Leadership and Managing Change…Does Gender Make a Real

Difference in Egypt?
Dr. Dina Metwally, Helwan University, Cairo, Egypt

ABSTRACT

Success in organizational change is not only related to developing the best strategic and tactical plans, but it
is also related to the ability of organizational leaders to understand and lead the people implementing change.
Accordingly, differences in the way male and female leaders manage change is expected to have an impact on the
successful implementation of change as well as organizational performance. This study aims to explore gender
differences in leading the change process in a public sector organization. Focus is given to the impact of cultural
factors (organizational and national) on leadership styles of Egyptian males and females. Case study analysis was
chosen to achieve the four research objectives. Data collection methods included studying archival data, conducting
interviews at different levels of the organization and analysing observational data. The study concludes that
differences in leadership styles in the Egyptian culture are not solely related to gender. Leadership styles differ
among female leaders as well as among male leaders. Differences in leadership styles are related to a number of
interrelated factors that reflect the nature of the Arab culture such as; managerial level, age, previous work
experience and family commitments. Further, transformational leaders are found to be more effective in managing
change than transactional leaders.

INTRODUCTION

Success in organizational change is not only related to developing the best strategic and tactical plans, but it
is also related to the ability of organizational leaders to understand and lead the people implementing change. To
succeed, organizational change must align with organizational culture, values, people and behaviour to encourage
desired outcome. This alignment is not easy as most leaders focus on the development of action plans and ignore the
individuals responsible for designing, being immersed and executing the change.

The management of change has received tremendous attention from both academics and practitioners.
Research has been concerned with studying change models, tools, guidelines and factors that enhance successful
change implementation (e.g. Wilson, 1992; Kotter, 1996; Paton & McCalman, 2000; Hiatt & Creasey, 2003; Burnes,
2009; Cameron & Green, 2009; Hayes, 2010). A considerable amount of change research has been concerned with
studying the relationship between change management and leadership. This research focused on exploring leaders’
roles in implementing change programs successfully, as well as leadership characteristics needed for bringing about
change effectively (e.g. Kotter, 1990a; MacBeath, 1998; Beck & Cowan, 2005; Rowland & Higgs, 2008; Beerel,
2009; Andler, 2012; Todnem & Burnes, 2012). Likewise, gender issues in the workplace have faced a great deal of
scrutiny (e.g.Williams, 1992; Rowe & Snizek, 1995; Gefen, 1997; Dempster, 1998; Gambrell, 2008; Martinengo,
2009; Tripathi & Nag, 2010). Although not to the same degree as the research studying leadership and managing
change, there is a considerable amount of research that has studied the impact of gender differences in handling
change (e.g. Itzen & Newman, 1995; Venkatesh et al, 2000; Paton & Dempster, 2002; Tietze & Cohen, 2003;
Mullinge, 2009 ). However, there has been a little, or no research that combines gender, leadership and management
of change (Dempster, 1998; Paton & Dempster, 2002).

Researches in this field may be justified by the argument that identifying, managing and exploiting change
scenarios are key factors for corporate success. This in order to anticipate and manage the transition successfully
(Handy, 1996; Pascale et al, 1997; Drucker, 1998; Paton & Dempster, 2002). Given the increasing complexity and
pace of change, as well as leaders’ significant roles in managing change, any difference in the way people manage
change is expected to have an impact upon organizational performance (Paton & Dempster, 2002). As Handy (1994)
explains, organisations are looking for people who can multitask, are more interested in making achievements and
are more concerned with their positive influence on the business than their status in the organization.

Leadership has been closely related to the notion of change (Kan & Perry, 2004). Change literature
supports the idea that leadership is regarded as a process. This emphasises that leadership is interactive between
leaders and employees (Hackman & Johnson, 1996; Neubert, 1999; Yukl, 2002). Guest (1987) emphasizes the

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reciprocal influence process of leadership. The reciprocal influence process means that leaders influence employees
and employees influence leaders (Hunt, 1991; Parry, 1998; Bess & Goldman, 2001; Yukle, 2002). Research
emphasizes that leadership occurs within a group context (Hackman & Johnson, 1996; Zaccaro et al, 2001;
Ammeter et al, 2002) and involves setting directions and attaining goals (Ohman, 2000; Zaccaro & Banks, 2001). To
effectively manage change, leaders have to understand their own weaknesses and strengths. Also, they must
understand the extent to which their leadership styles are suited to the demands and characteristics of their
employees (Reardon et al, 1998). Leaders are responsible for the successful management of organizational change.
This is achieved through leaders’ abilities to develop successful action plans as well as understanding, leading and
motivating organizational employees responsible for implementing change. Thus, leaders are faced by the challenge
of moving from a bureaucratic system of managing people to a professional system marked by involving employees
in problem solving and decision making.

Accordingly, differences in the way male and female leaders manage change is expected to have an impact
on the successful implementation of change as well as organizational performance. Thus, it is worth asking the
questions: do male and female leaders manage change differently? If so, which leadership characteristics are more
effective in managing change? And, is it important to prepare organizational leaders to ensure successful change
implementation?

Differences among female and male leaders in managing change have been explored in Western culture.
Except for a few studies (e.g. Dickson et al, 2003; Whiteoak et al, 2006; Yahchouch, 2009), there has been a lack of
research exploring the differences in leadership styles of female and male leaders in an Arab culture, in particular to
gender, leadership and management of change. This study examines differences in the way Egyptian male and
female leaders manage change. The study examines whether differences in managing change are solely related to
gender. Also, the impact of national and organisational culture on leadership style and management of change is
explored. The main theme of this study is to explore gender differences in managing change and to introduce a
model for effective management of change in Egyptian culture. The study moves around three main elements and
their interaction: gender, leadership and management of change.

CHANGE IS ABOUT LEADERSHIP

Change programmes often fail due to poor management. Poor management may be reflected in poor
planning, monitoring and control, lack of resources and know how, and incompatible corporate policies and
practices (Gill, 2003). Most organisations regard change as a `quick fix`, which fails to address the implications of
change for the whole organization and causes unexpected and unacceptable disruption (Gill, 2003). Lack of
communication is one of the factors identified for failure of most change efforts (e.g. Hutt et al, 1995; Nemeth,
1997; Morrison and Milliken, 2000). Lack of communication, or inconsistent messages about change lead to
misunderstanding of the importance of change. This leads to rumours that depress organizational members and
affects their commitment to the change.

Lack of commitment to change is another factor responsible for failure of change programs. It is shown in
objections, unwillingness to consider alternatives or options, delaying tactics, or the use of `a hidden agenda`. Lack
of commitment may take place at different organizational levels including top management. Gill (2003) explains
that lack of commitment at top management level may be in different forms including; avoiding clear acceptance of
ownership, responsibility for success of change initiatives and an unwillingness to invest resources. Furthermore, top
management may be reluctant to take tough or risky decisions. They could also be unaware of the impact of their
behaviour on the acceptance of change at all levels. This might manifest itself as inconsistent messages to different
organizational levels and an absence of regular reviews of progress.

Resistance to change is a common phenomenon that leads to failure of change efforts. It is argued that the
most significant causes of resistance are emotional (Kuber, 1996). People may resist change because they dislike the
imposed changes or don`t surprises. They might also lack confidence in themselves and others. Fear of the
unknown, management being reluctant to deal with difficult issues, a shift in power and influence, lack of respect
and trust in people promoting change may also have an impact (Kotter, 1990a; 1990b; 1995; Sadler, 1997;
Mullingan & Barber, 1998; McLagan, 2002).

Thus, the social and emotional sides of change are the responsibility of `leadership`, while the technical
aspects are the responsibility of `management` (McLagan, 2002). McLagan (2002) points out that taking a purely

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rational and technical approach to change tends to lead to the false assumption that the organisation will naturally
absorb it. Kotter (1995a) states that change requires a new system, which in turn demands leadership. Sadler (1997)
explains that transformational change in British industry was due to inspirational leadership rather than good
management. Gill (2003) states:

“If change is a process of taking an organization on a journey from its current state to a
desired future state and dealing with all the problems that arise along the journey, then change
is about leadership.” (p.309)

Huber & West (2002) argue that organizational leaders are the key figure in organizational change.
According to Huber and West, leaders can either block or promote change as:

“They act as the internal change agent, overseeing the processes of growth and renewal.”
(2002, p.1072).

Brookfield (1995) identified three cultural barriers to successful management of change including; the
culture of secrecy, the culture of individualism and the culture of silence. Analysis of the three cultural barriers
indicates that they are closely related to `leadership`. The culture of secrecy is related to the fact that individuals are
born with insecurity, fear and unawareness of the world around them (Brookfield, 1995). Feelings of fear and
insecurity do not exist among employees only, rather they exist among leaders. If leaders are unaware of the reason
behind the change, what is changing and how change is to be implemented, they will suffer from feelings of fear and
insecurity. Accordingly, they will not be able to influence employees to accept the change and cooperate or change.
As Dimmock (1995) explains, managers may fail to influence their employees to accept certain areas of change
because of feelings of fear and insecurity. This is because managers may not be able to describe what is happening
in that situation.
The second cultural barrier is `individualism`. Although individualism has its place in the organization, it
may lead to personality clashes, unfair promotion and inequality (Brookfield, 1995). Nevertheless, transformational
leadership, a major requirement for successful management of change, emphasizes teamwork (Burns, 2003). The
third barrier is `silence`. Brookfield (1995) believes that individuals are reluctant to express their opinions. Because
of that they remain silent. This silence may be related to fear as employees could be afraid of the negative responses
of their managers (Leithwood et al, 1994). It is argued that the three cultural barriers reflect why change is resisted.
Minimizing, overcoming or dealing with change barriers is achieved through effective `leadership`. Thus, dealing
with change resistance and managing change effectively is all about `leadership`.
Leadership is the key to successful implementation of change. Leaders should give a message to their
employees that changes are implemented in a way that leads to better employees’ satisfaction and organizational
performance. In many organizations, there is a culture that understands major organizational achievements, but fails
to realize the importance of managing the methods in which success is gained. It is important for organizations to
realize that success is gained by successful management of people. This is the responsibility of leadership.
Research has discussed competences that leaders should have to manage change successfully. In this study,
the words competences, features, and characteristics will be used interchangeably. It is agreed that competences are
the cognitive, functional, social abilities and skills one can use for performing diverse tasks in different areas,
gaining required knowledge and achieving good results (Pagon et al, 2008). Many leadership competences have
been proven as mandatory for effective management of change (Thach & Thompson, 2007). These include vision,
goal setting, interpersonal skills, self-knowledge and technical competence regarding the specifics of the business in
which the leader works. Other competences include integrity/honesty, communication, developing others, result-
orientation, interpersonal skills, problem solving, decision making, political savvy, strategic thinking, customer
focus, team leadership, influence skills and innovation (Thompson, 1985; Spencer & Spencer, 1993; Guggenheimer
& Szule, 1998; Goleman et al, 2002; Laszlo, 2003; Trinka, 2004; Thach & Thompson, 2007).
Virtanen (2000) explored the generic features of leaders in the public sector. Virtanen presented a model of
three competence areas that the public leader needed to possess to handle change successfully. According to
Virtanen (2000), to manage change successfully, public leaders need three types of competences including;
cognitive, functional, personal and social abilities. Cognitive competences include control of general principles,
laws, theories and concepts (Medves, 2006). Also, cognitive competences include critical, divergent, strategic and
analytical thinking, in addition to problem solving and crativity (Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006).

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 Functional competences are qualifications and skills that an individual needs for every day problem solving
or to perform a concrete activity (Pagon et al, 2008). These include language, communication and technological
skills (IT), multicultural competences, personal development, decision making and career planning skills. Regarding
personal and social competences, they enable an individual to establish and maintain relationships with others. They
include self-direction, interpersonal, teamwork and mobilizing skills, compassion and integrity (Virtanen, 2000).

Successful management of change requires flexible leaders who adapt to new situations. A flexible
leadership style does not mean changing ones personality, however it involves the use of different tactics, depending
on the situation (Cohen, 1998). Flexibility is one of the core values of transformational leadership. It is argued that
successful leaders must be proactive and respond to change effectively. Further, successful leaders must be flexible,
capable of adapting to new conditions, open to change and willing to take risk (Kotter, 1990a; O’Toole, 1996). Such
leaders recognize that most work now involves integration rather than the division of diverse interests and skills
(Reardon & Rowe, 1998).

Different styles of leadership are needed to manage change successfully. In managing change, successful
leaders accept that they cannot have all the answers. Furthermore, they realize that they need to involve their
employees to obtain information that leads to better handling of change. They value the importance of employees’
communication and persuasion. These leaders are regarded as `information seekers` rather than `information
distributors` (Reardon et al 1998).

LEADERSHIP STYLE: DOES GENDER MAKE A DIFFERENCE?

The impact of gender differences on leadership has been widely discussed in the literature (e.g. Eagly &
Johnson, 1990; Eagly et al, 1992; Druskat, 1994; Appelbaum et al, 2003; Eagly et al, 2003; Kan & Parry, 2004;
Parker, 2005; Swanwick & McKimm, 2011). Marshall (1995) and Gordon (1991) suggest that management styles
differ according to gender differences. However, Gordon argues that successful women have aligned themselves
with prevailing male organizational cultures. In addition, Marshall (1995) argues that women had to change their
management style to have themselves and their change accepted. Marshall explains that women felt that to succeed
as change agents, they must adopt more male oriented styles that are regarded as aggressive and directive.

Research on gender differences argues that female leaders tend to be more concerned with the welfare of
other people rather than male leaders. It is argued that male leaders tend to focus more on goal achievement (Eagly,
1987; Eagly & Johnson, 1990; Gibson, 1993). Conversely, female leaders are regarded as visionaries, more
collaborative and less authoritative (Vinnicombe, 1987). Rosener (1990) found that female leaders tend to
encourage participation, share power, energise and enhance the self-worth of others. However, male leaders viewe
their job in transactional terms and rely heavily on formal authority. However, Rosener (1995) argues that women
tend to prefer the interactive style. However, women tend to copy male leadership styles because of the implicit
assumption that the `right or best` way to run an organization is the male way.

Thus, there is evidence from literature that female leaders tend to be more transformational, interactive and
committed. Precisely, female leaders encourage involvement, participation and empowerment of individuals to
commit to organizational change (e.g.; Burns, 1978; Mintzberg, 1989; Druskat, 1994; Alimo-Metcalfe, 1995;
Rosener, 1995; Alimo-Metcalfe and Alban-Metcalfe, 2001; Eagly et al, 2003; Ahn & Dornbusch, 2004; Fernandez
& Rainey, 2006; Bridges, 2009; Drucker, 2009). On the other hand, male leaders are more transactional as; they
don’t excite, transform, empower or inspire people to focus on the interests of the group or organisation. Given the
argument that change is a group process, it is worth asking the question: Are male leaders more effective in
managing change than female leaders?

Hinkin & Tracey (1999) studied the leadership behaviour needed for successfully managing change. They
argue that successful management of change requires managers to communicate a sense of where the organisation is
going, developing the skills and abilities of employees, encouraging innovation and employees participation in
problem-solving. It is argued that the characteristics identified by Hinkin and Tracey (1999) are associated with
transformational leadership. Meanwhile, the need for transformational leadership as a prerequisite for successful
change management has been widely emphasised in literature (e.g. Kanter, 1991; Mintzberg, 1994; Pascale et al,
1997; Boddy & Paton, 1998; Paton & McCalman, 2000; Ahn & Dornbusch, 2004; Fernandez & Rainey, 2006).

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 Given the emphasis on transformational leadership to manage change successfully, as well as classifying
female leaders as transformational, it is possible to speculate that women could manage change better than male
leaders. This study examines whether Egyptian male and female leaders manage change differently.

COMPANY BACKGROUND

As a part of a comprehensive program for restructuring the Egyptian healthcare sector, a change project
was introduced to the Egyptian pharmaceutical sector. This project focused on The Central Administration for
Pharmaceutical Affairs (CAPA) and aimed at introducing new human resources management strategies (HRMS) to
fulfil requirements of international organizations such as, the World Health Organization (WHO) and to strengthen
institutional components of the Egyptian pharmaceutical sector.

CAPA is one of the main organizational units of the Ministry of Health (MOH). CAPA operates as the
operational arm of the MOH to regulate and monitor different aspects of the drug sector. Apart from food products,
its responsibility extends to cover all human and animal health care products, including drugs, medicinal items and
insecticide. CAPA has work relationships with a wide spectrum of organizations, such as medicine and drugs
manufacturers, importers, exporters, and scientific bureaus (CAPA`s Year Book, 2008). CAPA was faced by a
number of challenges that raised the need for change. This included:
The increased number of establishments operating in the pharmaceutical sector (factories, wholesalers, pharmacies).
This has increased pressure on CAPA staff to be able to compete with other operating parties.
The increase in new product introductions (from new factory establishments, increased importation etc) has increased
CAPA's workload.
High tension in the relationship between CAPA and other pharmaceutical organizations due to an increase in the
volume of expired goods and counterfeit drugs.
A new emphasis on General Management Practice (GMP) & General Development Practice (GDP) in inspection at
CAPA.

This has raised the need to design a new, tailored human resource management strategy (HRMS) to
overcome these obstacles.

RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

Four research objectives have driven this study. The first objective was to better understand the leadership
processes operating within a pharmaceutical public sector organisation that undergoes organizational change. The
second was to explore gender differences in leading the change process. The third objective was to illustrate the
impact of cultural factors on Egyptian male and female leadership styles. The fourth objective was to identify
leadership characteristics required for effective management of change in an Egyptian public sector organization.

METHODOLOGY

Case study analysis was chosen to achieve the four research objectives. Case study as a research strategy
comprises an all-inclusive method with a logical structure incorporates specific approaches to data collection and
analysis (Stoecker, 1991; Yin, 1993; 1994; Bryman & Bell, 2003). The case study was useful in providing an in-
depth analysis of issues related to leadership, gender and management of change. Further, it was useful in answering
`how`, `why` and exploratory `what` questions related to change. These are addressed by Yin (1981) as advantages
of case study research.

Data collection & analysis

Data collection methods included studying archival data, conducting interviews at different levels of the
organization and analysing observational data. The literature regarding managing change, leadership and gender
differences was used as a backdrop to data collection. In case study research, using different sources of data
collection is known as `triangulation`. Triangulation reduces the likelihood of misinterpretation of findings
(Silverman, 1993; Flick, 1998; Gillham, 2000) and enhances the internal validity of the study (Yin, 1994).

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with top level leaders, middle level leaders and middle level
employees. Although interviews had a general guideline to follow, being semi-structured, the interview allowed for
an exchange of thoughts and ideas between the interviewer and interviewees. Further, it allowed interviewees to
express themselves freely. This was useful in raising issues that were not covered by the interview guideline. The

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interview guideline focused on an assessment of leadership style and the relationship between leaders and their
employees with respect to management of change. The interview covered a number of points that were raised in the
literature (e.g. Kotter, 1990a; 1990b; 1995; Virtanen, 2000; Gill, 2003; Svetlik, 2005; Medves, 2006; Fernandez &
Rainey, 2006; Pagon et al, 2008), such as:

A. Leadership competences:
Interpersonal skills
Teamwork skills
Decision making / problem solving.
Personal development

B. Transactional vs. transformational leadership:

Communication styles
Commitment to change
Willingness to consider alternatives
Willingness to invest resources
Willingness to take risk
Awareness of the impact of leaders’ behaviour on the overall change impact
Regular review of progress
Raising people’s confidence
Reducing people’s fear
Flexibility in managing/implementing change
Participation, involvement, empowerment

20 interviews were conducted with managers, including 5 interviews at the top level and 15 interviews at
the middle level. This included a full coverage of managers at both levels. Interviews at the top level ranged between
90 minutes to 2 hours. Interviews at the middle level ranged between 2 to 3 hours. middle-level managers were
interviewed as leaders as well as subordinates of top-level managers. Interviewing subordinates was needed to gain
an in-depth understanding of the impact of leadership style on managing change. Thus, semi-structured interviews
were conducted with middle level employees to explore issues related to the way leaders manage change in CAPA.
This included 30 interviews. For each general manager 2 to 3 subordinates were interviewed. Each interview ranged
from 40-60 minutes.

At the beginning of the research phase, the researcher thought to use questionnaires for data collection from
middle level employees. The aim was to save time and to combine quantitative and qualitative data to enhance the
validity of the research. However, employees’ responses to questionnaires were zero. After spending 2 months
trying to get responses to the questionnaires, the researcher realised that it was important to spend time with each
employee to establish rapport. The researcher used to go the organisation on a daily basis for a period of 2 months
and tried to establish good relationships with employees at different levels. This made it easier to conduct interviews
with employees. For middle level employees, interviews were more interesting than questionnaires because they
were allowed to raise new issues and exchange ideas with the researcher. Although it took the researcher about 9
months to finish interviews with employees, it was found that interviews were more effective for data collection
than questionnaires.

The low response rate of questionnaires may be explained from a cultural perspective. Gender, age and
marital status of the researcher have been regarded as factors that could affect the access, gathering and analysis of
information in the field work (Gurney, 1985; Fischer, 1986; Bell et al, 1993; Caplan, 1993; Adams, 1999; Fortier,
2001). Being a young, single, female researcher in an Arab culture gave employees a negative impression that the
researcher was unqualified. In an Arab culture, females are more acceptable when they are married. Also, the older
the age of the female, the more she is accepted by Arab males. Thus, the researcher found it difficult to gather
information using questionnaires because of her age, gender and marital status. The researcher had to build rapport
and gain employees’ trust through spending time discussing issues and exchanging ideas. This was done through the
interview phase.

Observation data in this study was used to support archival and interview data. The researcher had the
opportunity to attend meetings at different levels of the organisation. Also, during the research phase, the researcher
had the opportunity to observe the relationship between leaders and their employees, as well as the relationship
between leaders at different organizational levels. This made it possible to observe management of change in a

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natural setting. The role of the observer was to record what was found at each level and to take notes that were then
related to other sources of data. observed individuals were aware of the process of observation. spending a long time
at different levels allowed the researcher to establish rapport and trust with individuals which facilitated the
interview process.

Given the exploratory nature of the study, explanation building and pattern matching were used to provide
evidence of links between gender, leadership and managing change. The qualitative nature of the study enhanced
content validity. Also, it allowed identification of factors that might enhance or reduce effectiveness of leadership in
managing change. Data collection was conducted over a long period (from January, 2009 to March, 2011). During
this period, several change themes were investigated. This study relied on the use of `analytical/theoretical
sampling` rather than `statistical sampling`. In analytical sampling the selection of respondents is guided by the
themes/categories emerging from data (Stake , 1995; Pettigrew et al, 1992; Yin, 1993; 1994; 1995; Mays & Pope,
1995; Gillham, 2000).

Early analysis was undertaken during the course of data collection (Barley, 1990; Ezzy, 2002). The
qualitative nature of the study allowed for the integration and interpretation of data collection and analysis (Strauss,
1987; Turner, 1988; Rosaldo, 1993; Nelson et al, 1998). Data collection and analysis were conducted in parallel.
The researcher theorised and wrote up ideas about the themes/categories as they emerged. Themes were then related
to the four research objectives. This was significant in determining the sample size as it indicated to the researcher
when it was necessary to interview additional individuals to gain more understanding of particular issues (Ezzy,
2002).

Given the exploratory nature of this study, a quantitative approach was considered inappropriate for data
analysis. A manual method of data analysis allowed for a greater variety of data to be utilised than was possible with
computers (Ezzy, 2002). Also, it was less time-consuming (MacMillan & McLachlan, 1999). Verbatim interviews
transcripts were used for analysis. Based on transcripts, an analysis grid (as recommended by Gillham, 2000 and
Stake, 1995) was developed for the major issues discussed in the interview and related to the research interests,
including gender, leadership styles and management of change. Four analysis grids were developed: one for top
level leaders, a second for middle level leaders, a third for top level subordinates and a fourth for middle level
subordinates.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

1. Differences in leadership styles are not specifically related to gender

Studying leadership styles in CAPA indicates that differences in leadership styles are related to a number of
interrelated factors other than gender.

1.1. Differences in females leadership styles

This study was conducted at the top and middle managerial levels. Differences in leadership styles
appeared among females at the top level and their counterparts at the middle level. Female leaders at the top level
are classified as transformational. They are more participative, believe in sharing employees in problem-solving and
apply a two-way communication style. Also, they are concerned with the emotional and social sides of each
employee. An important feature of top female leaders is their concern for inspiring employees, encouraging new and
creative ideas. At the middle level, the majority of female leaders are transactional. They are task oriented as their
main concern is to achieve work objectives. In addition, they ignore the emotional and social sides of their
employees. Their employees believe they have no space for creativity as they have to be highly focused on
achieving specific work objectives.

However, a limited number of middle level female leaders are classified as transformational. Those are
younger than the transactional female leaders. Their leadership styles are similar to top-level female leaders. They
believe in inspiring employees, encouraging new ideas and employees participating in problem-solving. In addition,
transformational female leaders believe that paying attention to individuals` emotional and social sides has a positive
effect on how employees achieve their work objectives.

1.2. Differences in males leadership styles

Similar to their female counterparts, male leaders in CAPA have different leadership styles. Top level male
leaders are transactional, whilst middle level male leaders are transformational. Transactional male leaders are task

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oriented while transformational male leaders are more concerned with people and believe in inspiring employees,
encouraging employees to participate and inspiring new ideas.

2. Leadership Characteristics And Management Of Change

Studying leadership and management of change in CAPA indicate that effective leaders in managing change are
classified as leaders who:
Communicate with their employees since the early stages of the change. The aim is to explain change goals,
implementation methods, impact on employees and the role of each person in implementing change.
Apply a two-way communication style in which they exchanged ideas, thoughts and information with their employees.
Believe that the old traditional one-way communication, in which they give information and instructions to employees
without listening to their feedback, is not effective in managing change.
Are proactive rather than reactive during the change phase. This implies that they are flexible in modifying their
strategies to ensure successful change implementation.
Devote time and effort to raising employees’ awareness about change including change goals, impact of change and
change implementation.
Implement an open-door policy, especially at the early stages of change. Open-door policy was reported as an effective
way of raising awareness about change and creating a desire in employees to implement change. It allowed an opened
and free communication between leaders and employees.
Have the courage to modify their strategies whenever needed. This is based on continuous discussions and exchange of
ideas with employees.
Pay attention to each individual in the organisation by listening to employees` thoughts, ideas and fears. This implies
that effective leaders in CAPA focus on the individual rather than group.
Are committed to the change programme. This is reflected in spending time and effort in raising employees` awareness
about change.
Believe in participating employees in problem solving, whether formally or informally.
Are concerned with the social and emotional sides of their employees, as well as the impact of change on each
individual in the organization.
Ensure that change is introduced for the benefit of each member in the organization including lower levels in the
hierarchy.

Thus, based on data collected, effective leaders in managing change in CAPA are those who put effort in
raising employees’ awareness about change. This is influential in `building employees’ desire` to implement
successful change. One theme that appeared from interviews is that managing change requires flexibility.
Interviewees reported that to manage change effectively, leaders should have the courage and willingness to modify
plans and strategies. Therefore, effective management of change in CAPA is related to leadership style which differs
among female and male leaders.

DISCUSSION

1. Differences in leadership styles in CAPA

In contrast to research results that classify male leaders as transactional and female leaders as
transformational (e.g. Bridges, 2009; Drucker, 2009; Eagly et al, 2003; Rosener, 1995; Gibson, 1993; Eagly &
Johnson, 1990; Eagly, 1987; Vinnicombe, 1987), leadership style in CAPA is not solely related to gender. Females
who are able to reach the top management level are classified as transformational. At the middle level, the majority
of females are transactional. A limited number of middle level females are classified as transformational leaders.
Meanwhile, top level male leaders are transactional while their middle level male counterparts are transformational.

Factors explaining differences in leadership styles in CAPA are summarized in Table-1. These are
explained below:

A. Age
Transactional middle-level female leaders are 50 years old and above. Because of their age, they have a
limited opportunity to grow in the organisation. In addition, they have no opportunity to start a new career in a new
organisation as private pharmaceutical organisations prefer employing young pharmacists. Private pharmaceutical
organizations pay high salaries and provide good opportunities for their employees’ training and development. Such
organizations prefer to employ young pharmacists who will have the opportunity to benefit the organization longer.
Knowing that they retire whilst at middle-management level, female leaders in CAPA preferred to focus on
achieving work objectives. They believe that spending time listening to employees’ ideas and complaints is a waste
of time. Also, they have no strong motive to inspire employees or encourage creativity.

The Business Review, Cambridge * Vol. 19 * Num. 2 * Summer * 2012 108

 Conversely, transformational middle level female leaders are young and have the opportunity to grow in
the organization. Also, they have the opportunity to start a new career in the private sector. They are enthusiastic and
aim at making a real difference in their jobs.

Regarding transformational male leaders in CAPA, they are younger than their transactional counterparts.
They have a promising career that is not necessarily in CAPA. As explained by interviewees, being young makes it
easy to take risk and shift between different jobs. Transactional leaders are older in age and looking for work
stability. They believe that their age may not allow them to take the risk of shifting between jobs.

B. family commitments
Family commitments are also responsible for differences in female leadership styles. Considering the age
factor and the limited opportunity to grow within the organisation, middle level female leaders are highly devoted to
family commitments and responsibilities. In Arab culture, the older the age of the female, the more she gives time
and effort to her family. Thus, female leaders are satisfied with what they have achieved during their career life and
prefer spending more time with their families. They copy their previous level of performance with no space for new
achievements or creativity. This explains their attempts to focus on achieving specific work objectives rather than
spending time inspiring organisational members.

However, young middle level female leaders with limited family responsibilities are classified as
transformational. Considering limited family commitments, young female leaders believe that they have the time
and opportunity for self-assurance and career development. This reflects their leadership style.

C. Previous Work Experience

Previous work experience is another factor that explains differences in leadership styles in CAPA. Male
leaders with transactional leadership style have a previous work experience as academics or in public sector
organisations. Conversely, male leaders with transformational leadership style have a previous work experience in
private sector organisations. However, previous experience was not a major factor in explaining differences in
female leadership styles.

The impact of previous work experience on a leadership style could be explained by two main factors; first,
difference in organizational culture and second, difference in performance appraisal systems which will be discussed
below.

Firstly, organizational culture in the public sector differs from that in the private sector. The rigid
organisational culture in the public sector is influential in forming transactional leaders. This culture focuses on
achievement of work objectives rather than inspiring employees and encouraging creativity. Meanwhile, the public
sector applies a one-way communication style in which leaders give information and instructions to employees with
no response to their feedback. Conversely, the private sector has a flexible organizational culture. This culture
emphasizes the exchange of information, thoughts and ideas between leaders and employees. Also, the private sector
applies a two-way communication style in decision making and problem solving. Thus, the flexible organizational
culture in the private sector encourages development of transformational leaders.

Secondly, the performance appraisal system in the public sector differs from the private sector. In the
public sector, performance appraisal is related to promotion that is related to seniority. On the other hand, in the
private sector performance appraisal is related to continuous assessment. This assessment reflects factors such as;
achievement of work objectives, creativity, initiative and making a difference in the job. Thus, performance
appraisal in the private sector encourages initiative, creativity and risk taking. These are major features of
transformational leaders.

Accordingly, a leader with a long working experience in the public sector is a task oriented, or transactional
leader.

The Business Review, Cambridge * Vol. 19 * Num. 2 * Summer * 2012 109

 Table 1 Differences in Leadership Styles in CAPA
Male Leaders Female Leaders
Top-level Transactional Transformational
Managerial
Level
Middle-level Transformational Majority are transactional

50 and above Majority are transactional Majority are transactional

Age

Below 50 (from mid-30s Transformational Transformational

to mid-40s).
Public sector Transactional
experienc
Previous
work

Private sector Transformational No direct impact

High Majority are transactional

commitments
Family

Low No direct impact Transformational

A. Effective leadership for managing change in CAPA

Handling change effectively in CAPA is mainly related to leaders’ abilities to raise employees’ awareness
about the change, as well as to create their desire to implement change. `Awareness` and `desire` are believed to be
the heart of successful change management. Employees who are aware of different aspects of change are convinced
of the necessity to change. Employees’ awareness creates a real desire to change and ensures employees’
commitment. It is believed that `awareness` and `desire` have a positive impact on dealing with change resistance
(Burns, 2003; McLagan, 2002; Mullingan & Barber, 1998; Sadler, 1997; Brookfield, 1995; Dimmock, 1995; Kotter,
1995). Thus, a successful leader is the one who is capable of dealing with employees’ resistance through raising
`awareness` and creating `desire`. This reflects leaders’ personal and social competences identified by Virtenan
(2000).

Transactional Leadership
Awareness of change
 A two-way communication with
Personal & Social subordinates.
Competences  Exchange of information with
employees.
 Willingness to listen to employees’
objections, alternatives & ideas.
Managing emotional sides
of change, i.e. managing
 Dealing with employees’ fear. resistance
 Raising employees’ confidence
 Encouraging initiatives and creativity.
 Focus on each individual of the group.

Desire to change
Figure 1
Effective Leadership for Managing Change

Studying gender, leadership and change in CAPA indicates that transformational leaders are needed for
effective change implementation. Transformational leaders are more effective in personal and social competences
compared to their transactional counterparts. This is illustrated in Figure 1. While transactional leaders are effective
in achieving specific work objectives, change needs more than just a task-oriented leader. Transformational leaders
are capable of dealing with the social and emotional sides of each organizational member. Furthermore, they can

The Business Review, Cambridge * Vol. 19 * Num. 2 * Summer * 2012 110

deal with employees’ resistance. From a cultural perspective, Egyptians have an emotional personality. It is easy to
influence Egyptians by establishing social relationships with them (Hofsted, 2001; Hofsted, 1980). Thus, the
transformational leader is more effective than the transactional leader in managing change in the Egyptian culture.

Employees tend to resist change, when they feel neglected by their leaders (Hutt et al, 1995; Nemeth, 1997;
Morrison & Milliken, 2000). In CAPA, negligence is reflected in a lack of communication between leaders and
employees. Leaders are expected to apply a two-way communication with their employees to avoid a
misunderstanding of change. This is reflected by a lack of employees’ `awareness` of the change, as well as an
absence of `desire` to implement change.

Meanwhile, the leaders’ lack of commitment to change is causing poor change management in CAPA. This
takes the form of an unwillingness to listen to employees, to consider alternatives or to spend time in clarifying
different change issues. Lack of commitment is also reflected in the use of a `hidden agenda`. In CAPA, the use of a
`hidden agenda` reflects the leaders’ focus on achieving the written change objectives regardless of employees’
needs, desires and abilities. High commitment to change is a major feature of transformational leaders in CAPA.
This supports other researches that classify transformational leaders as more committed to change implementation
than transactional leaders (e.g. Fernandez & Rainey, 2006; Ahn & Dornbusch, 2004; Gill, 2003; Paton &
McCalman, 2000; Boddy & Paton, 1998; Pascale et al, 1997; Mintzberg, 1994; Kanter, 1991)

Similar to other researches, fear is another factor that causes employees’ resistance in CAPA (e.g. Palmer,
2004; Furst & Cable, 2008). The leaders’ abilities to deal with employees’ fear as well as to raise their self-confident
are emphasised as key characteristics for effective management of change in CAPA. These are also classified as
transformational leadership characteristics (Hinkin & Tracey, 1999). Surprisingly, although change management is
classified as a group process, emphasis on groups is not effective in managing change in the Egyptian culture. The
Egyptian personality is individualistic (Hofsted, 1980; Hofsted & Peterson, 2000; Hofsted, 2001). Egyptian
employees perform better in individual tasks rather than group work. To enhance employees’ teamwork abilities, it
is important to give each group member a special attention as an individual. This is another feature of the
transformational leader (Bridges, 2009; Drucker, 2009)

Awareness and desire are found to be key factors for effective management of change in the Egyptian
culture. Effective leaders are capable of dealing with emotional and social sides of change. They can raise
employees` awareness and create their desire to be committed to the change programme. This is found with the
transformational rather than the transactional leader.
FURTHER RESEARCH
This research raises new ideas that should be further investigated. Although the study took place in the
Egyptian culture, the study was conducted in a public sector organisation. This raises the need to investigate
research findings in a private sector organisation to examine the possible impacts of organizational culture.
Conducting the study in other Arab cultures is also useful in examining research findings in other Arab organisations
and to answer the question: To what extent are differences in leadership styles related to gender? i.e. Does the
national culture have an impact?
Nevertheless, although this study identifies the major leadership characteristics for effective management
of change, it is worth asking the questions: Is it possible to train leaders to manage change effectively? Is it possible
to change leaders’ characteristics to support change implementation? And, is it possible to train leaders on personal
and social competences? These questions are worth studying to explore whether or not a leaders’ personality is
flexible or changeable.
CONCLUSION
This study aims to explore the relationship between gender, leadership style and management of change in
the Egyptian culture. Case study research was used to achieve research objectives. Data was collected from a public
sector pharmaceutical company where a change programme took place. Data was collected through interviews,
observations and documents. Triangulation of data collection aims to enhance research internal validity. The study
concludes that differences in leadership style in the Egyptian culture ware not solely related to gender. Leadership
styles differ among female leaders as well as among male leaders. Differences in leadership style are related to a
number of interrelated factors such as; managerial level, age, previous work experience and family commitments.
Further, transformational leaders are more effective in managing change than transactional leaders.

The Business Review, Cambridge * Vol. 19 * Num. 2 * Summer * 2012 111

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