas proportiones hue, & dicere & demonstrare universe in dictis proportionibus, atque his in hue modum. Si ab aliquo puncto od pasitione datas rectas lineas ducantur recte Tinew in datis angut's, & data sit proportia conjuncta ex ea, quam habet wna ductorusn of unows, & altera ad alteravs, & alia ad aliom, & reliqua ad ddatarn lineem, si sint septem; si vera octo, & reliqua ad reliquam: punictusn continget positione datas lincas, Et similiter quoteumgue sint This nay be somewhat freely translated a8 follows: “The problem of the los renters ofr Ty aout which (Apa oats 0 poly, fing io eedt to the writer who has preceded ys of thts natures {i three [aight Ties are ten positon, and singh Tac be, draw ite one Sd fhe sim pout roskng given angles with the three given Itess and thee be iven the ratio ofthe rectangle contained hy two of the fine a0" dawn fhe gear of the ether, the point les an 2 sod joss given in poskion, namely, on or baat Tle Be drawn mal les wih four straight I “Again, ines be drawn mang given angles with four straight lines given fn positon and ifthe recangle of two of the tes so drawn ieart's given ato 10 he rectangle of the other two} then, in lke manner, the pot lcs on 2 cone fection ‘given in postion. Tt has been shown that to o]y eo lines here corres ponds a plane foean. Bat i there be given more tan four Hea the potnt gene fate lee tet own up to the present te (hatin posse to determing by Sauron methods), but tocrely called ‘ines’, Tis hot leat what they are, OF ‘what their prperie, "One of them, not te fist ft the most manifest has been ‘aamined, and ths hes proved to be hint. (Paul Tannery, nthe Gcwsres de Descartes itera wit Descartes in his transletion of Papp. "He wastes a5 foliowa: Bt on wa fat a synhtae acne de ees gues mone ile svt JE 6 eu pa me rx cele ql scmblera fa pene ei plas nique) hhowaver are the propestions conceraing them if Fong gan Ca ae et ce een ate wh fe snl OE, i eel here Roa ig SORA ShPia Saber eter edu acerca SEES eh lla ate. et Wana de ae Sea ata iets Stats ie whanau a Rec US fan vig Alc coe Mee RN Se BS ERE CALAIS Oa Pace touted & toe EE Rois e's Sn yee Meth ae a EE Rea aimpares vel pares multitudine, cum hac, ut divi, loco ad quatuor lineas respondeent, sullum igitur posuerunt ita ut linea note sit, &e.* ‘The question, then, the solution of which was begun by Euclid and carried farther by Apollonius, but was completed by no one, is thi Having three, four or more lines given in position, itis first required to find a point from which as many other lines may be drawn, each making a given angle with one of the given lines, so that the reciangle Of two of the lines so drawn shall bear a given ratio to the square of the third (if there be only three) ; or to the rectangle of the other two (if there be four), or again, that the parallelepiped constructed upon ree shall bear a given ratio to that upon the other two and any given line (if there be five), or to the parallelepiped upon the other three (if there be six) ; or (if there be seven) that the product obtained by mul- tiplying four of them together shall hear a given ratio to the product of the other three, or (if there be eight) that the product of four of ‘them shall hear a given ratio to the product of the other four. Thus the question admits of extension to any number of lines, Then, since there is always an infinite number of different points satisfying these requirements, it is also required to discover and trace the curve containing all such points. Pappus says that when there are only three or four lines given, this line is one of the three conic sections, but he does nat undertake to determine, describe, or explain the nature of the line required" when the question involves a greater number of lines. He only adds that the ancients recognized one of them which they had shown to be useful, and which seemed the sim- Thi rather obscare pseage may be teanalaed ap follows: “For in this are gorend those who former merpreted thee things (atthe dmenaons of 2 Fagor cant creed thre) intat thy maintain tat a gure at contained by these tines isnot compretensie in any way This i permissive, Mower, both to 2a tana grea by ie Knd of etry made mae fers Effron any point seat nese draw makin biven ables wily srg ie eien tm postion; and if thee be get rato compounded of them, tat [e'thetratio tht one of ts ines drawn as tor ome, the cond fia to. 2 send, the hid to atid ad son to te ve line i the he seven tne, or i there Be eight lige, Of the last (oa tant, the point He onthe ner at areeven fe Dewi A at alee ny 6 ee re nis te BVT have sald, crtespond tm postion fo the four Jess Ueretove they have not fx fort any tho fo tat line maybe now.” “The mening ofthe passage $oncayy ffm that whith follows in he tet Pane ‘Sati contin produc, Sue's hive thatthe sve featore of the work of Descartes may be sald to begin Hc in 19 onthe oposite pace. 2 Livre Premier gore Ielepipede compofédes deux quireftent, &¢d’yne antre ignedonnée. Onsiily enafix, que fe parallelepipede cOpofé detroisait ln proportion donnée auecle paralle- Iepipededestroisautres. Ousiily enafept,que ce qui fe prodvift lorfqu’on en multiplie quatrel'yne par 'autre, aitlaraifon donnée auec ce qui fe produit pat fa multi- plication des trois autres, & encore d’vne autre ligne donnée; Ousiilyenahuit, que le produit de la multi« plicationde quatreait la proportion donnee aueclepro= duit des quatre autres. Et ainfi cete queftion {© peut eftendre atout autre nombre de lignes. Pais a caufe qu'il y2 toufiours vneinfinitéde diners poins qui peuuent fa- tisfaire ace qui eft icy demande, il eft aufly requis de conmoiltie, & de tracer la ligne dans laquelle ilsdoiuent tousfe trouuer, & Pappus dit que lorfqu'll n'y a que trois ou quatre lignes droites données, c’eft en yne des trois feétions coniques. mais iln'entreprend point de Ia determiner, nyde la deferire. non plus que d’expli- quer celles ou tous ces poins fe doiuent trouuer, lorfque Ia quettion eft propofée en vn plus grand nombre de li gnes. Seulement ilaioufte que les anciens en auoient imagindrnequ’ilsmonftroient yeftreveile , mais qui fembloitla plus manifefte, & qui n’eftoit pas toutefois la premiere. Ce qui m'a dong occafion d'effayer fi pat la tnethodedontie me fers on peut aller aufly loin quis ontefté. ‘Et premierementi’ay connu que cete queftion n’eftant Retponte propoféequ’en trois, ou quatre,ou cinqlignes , on peut {/29°% touliours trouuerles poins cherches par la Geometric Tapp fimple, 'eftadire en ne fe feruant que dela reigle scdu a Qq2 compas, 2308 La Grometriz compas, ny ne faifant ancre chofe, que ce qui adefinefte, dit, exceptdfeulement lorfqu'll ya cing lignes données, fi cllesfont toutes paralleles. Auguel cas, comme aufly orfquela queftion eft propofée en fix,ou 7, ot 8, ou 9 fignes, on peuttoufiours trouver les poins cherchés par la Geometrie des folides; c'eft a dire en y employant quelqu’vnedestrois feétions coniques, Except feule~ ment lorfquiilyaneuflignes donnces, fielles font toutes paralleles. Auquel cas derechef, & encore en s0,t1,r2, 01173 lignes on pent trouuer les poins cherchés par le moyen d’vne ligne courbe qui foir d’vndegrd plus com- polée queles{eétions coniques, Excepté entreize fiel- es fonttoutes paralleles, auquetcas, &en quatorze,rs, 36, &cx7ily faudra employer vne ligne courbe encore d'va degre plus compofva que Ia precedente & aint aV'infini. Puisiay tround auffy, que lorfqu’il nya que trois ou quatre lignes données, les poinscherchésfe rencontrent tous , non fenlement en I'vnedes trois feétions coni- ques, mais quelquefois auffy en la circonference d'va cercle, ou en yneligne droite. Et que lorfquil yena cing, oufix, oufept, ouhuit, tous ces poins fe reacon- trent en quelque vne des lignes, qui fontd’'vn degre plus compofées que les fections coniques , & ileftimpoflible denimaginer aucune qui ne foit vtile a cete queltion; anais ils penuent auffy derecheffe rencontrer en vne fe~ tion conique, ou en vacercle, ou en vne ligne droite. Et ily en aneuf, ou y0,0u11, ou r2, ces poins fe ren contrent en ¥ne ligne, quinepeut eftre que d'vndegré plus compofée que les precedentes; mais toutes celles ui a plest, and yet was not the most important.®™ This led me to try to find out whether, by my own method, I could ga as far as they had gone.” First, [discovered that if the question be proposed for only three, four, oF five lines, the required points can be found by elementary geometry, that i, by the use of the ruler and compasses only, and the spplicaticr of those principles that I have already explained, except jn the case of five parallel lines, Tn this case, and in the cases where there are six, seven, eight, or nine given lines, the required points can always be found by means of the geometry of solid loci." that is, by using som: one of the three conic sections. Hore, again, there is an exception in the case of nine parallel lines. For this and the cascs of ten, clever, twelve, of thirteen given Fines, the required points may be found by means of a exrve of degree next higher than that of the conic sections. Again, the case of thirteen parallel lines must be exchided for which as well as for the cases of fourteen, fifteen, sixteen, and seventcen lines, a curve of degree next higher than the preceding must be used; and s0 on indefinitely. Next, Thave found that when only three or four lines are given, the required points lie not only all on one of the conic sections but some- times on the cireumference of a circle of even on a straight Hine. ‘When tere are five, six, seven, or eight lines, the required points lie on a curve of degree next higher than the conic sections, and it is impossible to imagine such a curve that may not satisfy the conditions of the problem; but the required points may possibly lie on a conic section, a circl oF a straight line. If there are nine, ten, eleven, or the required eurve is only one dogree higher than the pre- ceding, but any such curve may meet the requirements, and so on to infinity, twelve fin See fines 5-10 from the foot of page 23. ‘1 Desates gives here a briet summoary of his solution, which he amplifies later ‘This term was commonly applied by mathematicians of the seventeenth cen= tury tothe farce conic sections, while the straight Fine and circle were called plane loci and ote exeves linear loci See Fermat, Ieegoge ai Locos Pianos ef Soldos, Toulouse, 170 "Degenerate or limiting forms of the conic setias. aFinally, the first and simplest curve after the conie sections is the one generated by the intersection of a parabola with a straight line in a way to be deseribed presently T believe that I have in this way completely accomplished what Pappus tells us the ancients sought to do, and I will try to give the demonstration in a few words, for I am already wearied by so much writing Let AB, AD, EF, GH, ... be any number of straight tines given in postion," and lt it be required to find a point C, from which straight lines CB, CD, CF, CH, ... ean be drawn, making given angles CBA, CDA, CFE, CHG, ... respectively, with the given fines, and "Te should be noted that these fines are ven in position but notin Tength. ‘They thus Decome lines of reference or endriinate axes, and accordingly they play avery important part in the development of analytic geometry. Tn this con- nection we may quote as follows: “Among the predecessors of Desrartes we feckoa, besides Apollonia expecially Viet, Oreame, Cavalier Rohervaly and Ferma, the last the most ditingushed fn this Geld; but nowhere, even by Ferm, had any attempt boon made to refer several curves of diferent orders simultane: fusly to one system of cosrdinates, whieh st most possessed special significance for one of the curves. It is exactly this thing which Descartes systematically accomplished” Kl Fink, d Bri History of Motheoates trans. by Bemaa and ‘Smit, Chicago, 1808, p 29. Heath cals attention to the fact that “the essential difference between the Greek and the merden reathod is that the Grecks didnot direct their efforts to makeing the xed Iines of a Sure as few as pesibe, but rather to. expressing their equations etween aveas in a abort and simple x form as posible” For fur- ther discussion see D. E. Smith, Hulory of Mathematics, Boston, 1923-25, Vol. I, pp. S633] (hereafter referred to as Smith). Livre PREMIER. oe quifont d'endegrépluscompoféesy peauent fernir, sc ainfial'iafni. Au reftela premiere, 8-la plus imple de toutes aprés les fedtions coniques, eft celle qu’on peat deferirepar Vinterfestion d'une Parabole, &ed’vne ligne droite, en la fagon qui fera tantoft expliquée. En forte que ie pene anoit entierement fatisfait a ceque Pappus nous dit anoie efte chetchéen cecy parlesanciens, &cietafcheray d’en mettre la demonttrationen pen de mots.caril m'ennaie deGad'en tanteferire. Soieat AB, A D, EF, GH, &c. plufieurs lignes don- neesparpofition, & qu'il falle trouuer vn point,comme C, duquel ayant tiréd'autres lignes droites far les don- nées, comme CB, CD, CF, &CH, en forte que les anglesCB A,C DA, CFE, CHG, &c, foient donnés, Qq & 2bie ATE gestion ereple 340 La Gromerrie Scque ce quieft produit parla maltiplication d'vne par tie de ces lignes, foie efgal a ce qui eft produit parla mul- tiplication desautres, onbien qu'ils ayent quelque anere proportiondonnée, car cela ne rend point la queftion, plus difficile. Premicrement ie fuppofe la chofe comme defiafaite, épourmedemellerde Ia c6fufion de toutes ces lignes, ie confidere I'ymedes donnees, & I'vne de celles qu'il "faut trouuer, parexemple A B, & CB, comme lesprin~ cipales, & anfqvelles ie tafche de rapporter ainfi toutes esautres. Quele fegment delaligne AB, quieftentre les poins A & B, foitriommé x. & que BC foit nommé 4g S& quetoutes les autres lignes données foient prolon- ‘gees, iufques ace qu'elles couppent ces deus, aul pro~ Tongees sil eft befoin, gc fielles ne lear font point paral- Iecles. comme vous voyesicy qu’elles couppentla ligne ABauxpoins A, E,G, & BC aux poinsR,S,T. Puis a caufequetous lesanglesdutriangle ARB font dounes, Iaproportion,quieftentre les cotds A B, & BR, eft aul fydonnde, sie lapofe commede x20, defagon qu’ AB eftant.x,R Bfert “> & latoute CR feray +> acanfe gue le point Btombeentre C & ar iR tomboit en- tre C & B,C R feroit y-- 56 CtomboitentreB &R, bs CRéeroit y+ Tout de mefine les trois angles dutriangle D R C font donnes, & par confequent aufly Japroportion quieft entre les coftés CR, & CD, queie pofecommede 3 e:de fagon que C Reftant y + “2 cD such thatthe product of certain of them is equal to the product of the reat, or at least such that these two products shall have a given ratio, for this candtion does not make the problem any more dificult. First, I suppose the thing done, and since so many lines are confus- ing, T may simplify matters by considering one of the given ines and ‘one of those to be drawn (as, for example, AB and BC) as the prin- cipal lines, to which I shall try to refer all the others, Call the segment of the lie AB between A and B, +, and call BC, y. Produce all the other given lines to meet these two (also produced if necessary) pro- vided none is parallel to either of the princpal fines. Thus, in the figure, the given lines cut AB in the points A, E, G, and eut BC in the points R$, 7. Now, since all the angles of the triangle ARB are known," the ratio between the sides AB and BR is known." If we let AB :BR—=s:b, since AB— x, we have RB== ; and since B lies between C and R™, we hve CRy +25 (Whe Ries beimeon Cand, CR is ae & and when C lies between Band R, CR is equal to—y +") ‘Again, the three angles of the triangle DRC are known," and there- fore the ratio between the sides CR and CD is determined. Calling this ratio 216 sce Ray 2, we hve CD—S 4 EE. Then, sine "© Sinse BC cots AB and AD under given angles Since the ratio ofthe sines of the oppose angles is known. "81 thie particular gute, of course le! Since CB and CD eut AD under given anglesthe lines AB, AD, and EF are given in position, the distance from A to Eis known, If we call this distance &, then EB—=& +; although EB —k—z when B lies between E and A, and E——B-} when E lies between A and B, Now the angles of the triangle ESB being given, the ratio of BE to BS is known, We may call this ratio 2:4, thy ds on hh dy , Then BS and 8 = 7+ 01 When Stes between B ahd and C we have CS-— "and when C fies between B and S fab wwe have CS + The angles of the triangle FSC are known, and hence, also the ratio of CS to CF, or ze, Therefore, pdeh 4 des i AREA Likewise, AG or 1 is given, and BG /—s. Also, in triangle BGT, the ratio of BG to BT, or «:f, is known. There- CF = fore, BT . In triangle TCH, the ratio of TC to CH, or 2g, is known," whence CH— 22+ fet = Jee We have csaytas jp tsb eypat-tar fd sini for he ater ese cnr below ne translation covers the first ight Tin e wate the first igi Hines 8 the orginal nage 312 (nage 32 ‘IT should be noted tat each ratio assumed has = as antecedent, a Livre Premier, Bir CD fer 2+. Apréscelapourcequeles lignes AB, A.D, &EF font données par poStion, ladiftence qui eft entre lespoins A & E eft avflydonnée, & fi onla nom me K, onaura Belgalak-x, maisce feroit k~ 2, f Je point Btomboit entre E & As8& -- k++ x, tomboit centre A&B. Et pourceque lesangles du triangle ESB font tous donnés, Ia proportion de BE a BS eftaully /donnde, & ic la pole comme 424 , fbienque BS eft dizde eyadbkde . AB48 ela route CS oft 2EOE", mais ce feroit Uadi-#* GlepointS tomboitentreB & Cs&rceferoit EMH AF & Ctomboit entre B & S. De plus les troigangles du triangle F § Cfont donnes, & en fuite la pro- aa La Gzomerris. proportionde CSACE, quifoitcomme de z2e, &la toute CFfera222"2""" pp mefine fagon AG queicnomme /eft donne, &BGelt 2 x’, & acaufe dutriangle BG T laproportion de BG 2 BT eft aully donnée, quifoit comme de x2 f2 &B T fera =, 82 CT 22 puisderechef la proportion de TCa CHeftdonnce, acaufedutriangle T CH, & lapofane comme de ¢8 g, on aura CH ao 282 */8!~fa*, Etainli vous voy¢s, queentel nombrede lignes don- néespar pofition qu’on puiffe auoir, toutes les ligues ti= rées dellus du point Caangles donne: fuiuant la teneur de la queftion , fe peauent touffoars exprimer chafcune partroistermes; dont!'vm eft compofetle la quantité in- connue y, multipliée ou diuifee par quelque autre connue; & autre dela quantité inconaue x, aufly mal- tiplice oudinifée par quelque autre connué ele trofiet= me d’vnequantité route connué, Excepté feulement elles font paralleles; oubienalaligne AB, auquel cas le terme compofédela quantité x feranul , oubienalali- gne CB, auquel cas celuy qui eft compoféde la quantité ‘y feranul, ainfi qu’ileft trop manifeftepour queie m'are= ‘feafexpliquer. Etpourlesfignes-F, &--, qui fe gnent Aces termes, ils peauent eftre changes en toutes les fagonsimaginables. “Puls vous voyésauifly, que muicipliant plafieurs de ceslignesl’vne par Pautre, les quanticés #&y, qui fe trouuent dans leproduit, n'y peauentauoir que chafeu- ne autantdedimenfions, qu'ily aen de lignes, aYexpli- cation 2 ‘And ths you see that, no matter how many lines are given in posi- tion, the length of any such line through C making given angles with 1¢ af which con- these lines can always be expressed by three terms, sists of the unknown quantity yy multiplied or divided by some known quantity ; another consisting of the unknown quantity © multiplied or divided by some other known quantity; and the third consisting of a known quantity. An exception must be made in the ease where the given lines are parallel either to AB (when the term containing » van- ishes), or to CB (when the term containing y vanishes), ‘This case is fo require further explanation. The signs of the terms may be ether -} or — in every conceivable combination." ‘You also see that in the product of any number of these lines the degree of any term containing + or y will not be greater than the num- whose product is found. ber of lines (expressed by means of and 9 ‘Thus, no term will be of degree higher than the second if two lines igher than the third, if there be be multiplied together, nor of degree three lines, and so on to infinity. Tha ia expression ofthe frm ax-:by Fe, where a, B are any rat yositve or negtne quate integral or fractal (9 2ersince is exenton Ronin ater) wit ttlowag problem wil serve a avery sil station: Given hee : cD rat Tes AB. CD. ER, laced tht AB i tant # nits from CD, and CD sunt 3 nts fom EF: seed to od point P sch that PLy PM, PN respectively, with the “ve deawn throurtt parallels, Thea PP PL.PN, , La PR=5, then PN =2y, PM = VEC +9), PL=y47, If PM*= PN. PL, wwe have [-Y3(9+3)]* =2y(9+7), whence the tie XY parallel fo EF and at a distance of 9 units from it Cf. Rabuel, p79. Depending, of cours, upon the relative postions of the given line. 9, ‘Therefore the pont P His on 3BFurthermore, to determine the point C, but one condition is needed, namely, that the product of a certain number of lines shall be equal to, or (what is quite as simple), shall bear a given ratio to the product of certain other lines, Since this condition ean be expressed by a single equation in two unknown quantities,"* we may give any value we please to either « or y and find the value of the other from this equation. It is obvious that when not more than five lines are given, the quantity x, which is not used to express the first of the lines can never be of degree higher than the second." Assigning a value fo y, we have stax +, and therefore = can be found with ruler and compasses, by a method already explained.” If then we should take successively an infinite number of different values for the line y, we should obtain an infinite number of values for the fine «, and therefore an infinity of different points, such as C, by ‘means of which the required curve could be drawn, ‘This method can be used when the problem concerns six or more lines, if some of them are parallel to either AB or BC, in which case "That ig an indeterminate eqation, “De plus, & cause que pour determiner le point C ily a eu'ne seule condition gai sit sequise 4 sqavoie que ce qu est produit pat fa matiptication d'un certain nombre de eos lignes sot gal, on (ce gui rest de rien phos malaise) ait la proportion donaee, A ce qui est produit par Ta multiplication des autres; om peut prendre 4 diseretion Tune des deux quanttez inconnuls ow y, & chercher Tautre par cette Equation.” Such variations in the tests of iftent eon are of no momen, bat ae ccs notice Pi Since the product of three lines bears a given ratio to the product of two others and a given line, na term can be of higher degree than the third, and there- fore than the secnd in See pages 15, et se9. Livre Premier. 333 cation defquelles elles fernent, qui ont eft¢ ainfi multi. plices: enforce qu’ellesn’anront jamais plus de deux di« ‘menfions,ence qui ne fera produit que par la maleipli- cation de deus lignes, ny plus detrois , ence quinefera produircue par la multiplicationdetrois, &ainfi ain fini. Deples, a caufe que pour determiner le point C, il S220 n'yaqu'vnefeulecondition qui foitrequife , AfGanoir que ce ‘que ce qui eft produicparla multiplication d’vn certain Freep” nombre deces lignes foit efgel, ou (cequi nett de rien pla lox plus malayf¢) ait la proportion donee , a ce quieft pro- fine duit parla muleiplication desautres, on peut prendre apropol difcretionl’'yne des deux quantitésinconnueswouy, & sigue. cherches lautre par cete Equation, en laquelle ilefteui- dene quelorfque la queftion n’eft point propoféeen plus decing lignes, la quantités quine fere point a Vexpref- fion delapremiere peut toufiours ay auoir que deux menfions. defaconqueprenant vac quantité connué poury, ilnerefteraque x 2-H ous ax on--bb. 8 ainfi onpourratrouner la quantité + anec la reigle &le compas,en lafacontantoft expliquée. Mefme preaant facceffigement infinies diuerfes grandeurs pour laligne Jo Onentronnera aufly infinies pourla ligne x,8ainfion ‘aura vneinfinitédediuers poins , telsqueceluy qui elt marqué C, par le moyen defquels on deferirala ligne courbe demandée. Ife peut faire auity, fa queftion eftant propofee enfix, ou plus grand nombre de lignes, ‘ily en aentreles don- nées, quifoient paralleles a BA, ou BC, quel'vac des deux quantités » ou y n'ait que deux dimenfions en Rr VEqua- 35314 La GEomETRIE FEquation, & ainfi qu’on poiffe trouuner le point C anec lareigle &cle compas. Mais aucontraite elles fout tou~ tesparalleles , encore quelaqueftion ne foit propofée qu’en cing lignes, ce point C ne pourra ainfi eftre trou ug, acaufe que la quantité « ne fe trouuanc point en tou- tel’Equation,ilne fera plus permis de prendre yne quan tité connué pour celle qui eft nomméey , mais ce fera elle qu'ilfandra chercher. Ee pource quelle aura trois di- menfions,on nelapourra trouner quien tirant Ia racine d'yne Equation cubique. cequi ne fe peut generalement faire fans qu‘on y employe pour le moins vine fection co- nique. Et encore quil y ait iufques a neuf lignes don- nées,pourviiqu’ellesne {oient point toutes paralleles, on peut tonfionrs faire quel'Equation ne monte que infques au guarrédequarré, an moyen dequoy on Ia peut anfly toufioursrefoudre parles feétions coniques, en a fagon queiexpliqueray cyapres, Et encore qu'il yen ait ing ques atreize on peut toufiours faire qu’elle ne monte que iufquesau quarréde cube. en faite de quoy on la peutrefondre parle moyen d’vneligne , qui n’eft que dv degré plus compofie queles fedtions conigues, en lafagon que expliquerayanfly-cy aprés. Et cecy eftla premiere partie de cequei’auois icy ademonftrer; mais auant queie paflé ala feconde il eft befoin que ie dic quelque chofe en general de la nature des lignes cour- bes, La either « oF y will be of only the second degree in the equation, so that the point C can be fond with ruler and compasses On the other hand, if the given lines are all parallel even though a ‘question should he praposed invalving only five Tine the point C can- not be found in this way. For, since the quantity + does not occur at all in the eq tion, it ie no longer allowable to give a known value to It is thea necessary to find the value of 9." And since the term in y will now be of the third degree, its value can be found only by finding the root of a cubic equation, which cannot in general be done without the use cf one of the conic sections. And farthermore, if not more than nine lines are given, not all of them being parallel, the equation can always be so expressed as to be of degre: not higher than the fourth, Such equations can always be solved by means of the conic eections in a way that I shall presently explain, Again, if there are not more than thirteen lines, an equation of degree lution by ‘means of a curve just one degree higher than the conic sections by a not higher than the sixth can be employed, which admits o method to be explained presently ‘This completes the first part of what I have to demonstrate here, but it is necestary, before passing to the second part, to make some general statemen:s concerning the nature of curved lines '°1 That i,t solve the equation for 3 See page 84 1 See me 107 (1TH s line of reavning tay be estended indefinitely. Briefly, it means that for every to lines introduced the equation becomes one degree higher and the curve becanes correspondingly more complexBOOK SECONDGeometry BOOK II Ow tHe Narore oF Corvin Lines TE aie wore familiar withthe fact thatthe problems f gon ‘may be divided into three classes, namely, plane, solid, and linear problems." This is equivalent to saying that some problems require only circles and straight lines for their construction, while others require a conic section and still others require more complex curves. Tam surprised, however, that they did not go further, and distinguish between different degrees of these more complex curves, nor do I see why they called the latter mechanical, rather than geometrical." If we say that they are called mechanical because some sort of instru- ment™ has to be used to describe them, then we must, to be consistent, "CE. Pappas, Vol, p. 55, Proposition 5, Bask III: "The ancients consid zed three clases of reometric probleme, whieh ey called plane, solid. and Tinezt ‘Those which ean be delved by meu of straight lines and circumferences of circles ae called plane proSlems, since the lies or curves by which they are solved have their origin ima plane, Dut problems whose spltions are obtained by the wie of fone oF more af the conic seuions are called sold problems, for the surfaces of solid Figures (conical surfaces) have to be used.” ‘There remain. a thid class which & led ear because nthe “ines! Un thove 1 have just described, having diverse Shd'more involved origins are requited for their constaction.. "Such Imes are the fpirae, the quaratrie, the conch, atthe egsoid ll of which Rave many Impor= Unt properties” See aleo Pappus, Va yp. 27 Er abuel (p. 82) sugges dividing” problems into classes, the frst class to incue all problems that can be constricted by means of straight Tine, thats fives whose equations are of the first degree; the second tose tat reqice curves Ishose equations are of the second degree, ams, the sree and the cone see= Hong, ard 89 08 il Cf. Encrelopéie on Dictionnaire Reizonné des Sciences, dee Apts et des Meters or ane Sotité de gens de lesres mis em ordre ct publics for MT. Diderot, 21 pian! la Porte Mathematigne jor Mf, dtlewber?, Lageanne abd Bene, 1780 fn‘Wubstance a6 follows “Mechanea! is a mathematical tora designating 4 cOn- EHraston not geomefri, that is that cannot be accomplished by geometric curves, Sich are constructions deneidiig upon the quadrature of the cre "The term, mochantcal curve wat oeod by Descartes to designate s curve that canna’ "expect y ak sca ettin®” ie and others call thom "= "Machine.” ” Livre Sgconp. 385 LA GEOMETRIE. LIVRE SECOND. De la nature des hgnes courbes. LE® anciens ont fore bien remargud , qu'entre les ‘Problefines de Geometrie, les vnsfont plans , lesan _Queles tresfolides, sclesautreslineaires, eft adire, que les wns fi peunentefire conftruits, ennetragant que des lignes on, 6Probably the real explanation of the refusal of ancient geometers to accept curves more complex than the conic sections lies in the fact that the first curves to which their attention was attracted happened to be the spiral," the quadratrix," and similar curves, which really do belong only to mechanies, and are not among those curves that T think should be inchided here, since they must be conceived of as described by two separate movements whose relation does not admit of exact determination, Yet they afterwards examined the conchoid,”™ the cissoid,!™ and a few others which should be accepted ; but not knowing ‘much about their properties they tools no more account of these than of the others. Again, it may have been that, knowing as they did only a little about the conic sections’ and being still ignorant of many of the possibilities of the ruler and compasses, they dared not yet attack a matter of still greater difficulty. I hope that hereafter those who are clever enough to make use of the geometric methods herein suggested will find no great difficulty in applying them to plane or solid problems. I therefore think it proper to suggest to such a more extended line of investigation which will furnish abundant opportunities for practice. Consider the lines AB, AD, AF, and so forth (page 46), which we may suppose to be described by means of the instrument YZ. This instrament consis is of several rulers hinged together in such a way that ‘YZ being placed along the line AN the angle XYZ ean be increased or decreased in size, and when its sides are together the points B, C, D, E, F,G Hall coincide with A ; but as the size of the angle is increased, 't See Heath, History of Greck Mathemotice (hereafter referred toas Heath) Cambridge, 2 vols, 1921.” Also Cantor, Porlesuagen ber Geschichte der Mothe- snatik, Leiotg, Vol. T (2), 0 263, and Vol. TT'(1), pp. 705 and 781 hereafter referred to a8 Castor) 11 See Heath, 1, 225; Smithy Vol Th, pp. 300,305. "1 See Heath, T, 238,286; Smith, Vol TI, p. 258. See Heth, 1,264; Smith, Vol. If, 314 (They really knew much more than would be infereed from this statement In this connection, see Taylor, Ancient and Medern Geometry of Conics, Cam bridge, 1881 “ ( Livre Szconp. ar woir celles quieftoient plas compofées que les eétions coniques, eft que les premieres quils ont confiderdes, ayant par hafard efté la Spirale, la Quadracrice,, & fem blables, quin’appartienent veritablement qu’aux Me- chaniques, &nefont pointdunombre de celles que ie penfe denoiricy eftrereceues, acanfe qu'on tesimagine deferites par deux moauemens fepares, & qui nvont en- treeoxaucun raport qu‘on puiffe mefiirer exaétement, bienquilsayent apres examin la Conchoide,, la Ciffoi- de, & quelque peu d'autres quien font, toutefoisacau- fe ‘quils n’one penteftre pas affés remarqué leurs pro- prietds, ils nen one pas fait plusd'eftat que des premie- res, Oubien cleft que voyant , qu’ilsne connoiffoient encore, que peu de chofes touchant les feétionsconi- ques, & qu'illear enreftoit mefime beaucoup, touchant ce qui fepeut faire auecla reigle & lecompas , quils ignoroient, ils ont creu ne deuoir pointentamer de ma- tiere plas difficile. Mais pourceque fefpere que d’orena- ant ceux qui auront 'adreffe de fe feruirdu calculGeo~ metrigne icy propofé, ne trouueront pas afer dequoy arelfer tonchant|es problefmes plans, ou folides; ic croy qu'il eft a propos que ic lesinuite a d'autres re- cherches, otils ne manqueront iamais d’exercice, — — Voyésleslignes AB, AD, AF, & femblables quese fappole anoir efté deferites par Yayde de l'inftrument YZ, quieltcompofé de plufieurs reigles tellement ioin- tes, gre celle qui eft marquee YZ eftant areftée far la ligne & N,on peut ounrir & fermer VangleXYZ; &que lorfqu'ileft tout fermé , les poins B, C, D, F,G, Hfont tous aifemblé au point A ; mais qua mefare qu’on Rr3 Toaure, 46318 La Gromernre. z v Touure, la reigleB C, quieft iointe aangles droits anec X Yau point B, pouffevers Z lareigle CD, qui coule far¥ Zen faifant toufiours desangles droits auec elle,8 C Dpouile D #, quicoule tourde mefine fur ¥ Xen de- meurant paralleleaB C,D E pouffe E FEF poulle FG, cellecy pouffe G H. & onen pentconcenoie vne infinite autres’, qui fe pouffent confequutiuement en mefme fagon, 6edont les vnes facent toufiours les mefmes an= glesauec YX, &lesautresauec YZ. Or pendant qu'on ouureainfifangle X ¥Z,le point B defcritlaligne AB, quieftvncercle, gles autres poins DF, H, ow fe font les interfeétions desautresreigles, defcriuent d'autres Jignescourbes AD, AF, AH, dont les dernieres font par ordre plus cépofees que la premiere, &ccellecy plus quele cercle. mais iene voy pas ce qui peatempefcher, qu’onne concoiueaufly nettement , & autly diftingte- ment la defcription de cere premiere, que du cercle, ou du 6 the ruler BC, fastened at right angles to XY at the point B, pushes toward Z the ruler CD which slides along YZ always at right angles Th like manner, CD pushes DE which slides along YX always parallel to BC; DE pushes EF; EF pushes FG; FG pushes GH, and s0 on. ‘Thus we may imagine an infinity of rulers, each pushing enother, half of them making equal angles with YX and the rest with YZ. ‘Now ai the angle XYZ is increased the point B describes the curve AB, which is a circle; while the intersections of the other rulers, namely, the points D, F, Hl describe other curves, AD, AF, AH, of which the latter are more complex than the first and this more complex than the circle, Nevertheless T's the first™ cannot be conceived as clearly and dist no reason why the description of netly as that of the circle, or at least as that of the conic sections; ar why that of the sec- fond, thiei,”" or any other that can be this described, cannot be as clearly conceived of as the first: and therefore T see no reason why they should not be used in the same way in the solution of geometric problems!" That is, AD. 0That is) AP and AH. ©The eqsations of there cerves may be obtained as follows: (1) Lat YASYB =a, YC=s, cD Also YD a; then 2 2, whence 2= 2). @) Let YD, whence $75 therefore the equation of AD is =#—ot( YA=YB=0, YE=s, EF=y, Fos Then s:9= Also #1 YD=YD: YC, whence [But YD : ¥C= YC : @ and therefore ‘Josie oty2, Thus we get, asthe equation of AF, Fa (9) Inthe sme way, ican be shown thatthe canton of ABT it athyt or Sates. sata y94 See Rabue, p. 107 ” wad) > rete ak (cheat) mee teE could give here several other ways of tracing and conceiving a series of curved lines, each curve more complex: than any preceding fone,™ but T think the best way to group together all such curves and then classify them in order, is by recognizing the fact that all points of those curves which we may call “geometric,” that is, those which admit (of precise and exact measurement, must bear a definite relation™ to all points of a straight line, and that this relation must be expressed by means of a single equation.” If this equation contains no term of hhigher degree than the rectangle of two unknown quantities, or the square of one, the curve belongs to the first and simplest class," which contains only the circle, the parabola, the hyperbola, and the ellipse; bbut when the equation contains one or more terms of the third or fourth degree™ in one or both of the two unknown quantities (for it requires two unknown quantities to express the relation belween two points) the curve belongs to the second class ; and if the equation con- tains a term of the fifth or sixth degree in either or both of the unknown quantities the curve belongs to the third class, and so on indefinitely (Cu erode en li componées pr degres& inn” The Presch comtatioy nthe fn show fw tats se ret eos NET tn evar xo ha ec to il of the curve is known. ane Ear iC yl be scoped a once at ths stant coins the finden conc aay geome, SD premier pls Hinge gens” an expression sot sow respi, row anderson the ode or gee ofa pans save te retest bor Of poh nich ean beet hy ay arity Tes whle he cies thereto omg of rss ates be ea fo fam ay asaya he pane 5 Grote tthe tae ston of ie our dere nay Be tener at oe Ofte td dee "thas Desc inden sch omen yy, quia'y it | | thatisn' Vile Pour quelque nombre delignes, giandelle Maisil faut icy plus particulierement queie determi: pole ne, & donnelafagon de trouuer laligne cherchee ; qui arets ferten chafque cas, lorfqu'il ny aque 3 ou 4lignes droi- a tes 8 complicated than many curves of the same cas, cannot be placed fn the ist elaca™ een, te demonstrate the soliton whch T have areaay gen of te probs Teo of Papgus. For, fst, Thave shown that when there are only tres Gr Tour ls the equation which serves to determine the required points is of the second gree, Tt follows thatthe curve containing these pints must belong to the frst cas, since sich aa equation xpress th relation between all points of carves of Class Tad al bouts of «fined stsght line, When there are not more than eight ven tines the eqution is at most 2 bigundraie, and therefore the Felting curve belongs to Clase Tl or Cass 1. When there aze ot Imo than velve given tines, the equation is of the sith degre or Tower and therefore the required eure blogs to Clas IIT of & lower class nd so on for other eve, Now, since each of the given Hes ay have any conceivable posi tion, and since any change inte positon ofa ine produces a eorre- sponding cange inthe values ofthe known quaties as well eo the signs} and of the equation, ity lear that there is mo curve of Chass I that ray not furnish a sotion of this problem when i relates to fur ines, and that therein curve of Class TT that may not furnish a slution when the problem relates to eight lines, none of Class TE when it rates to twelve lines, ete. Tt follows that thee i no geometre curve whove equation can be obtained that may not be ised for sone number of lines" ee Teis now necesary to determine more particularly and to give the method of nding the curve required In each eas, for ony thee oF wmPae ‘ant Gite” Ct. Rabel,» 11S. “Pas tant Gtendve en teur ve var yriters of the seventeenth ‘8 Varionsmithods of tracing curves were used by entry. Anong thas there were at ony the ual med of pos 2 eave from ty equation and that of uring ing, pes, te asin the pom contrac: that of sing tion ofthe sige, tt luo the mtd of wing ied euers and th fone carve dram which fo derive another, se for exemple the usual method of feseriing the noid. CE, Rabuel, . 138 ‘8 Pat the eqestion of the requited lous. En sre qi aya paste tie coor a tombe sous fe cael & pise dire recat ex Geometric, qu a'y vol wile poor qulgve nombre de fignes” 2four given lines. This investigation will show that Class I contains only the circle and the three conic sections. Consider again the four lines AB, AD, EF, and GH, given before, and let it be required to find the locus generated by a point C, such that, # four Hines CB, CD, CF, and CH be drawn through it raking given angles with the given lines, the product of CB and CF is equal to the product of CD and CH. This is equivalent to saying chat if cBHy, csv t ber cD he, cF teh dex and cu eb fol for then the equation is pp [elas — dehs\y — (deat + ofge —begz) xy + bef glx — befos? eg Livrs Seconp. 35 cesdonnces, 8 on verra par mefme moyen que Ie pre- mier gen-edes lignes courbes n’en contient aucunes au- tes, queles trois feétions coniques, & le cercle, Reprenonsles gligues AB, AD, BF, & GH don nées cy deus, & qui fille crouer vne autre ligne , ea laquelleilfe rencontre vne infinité de poins els que C, duquel ayanctiréles4 lignes CB, CD, CF, & CH, a angles donnés, far les données, CB multiplide par CF, produiftune fommeefgalea CD, multipliée par CH. /celea dire ayant fait CB 2 y,C Dv 2E*t% CR VEE OF my EE feay, wee 9? eae SY equatid eft } a338 La Geometrie. aumoinsen fappofante xplusgrand que eg.cars'ileltoit moindre, il frudroit changer tous les fgues + & =. Et fila quantité ye trouuoit nulle, ou moindre que rienea cete equation, lorfqu’on afuppofd le point C en langle DAG, ilfandroitle fappoferaufly en angle DAB, oa BAR,ouRAG, enchangeantles lignes + &-- felon, quilferoit requisa ceteffeét. Et fien toutes ces 4 po- fitionslavaleurd’y fe trouuoie nulle la queftion feroie impoffible au cas propofé. Mais fappofons la icy eftre poflible, & pourenabregerlestermes, au lieu des quan- ids EEE eferinons 2m, ge au lien de err eae SEX efcrinons 5 32 ainfi nous ate 68% ny Phfste=tefes*, dont la raci- exe cges ponte? me 2 ESM ne tederechefpourabreger, auliende Paap ae a0 4 HH eferinonse, scan lien de2” "ft eclegee aes eferivons 2. car ces qhantités eftant coutes donnees, nous les poutons nommer comme il nous plaift. 8 ainfi nous auons yam eV mm + ox Live quidoit efttela longeur dela ligne BC, en laiffaae A B, ou xindetere minde. @ ‘SECOND 800K It is here assumed that ez is greater than eg; otherwise the signs +} ‘and — mut all be changed"! If y is zero or less than nothing in this ‘equation, the point C being supposed to lie within the angle DAG, then C must be supposed to lie within one of the angles DAE, FAR, or RAG, and the signs must be changed to produce this result. If for ‘each of these four positions yy is equal to zero, then the problem admits of no soliton in the case proposed. LLet us suppose the solution possible, and to shorten the work let ws debs 2 and begs ae ste dm inatend of a write 2 natend of E482, gna? natead of te Savinstend of es eg? 1 ‘Then we have ‘Fol. equal to 0, and 2uvn Again, for the sake of brevity, put —"2" + Saas Peta equalto4; for these quant Ba ptt caus Fy tor tose a represent them in any way we please. being given, we can > hen we ave pom tae apart EP, Tis mast give the length ofthe Hine BC eaving AB or endeter Whore greater than ethene! i postive and its sure sot fa thetor ral se a eae Doses uses “nvndce que nee for “nective” Desartes mention ere ony one rst fear the ther rot woud for sith second loc . vin tecr o Merce (Cousin, Vol VI, p17), Deserts syn “In regu toe prbien of Peps T hae given only the constraton and denon caer tow peg ia altho anapses = ineher word, I fave given the ZeeNiualnn as archi ii stactores, giving the specieatlons and Tesving {he a mans lor fo crpesters and masons” 6‘mined. Since the problem relates to only three or four lines, it is obvi- ‘outs that we shall always have such terms, although some of them may vanish and the signs may all vary. After this, T make KT equal and parallel to BA, and entting off on BC a segment BK equal to m (since the expression for BC contains ++ im; if this were mm, I should have drawn IK on the other side of AB," while if m were zero, I would not have drawn IK at all). Then. T draw IL so that IK : KL —=: 1; that is, 50 that if IK is equal to 7, KL is equal to Zs, In the same way T know the ratio of KL to IL, which T may call #4, so that if KL is equal to 2. IL is equal to Take the point between Zand, since the eatin contin ~ Es sithiwere +2, Tshonld take L between and C3 whi it 7 were equal to zero, I should not draw IL. This being done, there remains the expression Lewy tora from which to construct LC, It clear that if this were zero the point ‘o" Having obtained the value of BC algebraically, Descartes now proceeds to conse! the enh BC geomtraly, er by tera’ Fe ens BRFRL4LC. whic sonal to BR—LICELC which tore egal oe” ma Extyhetesbo 6 That take Ton CB prodseed "That is, on KB produced. C is not yet determined. Livre Seconn 337 minge. Et ileft euident que la queftion n’eftant pro- pofée qu‘en trois ou quatre lignes, om peut tonfiours auoirdetels termes. excep€é que quelques vns deux penuenteftrenuls, & que les fignes 4+ & -- penuent di- nerfement eftrechangés- Apréscelaie fais KT efgale & parallele aB A, en forte guellecouppedeB Clapartie BK e(gale & 7, & cale quily aicy +m, & ie fauroisadiouftée entirant cete ligne 1K deVautre cofte, s‘ily quoiteu--m; sciene!'a- rois pointdutouttirde, fi la quantite m eufteftd nullé. Paisietire aufly1L en forte que laligne IKeftaK L, comme Zeftan. ceft adire que 1K eftantw, KL eft Bt par mefme moyenie connois aufly Ja proportion qui 6