SkywingsFCTMIRV1 2EFB

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FLIGHT CREW TRAINING MANUAL
INSTRUMENT RATING IR(A)

FCTM IR (A)
Revision V1.2
Issue date: 21/01/2020
www.skywings.be
Ó Skywings Flight Training BE/ATO-020
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FCTM IFR Table of contents
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
21/01/2020 Revision V1.2

Ó Skywings Flight Training FCTM IFR
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. List of revisions .................................................................................................................................... 1-1
2. General introduction ........................................................................................................................... 2-1
3. Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. 3-1
4. List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ 4-1
5. Introduction......................................................................................................................................... 5-1
6. Future captain concept ........................................................................................................................ 6-1
7. Basic instrument flying ........................................................................................................................ 7-1

7.1 Physiological considerations ................................................................................................................ 7-1
7.2 Attitude, power and performance ........................................................................................................ 7-4
7.3 The basic instrument scan .................................................................................................................... 7-8
7.4 “Next step” concept ............................................................................................................................. 7-9
7.5 Basic flight maneuvers: full panel ...................................................................................................... 7-10
7.6 Basic flight maneuvers: limited panel ................................................................................................ 7-14
8. Upset recovery .................................................................................................................................... 8-1
9. Radionavigation general ...................................................................................................................... 9-1

9.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 The VOR................................................................................................................................................ 9-1
9.3 The NDB ............................................................................................................................................... 9-5
9.4 DME...................................................................................................................................................... 9-8
9.5 SSR...................................................................................................................................................... 9-11
9.6 VDF ..................................................................................................................................................... 9-12
9.7 RNAV .................................................................................................................................................. 9-12
9.8 GNSS ................................................................................................................................................... 9-13
9.9 Navigation and communication setup procedures with the G1000 ................................................... 9-14
10. HSI Visualization ............................................................................................................................ 10-1
11. Tracking and homing ...................................................................................................................... 11-1
12. Interceptions.................................................................................................................................. 12-1

12.1 Station passage interceptions ............................................................................................................ 12-1
12.2 Outbound interceptions ..................................................................................................................... 12-2
12.3 Inbound interceptions ........................................................................................................................ 12-3
13. Reversal procedures ....................................................................................................................... 13-1
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14. DME Arcs ....................................................................................................................................... 14-1
15. Airways .......................................................................................................................................... 15-1
16. SIDs and STARs............................................................................................................................... 16-1
17. Holdings ......................................................................................................................................... 17-1

17.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 17-1
17.2 Flying the holding ............................................................................................................................... 17-2
17.3 Holding entries ................................................................................................................................. 17-13
17.4 Leaving the holding .......................................................................................................................... 17-18
18. Point-to-point navigation ............................................................................................................... 18-1
19. Approaches .................................................................................................................................... 19-1

19.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 19-1
19.2 MDA and DA....................................................................................................................................... 19-1
19.3 Vertical path management on a non-precision approach .................................................................. 19-1
19.4 ILS approach ....................................................................................................................................... 19-3
19.5 VOR approach .................................................................................................................................... 19-7
19.6 NDB approach .................................................................................................................................... 19-9
19.7 Localizer approach ........................................................................................................................... 19-10
19.8 PBN approach .................................................................................................................................. 19-11
19.8.1 The RNP approach .................................................................................................................... 19-12
19.8.2 Who can fly what and when? ................................................................................................... 19-15
19.8.3 RNP approach types ................................................................................................................. 19-15
19.8.4 The influence of the temperature ............................................................................................ 19-17
19.8.5 Other types .............................................................................................................................. 19-17
19.8.6 Contingencies ........................................................................................................................... 19-18
19.8.7 RNAV approach on the G1000 ................................................................................................. 19-19
19.8.8 RNP approach checklist ............................................................................................................ 19-20
19.9 Circling approach ............................................................................................................................. 19-21
19.10 Missed approach procedure ......................................................................................................... 19-24
20. IFR Flight planning.......................................................................................................................... 20-1

20.1 Routing ............................................................................................................................................... 20-1
20.2 Cruising altitude ................................................................................................................................. 20-2
20.3 NOTAM Restrictions ........................................................................................................................... 20-3
20.4 Weather and winds aloft.................................................................................................................... 20-3
20.5 The navigation log.............................................................................................................................. 20-3
20.6 Fuel planning ...................................................................................................................................... 20-4
20.7 W&B and performance calculation .................................................................................................... 20-6
20.8 Alternate planning ............................................................................................................................. 20-6
20.9 Weather minima ................................................................................................................................ 20-6
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20.10 The ATC flight plan ......................................................................................................................... 20-6

20.11 Flight follow-up .............................................................................................................................. 20-8
20.12 Descent planning .......................................................................................................................... 20-10
21. Adverse weather situations............................................................................................................ 21-1

21.1 Turbulence.......................................................................................................................................... 21-1
21.2 Cold temperatures.............................................................................................................................. 21-2
21.3 Icing .................................................................................................................................................... 21-2
21.4 Low visibility ....................................................................................................................................... 21-3
21.5 Convective weather ............................................................................................................................ 21-4
22. IFR Communications ...................................................................................................................... 22-1

22.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................................ 22-1
22.2 The IFR clearance ............................................................................................................................... 22-1
22.3 IFR Communication EBAW – EBOS example....................................................................................... 22-2
23. Rules of thumb Quick Reference Guide .......................................................................................... 23-1
24. Sources and references .................................................................................................................. 24-1
25. Annexes ......................................................................................................................................... 25-1

Annex 1: Theoretical knowledge question database IR skill test.................................................................... 25-1
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21/01/2020 Revision V1.2

FCTM IFR 1 List of revisions
1. List of revisions
Version number Release date Version notes
V1.0 12/11/2019 First Issue

V1.2 21/01/2020 First Issue, revision 1.2
Chapter Date Author Description

dd/mm/yyyy
4 21/01/2020 PBR Abbreviations added, faults corrected
7.1 21/01/2020 PBR “HIGH” replaced by “LOW” in paragraph about runway
width
7.2 21/01/2020 PBR “HSI” added in “basic T” list
7.5 21/01/2020 PBR Correction to text for power setting after descending
maneuver
7.6 21/01/2020 PBR Sentence added in paragraph about acceleration and
deceleration errors
7.6 21/01/2020 PBR Change of wording. Words “overread” and “underread”
replaced
7.6 21/01/2020 PBR Example added timed turns
9.2 21/01/2020 PBR Clarification text below conventional instruments
9.3 21/01/2020 PBR Clarification in text under ADF tuning image
9.5 21/01/2020 PBR Type-O
9.6 21/01/2020 PBR “RADIO” changed to “HOMER” in example
9.8 21/01/2020 PBR “ABAS” changed into “GBAS” in paragraph about ABAS
10 21/01/2020 PBR Text added to clarify visualization rules
12.1 21/01/2020 PBR “desired” added in station passage interception rule
12.2 21/01/2020 PBR Text added to clarify outbound interception
12.3 21/01/2020 PBR Word “inbound” added to step 2 of inbound interceptions
to clarify
14 21/01/2020 PBR Wording in second paragraph slightly changed
14 21/01/2020 PBR “not” added before “to overshoot” in paragraph about
exiting the arc
17.1 21/01/2020 PBR Second paragraph before first picture rewritten
17.1 21/01/2020 PBR “short” changed into “should” in paragraph about Cross
Radial (“X”)
17.3 21/01/2020 PBR “HEADING” changed to “TRACK” in first paragraph
17.3 21/01/2020 PBR Drawing corrected
17.3 21/01/2020 PBR “CROSS TRACK RADIAL” changed into “ABEAM
RADIAL” in paragraph “special entry: direct close to
parallel entry”
17.3 21/01/2020 PBR “HEADING” changed to “TRACK” in paragraph about
visualization on the HSI
19.2 21/01/2020 PBR Definition “DA” amended
19.4 21/01/2020 PBR Paragraph about ILS approach amended
19.4 21/01/2020 PBR Deviation for 1 dot next to image 2 of “airborne
equipment” changed fro; 5 to 1,25 degrees
19.8 21/01/2020 PBR Chapter PBN approaches added
19.9 21/01/2020 PBR Type-O
2010 21/01/2020 PBR Sentence about “Skeyes website” completed
20.12 21/01/2020 PBR Incorrect formula on drawing of descent planning removed
21.2 21/01/2020 PBR Removed word “altitude” in first paragraph
22.2 21/01/2020 PBR Comm frequencies updated
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FCTM IFR 1 List of revisions
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FCTM IFR 2 General Introduction
2. General introduction
This document is created for Skywings Flight Training and assumes the use of Jeppesen charts and the
Garmin G1000 glass cockpit.
The examples feature a generic single engine airplane cruising at a TAS of 120kts.
SIMIONIC G1000 APP FOR IOS
Simionic has created a G1000 trainer app that enables you to practice IFR procedures at home with
your tablet. Download the app on: http://www.simionic.net/WordPress/downloads/ or via the apple APP
store.
You can also scan this QR code to go directly to the app store download page.
Do you have any remarks or suggestions about this manual? Please forward your feedback to
manuals@skywings.be.
Don’t forget to mention the name of the manual in the subject of you email.
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FCTM IFR 2 General Introduction
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FCTM IFR 3 Foreword
3. Foreword
The “FCTM: IFR” is intended as a working guide to prepare yourself for the IFR training phase. The
manual is a working document that goes alongside with the long briefings that you receive for your IFR
training. This document is not type-specific but examples assume a generic airplane with a Garmin 1000
(G1000) glass cockpit.
For specific procedures, speeds and flight patterns for the airplane on which you train, please
refer to the OM(B) of that specific airplane.
This manual intends to provide you with the theoretical background that is needed to operate an aircraft
in IFR conditions. It covers the basics of radio-navigation and IFR procedures together with a practical
guide to the safe and correct operation of a flight under instrument flight rules.
Note: This manual has no legal basis and should be considered “for info only”. Approved manuals
alongside with publications of the national CAA supersede this manual in case of discrepancies. The
charts used in this manual could be out of date and should not be used for real flight.
BRING YOUR MANUAL TO LIVE!
Throughout the manual, you will find QR-codes that you can scan with your smartphone or tablet. These
QR codes link to movies and web pages that might be valuable during your training.
OTHER REFERENCE MATERIALS
Use this document in conjunction with the following documents:
Q JEPPESEN INTRODUCTION: This document contains explanation of all the symbology used on
Jeppesen charts as well as short definitions of many different terms and concepts used in IFR
navigation (in an alphabetical order)
Download the Jeppesen introduction here
Q ATPL BOOK of Instruments: this book provides deeper insight in the working principle of
instruments used for IFR navigation
Q ATPL BOOK of Radio Navigation: this book provides deeper insight in radio navigational
principles
Q ATPL BOOK of Flight Planning: this book provides deeper insight in IFR fuel and flight planning
Q ATPL BOOK of AIR LAW: this book provides deeper insight in the rules of the air and contains
extracts of ICAO’s DOC 8168
Q ATPL BOOK of METEOROLOGY: this book provides deeper insight in how to read MET reports
and forecasts and the risks of hazardous weather conditions suchs as icing, thunderstorms etc.
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FCTM IFR 3 Foreword
QUESTIONS DATABASE
During an IFR skill test, the examiner will also assess the depth of your theoretical knowledge.
He will do so by asking a couple of questions regarding all aspects of IFR flying. EASA has published a
list with recommended questions from which the examiner can choose some. This question list is
added as an attachment to this manual and it is recommended to complete all questions for yourself
before your IFR skill test.
Many answers can be found in this manual. More specific questions regarding for example meteorology
can be found in the ATPL coursebooks.
Drafting a document with short answers for all of these questions for yourself will also assist in building
your IFR knowledge through the course of the training.
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FCTM IFR 4 List of abbreviations
4. List of abbreviations
AAL ABOVE AERODROME LEVEL
ABAS AIRCRAFT BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
ADI ATTITUDE INDICATOR
AGL ABOVE GROUND LEVEL
AMSL ABOVE MEAN SEA LEVEL
ANP ACTUAL NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
APV APPROACH PROCEDURE WITH VERTICAL GUIDANCE
AR APPROVAL REQUIRED
ARO AIR TRAFFIC SERVICES REPORTING OFFICE
ASI AIRSPEED INDICATOR
ATC AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL
ATPL AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT LICENSE
ATS AIR TRAFFIC SERVICE
BRG BEARING
CDFA CONSTANT DESCENT FINAL APPROACH
CFIT CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN
CRS COURSE
DA DECISION ALTITUDE
DH DECISION HEIGHT
DME DISTANCE MEASURING EQUIPMENT
EAT ESTIMATED APPROACH TIME
EOBT ESTIMATED OFF-BLOCKS TIME
ETA ESTIMATED TIME OF ARRIVAL
ETD ESTIMATE TIME OF DEPARTURE
ETE ESTIMATED TIME ELAPSED
ETO ESTIMATED TIME OVERHEAD
FL FLIGHT LEVEL
FT FEET
G/S GLIDESLOPE
G1000 GARMIN 1000 GLASS COCKPIT
GNSS GLOBAL NAVIGATION SATELLITE SYSTEM
GP GLIDEPATH
GPS GLOBAL POSITIONING SYSTEM
GPA GLIDEPATH ANGLE
HDG HEADING
HSI HORIZONTAL SITUATION INDICATOR
KTS KNOTS
LNAV LATERAL NAVIGATION
LOC LOCALIZER
LPV LOCALIZER PERFORMANCE WITH VERTICAL GUIDANC
MAP MISSED APPROACH POINT
MDA MINIMUM DESCENT ALTITUDE
OBS OMNI-BEARING SELECTOR
PBN PERFORMANCE BASED NAVIGATION
PWR POWER
RAIM RECEIVER AUTONOMOUS INTEGRITY MONITORING
RMI REMOTE-MAGNETIC INDICATOR
RNAV AREA NAVIGAITON
RNP REQUIRED NAVIGATION PERFORMANCE
SBAS SATELLITE BASED AUGMENTATION SYSTEM
SPD SPEED
TRK TRACK
VNAV VERTICAL NAVIGATION
VSI VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR
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FCTM IFR 4 List of abbreviations
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FCTM IFR 5 Introduction
5. Introduction
A new chapter in your flying career starts now! After your first flight, your first solo, your first VFR
navigation, IFR is the next big and important milestone. Whether it forms part of a professional flying
career, or an advanced level for a private pilot, flying IFR brings many different exciting challenges and
opportunities to fly further and, of course, in more restrictive weather conditions.
To cope with these challenges and operate safely in conditions where visual flight is not possible, a
new, very different set of skills and knowledge needs to be trained. Even if you have been active as
a VFR pilot for many years, operating under instrument flight rules might prove to be difficult in the
beginning. Complex procedures, the need for a deep understanding of the aircraft’s systems and
instruments and, above all, full reliance on instruments (the need to completely ignore “seat of the
pants” feelings) might require “un-learning” previously created habits.
To be successful in this stage, a profound theoretical foundation (of which this manual form a vital part),
an open mind, a strong desire for feedback from instructors and fellow pilots are absolutely necessary.
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FCTM IFR 5 Introduction
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FCTM IFR 6 Future captain concept
6. Future captain concept

The Skywings training philosophy is to train future captains. Whether your ambition is to be captain of
a large passenger jet carrying 300 passengers or to reach further horizons as a private pilot and bringing
family and friends along on your trips, your responsibility remains the same: a number of people
depends on you for their safety.
This requires leadership and decision-making skills. Adding “IR-privileges” to your license allows you to
fly in bad weather conditions, to busy airports, through busy airspaces.
This is why Skywings enrolls the “Future Captain Concept” as a vital part of your IFR training. Our
instructors will not only train you in IFR procedures, they will also stimulate you to make the decisions
and to take the lead in your flight as from day 1. By doing so, you will learn, with the support of an
instructor to take ownership of your flight, assess risks and take informed decisions. This possibly means
a different approach compared to previous flight training where for instance a go/no-go decision was
taken by the instructor.
In practice, this means that Skywings students will brief their instructor before the flight on weather,
NOTAMS, fuel, technical aircraft status, weight and balance etc. The instructor will then go through the
exercises to be covered that day in a facilitated way but expects the students to have prepared them.
The aim of the briefing in the briefing room is to make sure the mission objectives are well
understood, not to re-brief every exercise, as they have been discussed in long briefings and are
covered in this manual.
Further on, Skywings students will be expected to take the lead in the flight as much as possible. When
the weather is close to or on the limits to go flying, it is up to the student to put forward the go/no-go
decision (with the final responsibility of course remaining with the instructor).
Future captains also learn to be self-critical: knowing what you are good at and where to improve is
important. This skill will be further developed during the mission de-briefing, as instructors will stimulate
self-debriefing.
As a PIC of a flight, you take many decisions before, during and after the flight. Being aware of which
decisions to make and taking the time to evaluate yourself on which decisions were good and which
ones could have been handled differently are key. It is however important to remember that the
instructor is there to support you, answer questions and push you to that captain’s level!
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FCTM IFR 6 Future captain concept
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FCTM IFR 7 Basic instrument flying
7. Basic instrument flying

7.1 Physiological considerations
ORIENTATION
Humans maintain spatial orientation and hence balance through three systems:
1. Visual system: The eyes provide orientation through the horizon and other visual references.
2. Somatosensory system: Nerves in the skin, muscles & joints, along with hearing, sense
position based on gravity, feeling and sound.
3. Vestibular system: Sense organs in the inner ear (vestibular canals) filled with a fluid which
detect angular motion of your head using gravity as a reference.
Removing the “visual system” (this happens when flying in IMC) could impair human orientation and
balance. It can lead to erroneous conclusions from the 2 remaining systems.
These erroneous conclusions may make a pilot to believe that his aircraft is in a very different attitude
than it actually is. These feelings can contradict what instruments say. This imposes the risk of a pilot
making incorrect control inputs with potentially disastrous consequences.
An example of this is what happens when you accelerate or decelerate: those movements trigger the
same reactions in the vestibular canals as a nose up or nose down movement. This effect is put to a
good use in the technology of full flight simulators. They simulate accelerations and decelerations by
means of tilting the simulator cabin. On a take-off roll, the pilot will have a similar sensation of being
pushed into his seat.
This full flight simulator is slightly tilted backwards and simulates the sensation of
acceleration.
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To avoid the risk of disorientation, pilots need to be trained during IFR training to rely completely on the
information of the instruments and ignore contradictory signals from its own body.
WHEN IN IMC: TRUST SOLELY ON YOUR INSTRUMENTS
VISUAL ILLUSIONS
Visual illusions might pose a threat as they could lead a pilot to destabilize the airplane when the
perceived visual picture does not match with the airplane’s actual attitude or position. Being aware of
when those illusions might occur and full reliance on instruments during IFR flight can
counteract them.
False horizons
When false horizons exist outside, pilots may inadvertently align the airplane with what they perceive to
be the outside horizon. Examples of false horizons are sloping clouds or sloping terrain.
Approach and landing

Visual illusions are often the cause for a destabilized flight path on short final and during landing. There
are many causes for this:
Shifting from instrument flight to visual flight on approach

When conducting an approach in reduced visibility and with low ceilings, a pilot will have little time to
adjust to the “visual segment” (outside picture) of the approach. During a CAT I ILS approach, ceilings
could be as low as 200 feet above the ground, leaving the pilots less than 30 seconds to adjust to the
outside picture and correctly land the airplane.
Video of a CAT I ILS approach with a late transition from instruments to visual flight.
On offset non-precision approaches (final approach path not completely aligned with the runway), the
need for last minute lateral path adjustments to align the airplane with the runway may also cause a
threat.
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Video of an offset IFR approach in the cockpit of a Boeing 747, landing in JFK on
runway 22L
Having concentrated solely on a scan of the instruments during the whole approach, a gradual
transition from inside to outside must be established. This could go together with the pilot making
incorrect control inputs. Pilots could have the tendency to bring the nose up as they start looking outside
and end up too high over the runway.
The key is to make this transition gradual and bring the outside picture in the scan.
To counteract inadvertent control inputs and to avoid destabilizing the approach, the following must be
done:
Q Brief the expected “visual picture” during the approach briefing (offset landing? Expecting to see
the runway late?)
Q When becoming visual, add the visual picture to the instrument scan but insist on focusing on
the inside primarily initially
Q Avoid large control inputs
Q As you come closer to the runway, look for lateral and vertical guidance outside, keep monitoring
the speed inside
Q Avoid the tendency to abandon the inside scan as soon as you become visual!
Crosswind approaches
Approaches with high crosswind may confuse the pilot when becoming visual with the runway. If the
“expected visual picture” on becoming visual was not briefed, a pilot may be surprised and feel the urge
to align the airplane with the extended runway axis. This will cause the airplane to drift downwind.
Proper briefing and making a gradual transition from inside to outside will counteract this tendency.
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Video of a crosswind landing in London Gatwick with a Boeing 737 in bad weather
conditions
Runway width
We visually perceive altitude through the relative size of objects. When a runway is wider than standard
(some runways are 60 meters wide), it could give the pilot the impression he is low and cause him to
pitch up and land long. Contrary, when the runway is narrow, the pilot may feel he is too high.
By including the runway width in the approach briefing, the pilot can mentally prepare for the picture he
expects to see.
Sloping terrain
When runways are sloping down or up, it may also cause the pilot to destabilize the approach. Down
sloping runways may give the illusion of being high and upsloping runways may give the illusion of being
low.
Black hole effect

When approaching an airfield at night time, with little lighting and very little visual cues available, the
pilot may have the feeling that he is too high and the approach can become too shallow. Remaining on
instruments, monitoring a correct vertical speed and focus on the areas lit by the airplane’s landing lights
shortly before touchdown can help overcome the black hole effect.
Note: If the approach becomes destabilized, a go around is mandatory!
7.2 Attitude, power and performance
THE BASIC SIX
A basic cockpit instrument panel mostly exists of what is called the “basic six”. These are the six
instruments that assist in monitoring the correct flight path. In most cases, those basic six instruments
are positioned in the same order on the instrument panel, with the attitude indicator in the center,
regardless of the aircraft type.
The basic six exists of:
Q Airspeed indicator (ASI)

Q Attitude indicator (ADI)
Q Altimeter
Q Turn & Slip coordinator
Q Gyrocompass or horizontal situation indicator (HSI)
Q Vertical speed indicator (VSI)
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THE BASIC “T”
Within the basic six, 4 instruments form the basics of the basic IFR radial scan. Those instruments are
positioned in a “T”-shape on the instrument panel. The basic “T” covers the main instruments for the
lateral and vertical flight path.
The basic six “T” consists of:
Q Airspeed indicator
Q Attitude indicator
Q Altimeter
Q Gyrocompass/HSI
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GLASS COCKPITS
In glass cockpits, the basic instrument layout and position is maintained. However, information such as
airspeed, altitude and vertical speed, are displayed as “tapes” instead of round dials. As the artificial
horizon (the ADI) is the most important of all instruments, this one is often enlarged compared to those
in conventional aircraft.
The basic “T” has kept its lay out on most modern glass cockpits as well. Left: Garmin
G1000, right: Primary flight display of a Boeing 737 aircraft.
The instrument panel is subdivided in what are called “control instruments” and “performance
instruments”.
The control instruments are:

Q Attitude indicator
Q Power setting (RPM/MAP/LOAD indicator)
The performance instruments are:

Q ASI
Q Altimeter
Q Turn & slip coordinator
Q VSI
Q HSI
ATTITUDE + POWER = PERFORMANCE
For any motor-powered airplane, it is the combination of a correct attitude (pitch and bank angle)
and a correct power setting that ensures the required flight path.
Therefore, the control instruments (Attitude and Power setting), are used to set a certain attitude and
power, and the performance instruments are to be monitored to ensure a correct altitude, speed,
direction, vertical speed, turn rate etc. If needed, attitude and power can then be adjusted to finetune
or correct the current situation.
Note: Attitude+power flying is a proactive way of flying: the pilot selects the correct pitch and power
setting and the correct parameters will follow, not the other way around, where the parameters drive the
pitch and power settings of the airplane.
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“PETCA”
“PETCA” provides a systematic approach to attitude/power flying. It establishes the correct attitude and
power and adjusts where necessary in 5 steps:
Prepare (Silent) mental preparation:

Q What is the maneuver to be executed?
Q What is my pitch and power setting?
Establish Establish the correct pitch and power setting.
Trim Trim the airplane until all pressure is removed from the controls
Cross-check Let the parameters stabilize and cross-check instruments through scanning.
Adjust Make small pitch/power adjustments to finetune the parameters
By taking those extra seconds to mentally prepare you for the maneuver to be executed, the outcome
will be much more coordinated.
Note: During initial attitude flying training, it may be helpful to do the mental preparation out loud (e.g. “I
will need x degrees pitch and x LOAD”).
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Knowing the airplane’s pitch and power settings for different phases of flight is necessary. These
can be found in the airplane’s POH or the type-specific Skywings manual and must be studied before
operating a certain type of airplane.
FUNCTIONS OF POWER AND PITCH

The functions of power and pitch depend on the phase of flight: which of the two is used to control speed
and which one is used to control rate of climb or descent needs to be well understood for correct attitude
flying:
Phase of flight Pitch Power

Initial climb SPEED FULL
Cruise climb SPEED CLIMB POWER
Straight and level ALTITUDE SPEED
Descent with a fixed V/S VERTICAL SPEED SPEED
Idle descent SPEED IDLE (or min req.)
Final approach GLIDEPATH SPEED
Flare FLARE ATTITUDE IDLE
7.3 The basic instrument scan

The basic instrument scan forms the basics of every flight maneuver. Using the control instruments to
set a pitch and power and then using the performance instrument to cross check that the desired
performance is delivered forms the framework of an instrument scan. The scan ensures that the flight
path is maintained or can be corrected if needed.
A scan always starts from the ADI (attitude indicator) and always returns there after checking one
instrument (or instrument group).
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Basic instrument scan.
Start your scan with checking the pitch and bank on the ADI, then go back and forth:
1. Speed check
2. Power check
3. ADI check
4. HDG (+ turn indicator) check
5. ADI check
6. Altitude check
7. VSI check
8. ADI check
Repeat the process continuously.
7.4 “Next step” concept

It is often said that pilots should always be “one step ahead” of the aircraft. What is meant with this is
that, since aircraft are flying with relatively high speeds through the air, “getting behind on the
aircraft” might have serious consequences. That’s why, at all times, the pilot should manage the
workload in such a way that he is flying with the airplane and the airplane is not flying with him.
A helpful technique in this is the “next step” concept. This principle helps pilots anticipate the next action
to be completed, especially when actions follow in a high tempo (for example during an approach or in
a holding). By thinking ahead about the next action to be done and by verbalizing it, the pilot avoids
having to start thinking at the moment the action is to be performed, or, worse, starting a maneuver
without an action plan.
The next step technique is commonly used in aviation, especially when crews have to perform complex
IFR procedures requiring many course, altitude, speed changes etc.
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An example of the use of next step, could be the following: when approaching the holding facility, in
preparation for a parallel entry: “Next step, passing the VOR, turn left on heading.”
Consequent use of the “next step concept” augments situation awareness and puts the pilot ahead
of the aircraft.
During your IFR training at Skywings, the use of the “next step” concept is strongly recommended.
7.5 Basic flight maneuvers: full panel
Introduction
Any maneuver that you perform under IFR starts with making a correct pitch and power setting, a
continuous scan of the performance instruments and adjustments where needed. When you see a
parameter that has stabilized but is not at the required value (e.g. maintaining steadily 2900 feet while
3000 feet was instructed or maintaining steadily 105 knots while 110 knots was requested), correct for
it.
The HACL check
For all IFR training air work, precautions should be taken to guarantee a safe execution. Use the HACL
check before starting the airwork:
• Height: Sufficient for recovery to be completed above 2000 feet AGL

• Area: Out of controller airspace (unless clearance received) and not above towns or airfields
• Cockpit: Check engine instruments in limits, seatbelts secured and no hard, loose objects
• Lookout: Make a clearing turn of 180º or 2 times 90º
Straight and level
Straight and level flying starts with a good knowledge of the aircraft’s pitch and power setting and a
continuous instrument scan. Having the correct power setting, combined with a wings level attitude,
and a correct pitch and trim ensure that the aircraft will keep an approximate straight and level flight.
If the airplane slightly deviates from S&L flight, due to turbulence for example, small corrections (+/- 1
degree of pitch, +/- 5 degrees of bank, small power changes) should suffice to return the airplane to the
correct flight path. Bigger corrections often lead to overcontrolling. Airplanes are built to maintain a
certain stability and therefor, if turbulence remains low, the airplane will often just return to its attitude
after “hitting a bump”.
Accelerations and decelerations
For a level acceleration, only increasing power will result in a nose up attitude of the airplane (nose
down in case of deceleration). This secondary effect must be anticipated and counteracted by
adjusting the pitch attitude and re-trimming the airplane. Use the pitch and power table to adjust the
pitch and power correctly for the desired speed.
Note: as a general rule, every power change must be combined with retrimming the airplane.
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Climbing and descending
When climbing or descending, the airplane will transition from straight and level speed and attitude to
climb or descend speed and attitude. When approaching the desired altitude, the pilot will initiate an
anticipated level-off to bring the plane back into straight and level flight.
During climb, the pitch will control the speed as the power will be set to a fixed climb power setting.
During descend, the pilot will control the indicated airspeed with the power and the vertical speed with
the pitch. Descends of unpressurized aircraft are normally done at 500 feet per minute for
passenger comfort.
To reach a target vertical speed, every degree of pitch change accounts for roughly 100 feet per minute
per 60kts. A descent at 120kts will require a 2,5 degree pitch change to achieve 500 feet per minute in
descent.
Climbing maneuver:
PITCH Gradually bring the pitch up to the climb attitude

POWER When airspeed approaches climb speed, set climb power
TRIM Trim the airplane when the climb is established
PITCH Adjust pitch to maintain desired climb speed
LEVEL OFF:
PITCH Gently bring the nose to the straight and level attitude. Anticipate level off with
roughly 10% of the vertical speed. (e.g. when climbing at 500fpm, start level off 50
feet before reaching the desired altitude)
POWER Maintain climb power to accelerate to cruising speed. When approaching cruising
speed, set power for straight and level flight
Descending maneuver:
PITCH Gradually bring the nose down to the descend attitude

POWER Almost simultaneously, reduce the power to the correct power setting
TRIM Trim the airplane when the descent is established
PITCH Adjust pitch to maintain desired vertical speed
POWER Adjust power to control indicated airspeed
LEVEL OFF:
PITCH Gently bring the nose to the straight and level attitude. Anticipate level off
with roughly 10% of the vertical speed. (e.g. when descending at 500fpm,
start level off 50 feet before reaching the desired altitude)
POWER Set power for straight and level flight
Rate one turns
As a general rule, when performing an IFR flight, all turns should be made at rate one. A rate one turn
completes 360º in 2 minutes (3º per second). The bank angle needed for a rate one depends on the
aircraft’s airspeed and will need to be bigger when flying faster, (with a maximum of 25º bank required).
A rule of thumb to calculate the bank angle:
BANK ANGLE FOR A RATE 1 TURN (in degrees):

(AIRSPEED / 10) + 7
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For example: when flying at 120 knots, a rate one turn should be: (120/10)+7=19 degrees.
Steep turns
Steep turns are part of IFR air work training and serve as a monitoring and coordination exercise.
To qualify as a steep turn, the bank angle should be at least 45º. They require a well-developed scan
and precise control inputs. The partial loss of lift needs to be compensated by an increase in body
attitude and a power adjustment.
The maneuver:
HACL check Perform

Flight path Straight and level, constant
speed, in trim
Present pitch and power setting Remember parameters
Bank angle Normal rate to 45º
Body attitude (when passing +/- 30º bank) Increase
Power Increase
Bank angle (when 15º before target heading) Normal rate to 0º
Body attitude & power Back to straight and level
parameters
Note: do not trim during the maneuver, apply back pressure on the yoke to maintain the airplane pitch.
Control the speed with the power, small speed losses may need a big power increase.
S-turns
The Vertical S exercise is perfect to improve scanning, cope with higher workload and aircraft control.
The Vertical S can be built up in a few phases or patterns:

1. Climb and descent on a constant heading
2. Climb and descent with a constant rate 1 turn to L or R
3. Climb and descent with changing direction of turn each beginning climb or descent
4. Climb and descent combined with turning between selected headings
VERTICAL S PATTERN 1
Q Maintain constant heading at 2000ft and reduce speed to 100 KIAS
Q When reaching 100 KIAS, full power and climb to 3000ft
Q Maintain 100 KIAS during the climb
Q At 3000ft, reduce power and start descent back to 2000ft
Q During descent, maintain 100 KIAS and 500 feet/minute rate of descent
Q At 2000ft, start climbing again
Q Repeat same exercise or move on to pattern 2
Q Perform pattern 1 with a constant rate 1 turn to left or right
Q Perform pattern 2 but change direction of turn each time when reaching 2000ft or 3000ft
Q Perform pattern 2 but change direction of turn each time when reaching a specified heading.
Both headings need to be 90º from each other. Example: climb/descent between 2000ft and
3000ft and turn between heading 180 and 270 with constant rate 1.
Figure 8
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The figure 8 exercise can be flown during the simulator training and the initial IFR training in the aircraft,
with the purpose of practicing scanning techniques and the “next step concept” during a non-precision
approach (during the exercise, the student will be flying a non-precision approach every 5 minutes). The
figure 8 can be flown over an NDB, a VOR station or an RNAV waypoint.
Initially time 3 minutes outbound, reducing to 2 minutes and even 1 minute when the student is able to
handle the increased workload. During the figure 8, the workload can be gradually increased by
introducing speed changes, configuration changes, altitude changes, call outs and checklists.
Each inbound leg should be in the ICAO entry sector for the next outbound leg; a track change of 30 up
to 40 degrees over the station is acceptable.
3 Minutes outbound requires an angle of 12º between outbound and inbound track, 2 minutes requires
18º and 1 minute requires 36º.
Flight path corrections
As aviation is not an exact science and deviations may occur due to turbulence, pilot input, imperfect
aerodynamics and so on, a certain pitch + power combination may work fine on one day on one aircraft
but not on the other. Published pitch and power settings act as “ballpark figures”. If they do not give the
required outcome, you have to make a flight path correction.
Since glass cockpits such as the G1000 offer a high precision for speed, direction and altitude readouts,
they also require very precise flying. A steady deviation should therefore be corrected in a “positive
manner”.
Pilots often do realize that their airplane is close to but not within the required parameters but
fail to correct or correct enough. Correcting for a 100 feet altitude deviation, a 5 knots speed deviation
or a 5-degree heading deviation requires a deliberate input from the pilot, not just a “single pull or push
on the yoke”.
When pilots do correct and temporarily adjust power and attitude, they often forget to return the attitude
+ power combination to a stable situation, once the flight path has been regained.
For any adjustment, use the following steps again:
SET TEMPORARY ATT+PWR TO CORRECT

Ü CHECK PERFORMANCE INSTRUMENTS
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Ü AIRPLANE BACK WITHIN PARMETERS?
Ü ADJUST ATT+PWR FOR STABLE FLIGHT PATH
Often, students find it more difficult to correct small altitude deviations (100-200 feet) than bigger ones.
“Attitude and power” flying mandates flight paths corrections to happen in an educated fashion, meaning
the pilot must first think of how many degrees correction and which rate of climb or descent he will need
for example, when correcting for an altitude.
The following rule of thumbs can be helpful to make a balanced correction:
Q Pitch change: Every 1 degree of pitch change causes a rate of climb/descent of 100fpm per
60kts speed. (i.e. flying 120kts, a 2-degree pitch increase will cause 400 fpm)
Q Correction rate: For every 100 feet altitude deviation, aim for a double rate of climb/descent
(i.e. fling 100 feet below altitude aim for 200 feet per minute rate of climb)
7.6 Basic flight maneuvers: limited panel
Flying on standby instruments
A (partial) loss of primary navigation instruments may force the pilot to make use of the standby
instruments. It will seldom be the case that both pressure (altimeter, VSI, ASI) and inertial instruments
(Attitude indicator and HSI) are lost. In this case a total electrical failure or screen failure must be
expected. On the G1000, an attempt to go into reversionary mode (red button) can be made.
The pilot will have to rearrange his scan in order to substitute the failed instrument with a standby
instrument. At the worst case, the pilot will be able to maintain a desired direction, speed and altitude
by means of the standby instruments. Turn rate and vertical speed cannot be checked any more as they
have no backup options, but knowledge of the correct pitch and power settings will approximate the
correct values.
If you encounter a total primary instrument failure, remember to first fly the aircraft. Later on, you can
assess and attempt to recover some instruments. If you would be unable to complete your IFR
navigation, contact ATC immediately (consider a PAN call) and if under radar control, request radar
vectors. Note that, depending on the failure, you might not be able to perform an IFR approach any
more, and a diversion to a field with VFR weather might become necessary. On the other hand,
primary flight instruments might have failed but radionavigation instruments possibly still work.
RECOGNIZE REGAIN CONTROL RECOVER
FLY-NAVIGATE- Pitot heat on

COMMUNICATE
Alternate static
Revert to standby
instrument(s) Check cb’s
Restart instrument scan Reversionary mode
…
Check the failure flag(s)
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Magnetic compass errors
There are 2 types of magnetic compass errors that are caused by the design of the instrument. As the
compass’s pivot and center of gravity are not aligned, every linear acceleration or deceleration and turn
cause predictable erroneous readings.
Acceleration and deceleration errors
When an acceleration or deceleration occurs when the aircraft is not flying on a northerly or southerly
compass course, the displaced center of gravity will cause a slight movement of the magnetic compass.
This phenomenon is most obvious when flying on a due easterly or due westerly magnetic course.
These rules apply in the Northern Hemisphere only.
The magnetic compass will show a more northerly heading when accelerating and a more southerly
when decelerating. The acronym “ANDS” can be used to memorize these errors:
ANDS:
ACCELERATE NORTH
DECELERATE SOUTH
Turning errors
When turning to northerly or southerly headings, a turning error is visible that result in the compass to
read ahead in the turn when turning onto northerly headings and to behind in the turn when turning onto
southerly headings (northern hemisphere). The magnitude of the error depends on the latitude, being
the strongest at high latitudes and zero at the equator.
In the northern hemisphere, in mid-latitude regions, the compensation ranges from roughly 20-30º on
due northerly or due southerly headings to 0º on due easterly and due westerly headings. The acronym
“UNOS” can be used to memorize these errors:
UNOS:
UNDERSHOOT NORTH
OVERSHOOT SOUTH
Example: when on magnetic heading 270 and asked to turn right onto heading 360 (north), level the
wings when reaching +/- heading 330 (undershoot north). Let the magnetic compass stabilize and check
the new compass heading. Small adjustments can be made afterwards.
When well performed, a timed rate 1 turn (3 degrees per second) is another way to turn onto the
desired heading. E.g. from HDG 270 to 180 is a change or 90 degrees, taking 30 seconds.
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This Youtube movie about compass errors gives more detailed explanation:
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FCTM IFR 8 Upset recovery
8. Upset recovery
When flying under IFR conditions, you might be fully immersed in clouds and not have any outside
references as to the attitude of the aircraft. This increases the danger of ending up in an upset position,
an undesirable aircraft state at which the pitch attitude of the plane is excessively high or excessively
low.
Typical causes of aircraft upset in an IFR setting are: ATC distractions, insufficient instrument scan,
(wake) turbulence, incorrect control inputs, disorientation, autopilot trim runaway etc. Aircraft upset can
quickly lead to over speeding, overstressing, stalling and even controlled flight into terrain (CFIT).
Avoiding upset through a continuous instrument scan and keeping a close eye on the autopilot systems
is the most important strategy in avoiding the severe consequences of upset.
When the airplane however does end up in an upset, a prompt, correct recognition and correct
recovery maneuver is necessary.
Note: A prompt maneuver does not mean an impulsive maneuver, correctly identifying the upset type
and gently, yet promptly initiating a recovery avoids overstressing, a secondary stall or even an incorrect
recovery maneuver, further aggravating the situation.
Remember that you might be transiting busy airspace with minimal vertical separation and that altitude
loss can cause close encounters with other traffic. Once the aircraft is under control, contact ATC about
your deviation. But remember: first fly then navigate, only then communicate.
To ensure everyone in the airplane is aware of the situation, and as a preparation to flying bigger,
commercial aircraft, the callout “UPSET” must be made by the first pilot observing an upset situation.
By doing so, that pilot makes everyone aware of the situation and ready for a recovery action. Also, the
autopilot must be disengaged in case of an upset, as a faulty automatic trim system or autopilot input
may work against upset recovery or may even be the cause of the upset.
The correct order for any upset becomes:
CALL “UPSET” – DISENGAGE A/P - RECOVER
Nose High
Signs Airspeed decreasing, high attitude

Risk Stall, spin
Recovery Call “UPSET”
Disengage A/P
Unload (nose down)
Full power
Keep the present bank
Note: keeping a bank angle while lowering the nose decreases negative G-forces.
However, be careful with inducing a bank at low speeds yourself, as it may lead to
a spin.
Nose approaching the horizon
Bank 0º
Attitude and power: as required
Resume altitude
Contact ATC about altitude/course deviation
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FCTM IFR 8 Upset recovery
Nose Low
Signs Airspeed increasing

Risk Overspeed, spiral dive, CFIT
Recovery Call “UPSET”
Disengage A/P
Throttle idle
Roll wings level
Note: rolling the wings level first, avoids pulling high G forces while trying to pull the
airplane back on the horizon, possibly resulting in a spiral dive.
Raise nose gently
Note: A sudden big increase in load by raising the nose too quickly can result in a
stall.
When descent rate is arrested and on safe climb speed
Set climb power and pitch
Resume altitude
Contact ATC about altitude/course deviation
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FCTM IFR 9 Radionavigation general
9. Radionavigation general
9.1 Introduction
Unlike VFR navigation, where dead reckoning (the use of time and heading) and visual observation are
the main means of finding your way, IFR navigation requires the aircraft to be navigated without outside
visual aids. This is done by the means of a combination of ground-based and satellite-based so called
“navaids”.
Even though satellite based navaids such as GPS are becoming more and more important, the use of
ground-based navaids such as the VOR and the NDB remains very important.
Navaids form the foundations of departure, enroute and approach procedures and their precision vary.
Today, satellite-based systems even allow pilots to taxi the airplane with the help of moving maps.
In daily IFR operations, a basic understanding of the working principle of each of those systems is still
needed.
RECAP:
QDM: Magnetic course to the station

QDR: Magnetic course from the station
QUJ: True course to the station
QTE: True course from the station
9.2 The VOR
The principle
The VOR (VHF-Omnidirectional-Range) is a beacon that operates on a VHF frequency. It allows

airplanes to track inbound and outbound the station from a chosen angle. By emitting on VHF
frequencies (108-117,95Mhz), the signal is practically free of interference and this makes it the perfect
solution for short range navigation (+/- 200NM).
The VOR principle is based on the comparison between two signals that are emitted by the VOR
transmitter. The phase difference between those two signals depends on the airplane’s relative position
compared to the magnetic north.
The airplane’s VOR receiver calculates this phase difference and expresses this in a magnetic bearing
from the station to the airplane, called radials. The radial where the airplane is on, compared to the
VOR station, is irrespective of the airplane’s direction and only refers to its position.
When reporting a position to ATC relative to a VOR, when flying inbound or outbound that station, the
airplane should report “Radial xxx inbound” or “Radial xxx outbound”.
Cone of silence
Due to its design, the VOR has a so called “cone of silence”, this is the area above the VOR in which
the VOR does not provide a signal. Indications on the VOR instrument will disappear and “OFF”-flags
may show. The width of this area increases as altitude increases. This area forms the shape of an
inverted cone. Approaching the cone of silence, indications may fluctuate, and the precision of the
readings will degrade. It is important to resist “chasing” these fluctuating indications close to the station.
It is better to maintain the present track until you have left the cone of silence again (steady indication
returns).
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Practical use
The VOR is used as

Q Enroute navigation aid: turning points in airways
Q Holding facility
Q IFR let down equipment (VOR approaches)
Q Position fix finder.
Airborne equipment
Airborne equipment exists of a VHF navigation antenna, a VHF navigation radio box and navigational
instruments.
The VOR on conventional instruments
On the G1000, all the information received from a VOR is combined on the HSI, but in conventional
cockpit lay outs, the information is represented on several instruments:
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Top left: conventional HSI: the course selector allows you to select a radial directly
integrated into the magnetic heading. Top right: RMI: the tails of the arrows will always
indicate the present radial (or QDM if switched to “NDB”). Bottom left: simple OBS: the
omni-bearing selector lets you select a radial and the CDI (course deviation indicator)
will indicate your deviation. Bottom right: VHF Nav radio.
The VOR on the G1000
On the G1000, all the VOR information (CDI and RMI) can be interpreted directly onto the HSI. This
allows for a better situation awareness.
You can select a desired radial by using the course selector. Bear in mind that the selected course is
the reciprocal of the desired radial, hence, in the example, where course 210 has been selected, the
desired radial that was selected is 030 (210-180). The RMI needle (called bearing needle: “BRG” on the
G1000) indicates the aircraft’s present radial (004). The TO/FROM-indication is located at the top of the
course deviation field. It indicates “TO” if the triangle points in the same direction as the course arrow
(as is the case in the image below), conversely, it indicates from when the triangle is pointing away from
the course arrow direction.
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Note: due to the fact that the G1000 allows for many different navigation setups on the HSI, there is a
risk for misinterpretation of the instrument if the setup is not done in a systematic way. Refer to
“Navigation and communication setup procedures” in this manual for proper setup procedures.
In the DA40, the VOR, LOC and GP antennae are built into the horizontal stabilizer.
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9.3 The NDB
The Principle
The NDB (Non-directional beacon) is a beacon that emits on a LF and MF band. It consists of a simple
antenna emitting a continuous non-directional radio signal. Unlike the VOR, it has no internal integrity
monitoring. Due to its lower frequency, the NDB has a bigger range (it is not limited to line of sight) but
is susceptible to interference.
Airborne equipment
The NDB station itself is just a simple antenna. The direction calculation is done by the so called “loop
antenna”, located on the belly of the airplane. Due to its nature, the loop antenna can only calculate a
correct QDM when the airplane has its wings level.
ADF antenna on the belly of the fuselage
In the cockpit, the airborne equipment exists of a frequency tuning box and an ADF instrument. On the
G1000, the ADF can be presented by selecting it on one of the bearing needles. The bearing will then
indicate the QDM. An NDB cannot be coupled to the HSI for course selection.
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ADF 355.0 tuned and displayed on BRG 2. Note that, unlike when using a VOR, the
identification does not come automatically. An aural identification is necessary. Use
the center audio panel on the G1000 to select “ADF” for aural identification.
Practical use
The NDB is used as

Q Enroute navigation aid: turning points in airways
Q Holding facility
Q IFR let down equipment (NDB approaches)
Q Position fix finder.
Note: whenever using and NDB to navigate to or from, it is imperative to continuously monitor the aural
identification. This is because, unlike the VOR, the NDB has no self-monitoring system and the G1000
is not able to auto-ident an NDB. The only way to find out that the NDB is serviceable is by monitoring
its identification.
Interference and errors
The relatively low frequencies on which the NDB operates cause interferences on the readings.
Coastal refraction
Due to the transition from land to water, the NDB signal is bent towards the coastline. This gives an
erroneous QDM-reading in the cockpit. This effect may induce errors greater than 10 degrees.
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Thunderstorms & other static interference

Thunderstorms and other electric activity may cause the ADF to point towards the direction of its source.
Bear this in mind when operating in areas with convective weather.
Dipping error
The dipping error is caused due to the design of the ADF loop antenna that requires to be aligned with
the horizon to make a correct reading. When the airplane is in a bank, the needle will dip (approximately
10º) into the direction of the turn. When the wings are levelled again, the dip disappears.
Mountain effect
Terrain also deflects NDB signals. Mountains and hills work like “magnets”, pulling the signal towards
them. When a pilot follows a QDM/QDR of an NDB, he may risk CFIT (controlled flight into terrain), as
the signal may lead him to the terrain while in IMC.
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9.4 DME
The principle
A Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) is a system that uses secondary radar principles to calculate
range from an aircraft to a ground station. They appear either as a separate station (as part of a
TACAN) or paired with a VOR or an ILS. They enable the pilot to fully calculate a position relative to a
station. When paired with a VOR or with an ILS, the DME does not have to be tuned separately.
The onboard equipment (the “interrogator”) emits an omnidirectional and unique pulse stream on the
DME’s carrier wave frequency (much like a transponder). The DME station responds by re-emitting the
aircraft’s unique pulse stream. The airplane’s equipment then calculates the time it took between
sending and receiving the pulse stream in order to calculate its distance from that station.
The onboard equipment
The DME antenna is located on the underside of the aircraft and looks similar to a transponder antenna
(as they have similar working principles).
Slant range
A DME calculates slant range. This means that it calculates the absolute distance to the station (3D-
distance). As a result, the aircraft’s altitude will have an effect on the DME reading. When overhead the
station, a DME will not read zero, it will read the aircraft’s altitude in nautical miles (at that moment, the
absolute distance between the aircraft and the station. When an aircraft is for example at 3.000 feet
AGL, the DME will indicate 0,5 NM.
This is different from GPS distance, that is calculated as ground distance (2D-distance). GPS distance
will read 0 when overhead the relevant waypoint.
NOTE: Most IFR procedures are still based on DME distance and not on GPS-distance. As a result, it
is imperative to display and use the DME information when needed. You cannot substitute DME distance
with GPS distance.
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Slant range versus ground range. Note that on the G1000, both can be displayed, but
be aware that the distance displayed in the “bearing window” (black window in the left
bottom), indicates GPS range, not DME range.
Practical use
Position fix
DME’s can be used to calculate the aircraft’s position in conjunction with a VOR. Knowing a present
radial and DME enables the pilot to exactly plot a position on a map.
DME Arc
DME’s can be used as part of an IFR procedure, called a “DME Arc” (see chapter DME Arcs), where an
aircraft, while flying an arc, maintains a constant DME distance from a VOR/DME.
Part of a published IFR procedure

Many IFR procedures have published DME distances that indicate when an airplane needs to start a
turn or to keep track of a required (minimum) altitude at a certain distance from a VOR or ILS.
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The information in the red square indicates that, when at 800 feet or 12.0 DME distance
from RID VOR (whichever comes later), a turn must be initiated.
A DME provides vertical guidance for localizer only approaches.
DME coupling with the G1000
As most IFR-rated general aviation rated aircraft have only one DME antenna, but 2 VOR antennae and
an ILS antenna, the pilot will have to decide strategically to which station he will couple the DME.
Refer to the “Navigation and communication setup procedures with the G1000” chapter for correct DME-
linking procedures.
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9.5 SSR
The principle
The secondary surveillance radar (SSR) provides ATC with detailed information about the position,
altitude (and, depending on the type of transponder a lot more information) of the aircraft. It has greatly
replaced the primary radar, that can only determine the aircraft’s relative position from the radar by
means of a simple echo from the aircraft. Primary radar does not require any airborne equipment.
Secondary radar does require onboard equipment (a transponder unit and a transponder antenna),
but the advantage is that it enables the pilot to emit more information than just its relative position to the
radar station. Secondary radar also offers a clutter-free radar image (unlike primary radar).
Typical range for secondary radars is 200 to 250 NM. This means that remote land areas or oceanic
areas are often not covered by secondary radar.
Depending on the type of transponder, the air traffic controller is able to receive not only position, and
transponder code, but also altitude, and now with mode S transponders even distance, speed,
registration (or flight number), selected altitude and much more.
Onboard equipment
The aircraft requires an antenna (similar to a DME antenna) and a transponder (as a separate unit or
built into the G1000).
Built-in Mode S transponder functions in

Mode S transponder unit the G1000
The ident-button
ATC may need to confirm your position by requiring an identification. Only on ATC request, “SQUAWK
IDENT”, the pilot has to push the “IDENT”-key and this will highlight your radar position on the
controller’s screen. When asked to ident yourself, a single IDENT-push suffices.
Ground surveillance radar
On large and busy airports, ATC often tracks ground traffic with a fast-moving secondary radar (short
range, fast updates). This requires the pilots to have their transponder operating in “ground” mode.
Using ground mode avoids traffic advisory warnings for TCAS-equipped airplanes on short final.
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9.6 VDF
VHF direction finding (VDF) allows pilots to receive a QDM towards a VDF-equipped airfield. The
advantage of VDF is that it needs no specific onboard equipment other than a VHF communication
radio.
By broadcasting on a dedicated VDF frequency for a certain amount of time, the VDF operator will be
able to determine the airplane’s QDR (and consequently QDM) relative to the airport. He will then be
able to provide the pilot requesting VDF guidance with a QDM leading him to the field.
VDF is rarely used nowadays as onboard GPS systems provide more accurate information.
When requesting a QDM through VDF, it is important to broadcast for a certain amount of time. This will
ensure an accurate readout for the VDF provider.
Example:
PILOT: “QDM QDM QDM, Kortrijk Homer, OO-SKX requesting QDM”
VDF Provider: “OO-SKX, Kortrijk Radio, QDM 205”
PILOT: “QDM 205, OO-SKX”
9.7 RNAV
The RNAV principle (Area Navigation) allows aircraft to fly IFR routings without having to pass or turn
overhead ground-based stations such as VORs and NDBs. RNAV will precise the required level of
accuracy, which depends of the phase of flight.
RNAV can use inputs from different navigational sources such as GNSS, IRS, VOR, DME etc. The
RNAV equipment will provide the pilots with a calculated position, with the accuracy depending on the
available navigational sources.
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RNAV accuracy requirement
There are two types of accuracy requirement and they must be guaranteed within 95% of the occasions:
Q B-RNAV: (Basic RNAV) requires a 5NM accuracy and is used for general enroute air navigation.
Q P-RNAV: (Precision RNAV) requires a 1NM accuracy and is used in terminal airspace.
9.8 GNSS
GNSS stands for Global Navigation Satellite System and encompasses all satellite systems providing
position references to receivers on the ground. GPS (Global Positioning System), the American military
system is the most common system and is used widely in aviation.
Satellite navigation will slowly replace all ground-based navigation stations. It has many advantages
over traditional navigation aids:
Q Very high accuracy

Q Little to no interference
Q Cost-effective
Q Possibility to create procedures in remote areas without the need of ground equipment
Q Airplanes only need a GPS receiver
GPS can be used for enroute navigation and for departures, arrivals and approaches. GPS approaches
can now be flown down to minima nearly as low as those of a CAT I ILS approach, and automatic
landings based on GPS in low visibility conditions is in test phase.
The GNSS principle
GNSS position referencing is based on based on a worldwide standardized model of the earth, the
WGS84 (World Geodetic Survey of 1984), it is the ICAO standard model.
The WGS84 model is a 3D-mapping of the earth and allows the GNSS system to define the aircraft’s
position on a 3D Cartesian system, with its center in the core of the earth.
A total of 24 satellites circle in 6 orbital planes over the earth’s surface. Of these 24 satellites, 21 are
operational and 3 are used as spares. The satellites orbits are equally spread out in their orbits and
have an average height of roughly 20.000 km.
An observer on the earth’s surface (or close to is, such as airplanes) should have, at all times 5 to 8
satellites 5 degrees above the horizon (where they are active for position referencing).
The onboard GPS receiver will use 4 satellites to determine its position. 3 are needed to determine the
position with big certainty, however a fourth satellite is needed to compensate for receiver time errors.
Integrity monitoring
A total of 4 satellites is needed for accurate position referencing. It is however not enough to monitor
system degradation. Different principles can be used to monitor system integrity:
Q ABAS (Air based augmentation system): RAIM (Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring)
uses a 5th to monitor system accuracy and to define which satellite provides faulty information.
The weakness of the system is that, when the faulty satellite has been isolated, the receiver
could fall back on 4 satellites and RAIM is lost.
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Q GBAS (Ground based augmentation system): GBAS is specifically used to provide

accurate precision approach paths. An on-site fixed GPS receiver compares its known
position with that received of the GPS satellites. The error will be transmitted to the
approaching aircraft. This enables the aircraft receiver to update its position or provide a
navigation warning flag. GBAS can be used to fly GLS approaches (GBAS Landing system)
Q SBAS (Satellite based augmentation system): Different satellite-based systems monitor

GPS integrity from space (e.g. EGNOS for Europe, WAAS for USA) with geostationary
satellites. Most areas in the world are now covered with SBAS coverage. SBAS has a satellite
segment, a ground-based segment and a user segment. SBAS can provide position
augmentation for RNAV GNSS approaches down to LPV minima.
Current SBAS coverage. Many other areas are under development
9.9 Navigation and communication setup procedures with the G1000

In classic cockpits with analog instruments, every navigation aid had its separate instrument. The
readings of these instruments had to be mentally projected on the airplane’s gyroscopic compass.
The arrival of glass cockpits simplified this visualization, since a variety of representations can be
directly represented on the HSI. This allows pilots to narrow down their scan and increase their
situation awareness.
The disadvantage of such an integrated system where the same needles may have different meanings,
is that setup errors may lead to gross navigational errors. A correct understanding of the system
and a setup discipline are necessary to ensure the plane is headed in the right direction.
Below is a typical schematic of an IFR-equipped general aviation airplane with 2 VORs, 1 DME, 1 ILS
and 1 ADF. The representation depicted shows how all of these navigation aids may be represented on
a GARMIN glass cockpit such as the Garmin G1000. Always refer to the aircraft’s manual for the exact
information.
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In the schematic above, the lay out and color coding for every NAVAID is depicted. At one time, only
one CDI can be shown. So, it is impossible to combine the CDI of VOR1 with that of for example the
GPS.
The RMI bearing needles, however, offer the possibility to display both information on bearing 1 and
bearing 2 needles at the same time. This enables to make many combinations (e.g. an ILS on CDI 1, a
VOR on BRG 1 and an NDB on BRG 2)
Although only one DME is available in this example, it can be linked to either VOR 1, VOR 2 or ILS (if a
DME is co-located with those stations). The DME has a “HOLD” function that lets you keep the last
tuned VOR/ILS frequency tuned on the DME, whilst afterwards selecting different frequencies on the
NAV 1 and NAV 2 radios.
Because only one DME reading at a time is possible, pilots should watch out to have it coupled to the
correct NAV radio.
Note: the use of the “HOLD” function is not recommended due to the risk of wrongly interpreting the
distance to a beacon.
In the example below, we see the following:

Q CDI on GPS
Q BRG 1 on GPS
Q BRG 2 on NAV 2
Q DME on NAV 2
Mind that the distances depicted in the BRG 1 and BRG 2 boxes are not DME readings but GPS
calculated ground distances.
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A structured setup requires more than tuning a frequency and centering the course selector. Every NAV
setup should follow the following structured process:
T-I-S-D
Tune Tune the required frequency
Identify Identify the station with auto ident (VOR1/2/ILS) or aural ident (ADF). No ident
needed for GPS points
Set CDI: choose CDI NAV1/NAV2/GPS
COURSE: Select the required course
RMI: Select BRG1/2 needles to NAV1/NAV2/GPS/ADF
DME Select DME to NAV1/NAV2/HLD
VIDEO: T-I-S-D setup procedure
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Skywings policy: Standard NAV AND G1000 SETUP
Combined conventional/GPS navigation for IFR (and VFR) flights:
Terminal Area* Enroute*

Primary navigation Conventional – Green GPS – Magenta needles
needles (1)
Backup navigation GPS – Magenta needles Conventional - Green
needles
NAV 1 NAV 2
Selected Actual step/active leg Next step/next leg
Standby Next step/next leg Departing airport VOR/ILS
Terminal Area* Enroute*

CDI VOR/LOC 1 GPS
DME NAV 1 NAV 1
Bearing 1 Only if required: NAV 1 NAV 1
Bearing 2 ADF/NAV 2 Only if required: ADF/NAV
2
* Switch-over point Terminal/Enroute:
VFR: leaving CTR or circuit area
IFR: end of SID / begin of STAR
(1) Use GPS in case of RNP approach
Note: If deemed necessary in particular situations, The PIC may deviate from the standard NAV SETUP.
Skywings policy: Standard COM SETUP
For communications, the general rule is: active talking frequencies are tuned on COM 1 (delivery,
apron, ground, tower, departure, radar, arrival, approach, director...)
COM 2 is used for monitoring tasks and normally has 121.500 tuned (emergency frequency) on a
slightly reduced volume. COM 2 is also used for ATIS and VOLMET.
On the ground, when switching the active frequency in COM 1, the next expected frequency may be set
in standby. Once in the air (as from switching from TWR to the next frequency), leave the previous
frequency in standby when switching to a new frequency. This allows you to go back to that frequency
when no contact can be established on the new frequency.
On the ground (before moving under own power):
ACTIVE STANDBY
COM 1 Delivery/Active GND freq Expected GND/TWR freq
COM 2 ATIS 121.500
After ATIS was copied, during taxi, in the air:
ACTIVE STANDBY
COM 1 Active freq Previous freq
COM 2 121.500 ATIS/VOLMET
Note: If deemed necessary for safety, the PIC may deviate from the standard COM SETUP procedures.
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FCTM IFR 10 HSI Visualisation
10. HSI Visualization

Having a good mental picture of the lateral situation during IFR navigation, starts with a correct
interpretation of the HSI.
In order to form a correct 2D Picture, interpret the bearing needle as follows:
Q The airplane is always situated at the tail of the bearing needle

Q The airplane always points upwards (in the direction of the heading)
Q The station is situated in the center of the HSI.
Q By turning left or right, the tail of the bearing needle will be “pulled along” in the direction of the
airplane. (the head of the needle will hence drop away from the aircraft)
“THE AIRPLANE PULLS THE TAIL OF THE RMI NEEDLE”
As long as the airplane is tracking directly to or directly from the station, the RMI needle
will not move.
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FCTM IFR 10 HSI Visualisation
Because the airplane is not flying directly towards or from the station, but maintains a
heading of 310, the present radial in the example. reduces from 075 to 050.
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FCTM IFR 11 Tracking and homing
11. Tracking and homing

Tracking is the process of flying directly to or from a beacon (VOR or NDB) on a fixed radial (or
QDM/QDR in case of an NDB). This means that the aircraft follows a straight track over the ground,
which is only possible when a pilot corrects his heading for drift.
Not accounting for drift and adjusting the heading to keep the bearing needle on top is called “homing”
and should not be used in IFR navigation because it does not keep the airplane on a fixed radial (or
QDM/QDR in case of an NDB).
In IFR flying, fixed radials, QDM’s or QDR’s are used in airways, departure and arrival procedures and
approach procedures. They can only be flown by using a tracking method.
Homing: the airplane is being pushed by the crosswind until it is fully aligned with it. The airplane is not
following a constant track.
Tracking: the airplane corrects its heading for the wind in order to maintain a constant
track to or from the beacon.
Using the Garmin glass cockpit, the magenta track diamond on the HSI assists in tracking correctly.
Track diamond
The track diamond represents the ground track flown. It assists in flying a required track (e.g. when
tracking to or from a NAVAID) with a given wind.
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FCTM IFR 11 Tracking and homing
The bigger the value of drift, the bigger the difference is between the heading (top of the HSI) and the
ground track (indicated by the magenta track diamond “ t”). The G1000 utilizes its GPS information
to calculate the actual wind and ground track.
Note: Be aware that the track diamond might give erroneous information during turns, the information
will be accurate during straight and level flight. Read the G1000 manual for further information.
G1000 manual
Assessing drift without the track diamond
The value of drift (and consequently the wind correction) depends on the crosswind speed and the TAS
of the aircraft. To determine the drift value, you require your speed number (=TAS/60), this is the number
of nautical miles you travel per minute (through the air). A TAS of 120kts produces a speed number of
“2” (120/60=2), 60kts gives a speed number of “1” and 90kts gives a speed number of 1,5.
The formula for drift is:
CROSSWIND COMPONENT
SPEED NUMBER
Example: your TAS is 120kts and your crosswind component is 12 kts. Your drift value will be
12/(120/60) = 6 degrees. In order to steer a required track, you will have to steer the airplane 6 degrees
into the wind.
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FCTM IFR 12 Interceptions
12. Interceptions
Intercepting is the process of repositioning the airplane from one to another radial (or QDM/QDR
for NDB’s) in an efficient way.
In practice, interceptions are used when, for example overflying a VOR on an airway and changing from
specific radial inbound to a specific radial outbound.
Airway L179 changes from radial 290 inbound to radial 089 outbound. Unless you are
flying enroute navigation, coupled to an autopilot, where the airplane can calculate a
fly-by, you have to fly past the station and re-intercept the new radial.
There are three basic interception rules for different types of interceptions: (note: all interceptions are
explained with VOR’s, but the same rules apply for NDB interceptions)
Note: all interception headings must be corrected for wind!
12.1 Station passage interceptions
Angle of difference between inbound track and outbound desired radial divided by 3.
1. Fly directly to the station, preset the CDI to the next radial +/- 3 NM before arriving
2. Calculate the angle of difference between the current track and the outbound radial and divide it by
3
3. Set the heading bug to the intercept heading +/- 2 NM before arriving
4. After passing the station, turn onto the intercept heading
5. Re-intercept outbound radial
Note: For station passage, to assure a smooth interception, the minimum interception angle must be 20
degrees and the maximum should be 45 degrees.
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Example: You are on radial 360 (arriving from the north) and have to intercept radial
240 after passing the station. The AOD between your current track (180) and outbound
radial (240) is 60º. 60º divided by 3 is 20º. This means that you have to intercept the
outbound radial (after a steady from indication) by 20º. This means 240º+20º=
HEADING 260º.
12.2 Outbound interceptions
45º on desired outbound radial

(reduce to 30º on desired radial when within 10º)
1. When established on the outbound radial, preset the CDI to desired radial
2. Compensate with 45º extra interception on the desired radial. Turn 45 degrees further than the
desired radial. (in case of a left turn: subtract 45º from the desired radial, in case of a right turn, add
45º).
3. Adjust the interception angle to 30º when approaching the desired radial (within 10º)
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Example: You are on radial 240 and you have to intercept radial 270 outbound. You
will have to turn right to intercept this radial and “overshoot” it by 45º. 270º+45º=315º.
Your new heading will be 315º. When within 10º of the desired radial, reduce the
interception to 30º, making the heading to fly 300º.
12.3 Inbound interceptions
30º on present inbound radial

(change to 30º on desired radial when within 10º)
1. When established on the inbound radial, preset the CDI to desired radial.
2. Turn 30º to the left/right, towards the desired radial inbound
3. When approach the desired radial (within 10º), change to 30º interception angle on the desired
radial
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Example: You are on radial 360, inbound to the station (track 180). You need to
intercept radial 030. Turn left 30 degrees (180º-30º=150º) to intercept the required
radial. When within 10º of radial 030, reduce the interception angle to 30º to the desired
radial (heading 180). Remember that you have to visualize the airplane at the tail of
the RMI needle!
Video: VOR interceptions
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FCTM IFR 13 Reversal procedures
13. Reversal procedures

Reversal procedures are intended to reposition the airplane on the same radial, in the opposite direction
(For NDB’s: changing from a QDR to an opposite QDM or from a QDM to an opposite QDR).
This technique is often used in published approach procedures, where the navigation aid first needs to
be flown outbound, and later inbound, in order to establish for a final approach.
Q Fly outbound radial

Q Turn 45º L/R of outbound radial
Q Start timing 1 min when wings are level
Q Make a 180º degree turn
Q Fly straight until re-intercepting the
radial inbound

Q Start an 80º L/R turn, followed
immediately by a 260º turn in the other
direction
Q Re-intercept the radial inbound

Q Start a 36º (for 1 min)/18º (for 2 min)/12º
(for 3 min) L/R turn
Q Time 1 min/2 min/3 min when wings are
level
Q Make a continuous turn to re-intercept
the radial inbound
In order to use the reversal procedure, the
airplane must commence the procedure
from a position within the entry sector (30º
left to 30º right of the required outbound
track).
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FCTM IFR 13 Reversal procedures
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FCTM IFR 14 DME arcs
14. DME Arcs

A DME arc is an IFR procedure where the airplane flies an arc at a constant DME distance from a
VOR/DME station. This procedure enables flying a curved ground path with big accuracy. Even with
modern technologies such as GPS replacing many of those procedures, there are still many DME arcs
that are part of a departure, arrival or approach procedure. DME arcs are often found as procedures
in mountainous areas, or for islands, where traffic might arrive from any direction.
DME arcs can be published or non-published. If the arc is not published on a chart and instructed by
ATC. Arcs can be flown in two directions: CLOCKWISE of ANTICLOCKWISE. Clockwise arcs are flown
with right turns, once on the arc, anticlockwise arcs require left turns.
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This published 30DME arc in Palermo (Sicily), based PAL VOR/DME (112.3 PAL)
collects traffic from different waypoints (GIANO and LURON) to lead them towards the
initial approach fix for runway 25.
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ENTERING THE ARC
Entering the arc can be done from inside or outside the arc. In order not to overshoot the actual arc,
anticipate the turn by 0.5% of your groundspeed (e.g. GS 100kts: anticipate by 100 X 0.5% = 0.5NM).
Left: entering the arc from the inside. Right: entering the arc from the outside.
When entering the arc from the inside, turning only 90º will direct the airplane directly outside of the
arc again. By turning 10º extra (100º in total), the airplane will be correctly positioned.
When entering the arc from the outside, turning 90º will also direct the airplane directly outside of the
arc again. In this case, the pilot should turn only 80º to correctly position the plane.
Left: entering the arc from the inside. Right: entering the arc from the outside.
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FLYING THE ARC
Once you have positioned the airplane at the correct DME distance on the arc, adjust the heading 10º,
once the RMI needle is at 90º to your track. Keep adjusting with 10º increments until approaching the
exit radial.
LEAVING THE ARC
Anticipate the exit in order not to overshoot the exit radial. When within 10 degrees of the exit radial,
turn onto an interception heading at 30 degrees from the desired radial. Intercept the exit radial
inbound or outbound.
Example of a clockwise DME arc at 15 DME from the station with an exit radial 180
outbound.
Note: use the DME distance and not the GPS distance for DME arc work.
LEAVING THE ARC ON A LEAD RADIAL
Often, published arcs feature a lead radial. When passing the lead radial, it is mandatory to intercept
the exit radial, even if this radial is more than 10 degrees away from the exit radial. Start the interception
from the lead radial when published.
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At lead radial 029, leave the 30 DME arc, based on PAL VOR and intercept radial 034
inbound PAL VOR.
CORRECTIONS
Depending on in which phase of flight the arc is situated, the accuracy requirements change. In general,
at lower speeds, the margin for DME arcs is far bigger than the possible accuracy at which a pilot can
fly a DME arc. As a general rule, at speeds below 150kts, a pilot should be able to stay within 0.3 nautical
miles from the arc. When the airplane is 0.2 nautical miles from the arc, start correcting. Throughout the
DME arc, small corrections might be necessary to maintain the arc.
When the airplane is inside of the arc (DME distance smaller than required), just maintain the present
heading until the required DME distance is again attained.
When the airplane is outside of the arc (DME distance bigger than required), correct with 10º extra
towards the station until the required DME distance is again attained.
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VIDEO
DME ARC VIDEO: clockwise arc, 8DME, entered from inside on R270, exit radial 030 outbound, preset
exit radial on CDI 1NM before initial turn (6,5nm), anticipate turn at 7,5NM.
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FCTM IFR 15 Airways
15. Airways
Airways are the “highways” in the sky and provide a 3D-network of corridors that make use of RNAV
principles to accommodate large volumes of air traffic. As airspaces are very congested, not every
airplane can make a direct routing to its destination once airborne. With further congestion of the
airspace above Europe, airways may now create bottlenecks in the air as the whole airspace is not used
to its fullest capacity. Radar controlled direct routings and coordination between ATS unites across FIR
boundaries can take some traffic off airways and provide them possibly with more efficient routings.
Research is still ongoing to deal with the challenges of increasing air traffic.
A standard airway is 10 nautical miles wide and can be flown in both directions, taking into account
the semicircular system that indicates the flight levels to be flown depending on the direction of the
aircraft.
Airways are published in the AIP’s ENR section and taken over by data collection companies such
as Jeppesen and Lido. Airways are published with minimum altitudes.
The Jeppesen introduction offers an overview of all the different minimum altitudes and symbology used
for airways (page 61)
This QR code links to the Jeppesen Introduction manual
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FCTM IFR 15 Airways
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FCTM IFR 16 SIDs and STARs
16. SIDs and STARs

Introduction
Standard instrument departures (SIDs) and standard arrivals (STARs) serve as the connections
between the enroute airway structures and the departure/arrival aerodromes. SIDs typically connect the
departure runway with the first point on the airway, STARs typically connect the last point on the airway
with the initial approach fix (IAF).
SIDs and STARs are designed to keep traffic separated from obstacles and terrain with a margin.
Their routings are often also defined by noise abatement criteria.
SID procedures will be designed with a standard 3.3% climb gradient. If the gradient deviates, it will be
noted on the SID chart.
Straight and turning departures
A departure is considered straight if the routing does not turn more than 15º left or right from the runway
extended center line. A turning departure is a departure where the initial track exceeds 15º from the
extended center line.
SID example
Below is an example of an SID in EBAW. This SID chart depicts a departure routing to NIK VOR, from
both runways 11 and 29. Note the higher than standard climb gradient for the NIK4C departure, leaving
from runway 29. This is due to the obstacles in the city of Antwerp, close to the runway.
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Required climb gradient on an SID
Many SID’s publish a required minimum climb gradient. This is to ensure that the aircraft maintains a
safe separation from terrain during the instrument departure. Often this climb gradient is published
together with a minimum rate of climb table for different speeds.
If this table is not present, a required vertical speed can be calculated when the climb (ground)speed
and the required climb gradient is known.
To find the required rate of climb for a given climb gradient, multiply the gradient with the
groundspeed.
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STAR example
Below is an example of a STAR chart in EBAW. It features routings for 3 different arrival waypoints
(KOK, TULNI and ARVOL), all of them lead to the IAF, which is in this case ANT VOR. ANT VOR is the
IAF for both runway 29 as runway 11 arrivals.
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FCTM IFR 17 Holdings
17. Holdings
17.1 Introduction
Holdings are used when aircraft need to gain time in the air. This could be for several reasons and are
mostly imposed by air traffic control to organize arriving traffic during busy times. Airplanes are “stacked”
in what can be compared with “temporary parking spaces in the air” and await their turn to initiate an
approach.
If ATC mandates a holding, it is important to assess the fuel situation and the available time to stay in
the holding before a diversion might be necessary. If ATC does not provide you with an “estimate time
of approach” (EAT), the estimated time you may start your approach, request one and check whether
you have that time available without endangering other landing options.
Holdings can also be requested by flight crews for troubleshooting in case of a non-normal situation,
when waiting for weather improvements or when extra time is needed to prepare for an(other) approach,
for example after a go around.
ICAO has standardized those holding patterns in a so-called racetrack pattern structure. Nowadays
most holdings are still based on a ground-based navigation station such as a VOR or an NDB.
The standard holding
A standard holding (14.000ft and below) starts from overhead a predetermined point (mostly VOR or
NDB) with a right turn (rate 1), followed by a 1-minute outbound leg, followed by another rate 1 turn
to the right, followed by another 1-minute leg back to the station. The inbound and outbound track are
either published on a chart or the radial to follow is specified by ATC. Maximum speed is 230kts at
14.000ft and below.
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Standard holding pattern with right hand turns
Non-standard holdings can differ in leg timing (or sometimes timing is replaced by a DME distance)
and turning direction (left turn holdings are called non-standard turn holdings).
17.2 Flying the holding
ATC instruction: “OO-SKX, Hold overhead NIK VOR, radial 090”

OO-SKX: “Hold overhead NIK VOR, radial 090”
(Note, when ATC does not specify a turning direction, the holding must be flown as a standard, right
turn holding.)
The challenging aspect of holdings is that many actions have to happen in a short time. Those actions
are needed to ensure that the holdings are accurately flown, especially in situations with wind.
Visualizing the holding
Correctly visualizing the holding on the HSI by means of the CDI and the RMI greatly increase situational
awareness.
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OTIX
In order to increase situational awareness in the assigned holding pattern, it can be helpful to define 4
target numbers, abbreviated as “OTIX”.
“O”: OUTBOUND: The outbound track (the instructed radial in case of a VOR holding), in the case of
the instructed holding: “090”.
“T”: TEARDROP: The teardrop value is the outbound value minus 30º (for a standard holding).
This number will play a role in verifying the aircraft’s position at the end of the timing. In the case of the
instructed holding: “060”.
“I”: INBOUND: The inbound track is 180 different from the outbound value and will be the track you
follow back inbound towards the station, in this case: “270”.
“X”: ABEAM RADIAL: The abeam value is the outbound value minus 90º (for a standard holding).
This value is the radial at which the airplane is exactly abeam the holding facility and the pilot should
start his outbound timing. In this case, the abeam radial is “000”.
Holding actions & Control actions
The actions to perform in a holding can be subdivided in “holding” and “control” actions. The holding
actions are physical actions that need to be performed, the control actions are points at which the
aircraft’s position in the holding is verified.
NOTE: It is important that all turns in the holding are flown at rate 1 and that a constant speed is
maintained.
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Flying a standard holding, no wind
1. Make a right turn (rate 1, or max 25º bank)

2. Verify STATION RIGHT, FROM FLAG shown
3. Abeam radial, wings level: START TIMER
4. 75% of outbound timing (45 sec, no wind),
check: TEARDROP ALIVE (= RMI within 10º of teardrop radial)
5. 1 minute passed: TIMING COMPLETE, right turn, rate one to inbound heading
6. Perform “60-degree check”: 60 DEGREES, CDI ALIVE
7. Intercept inbound radial
Note: all the words in bold and italic are mandatory callouts when holding.
Remember to perform rate 1 turns and note that, when the holding was well performed (accurate
outbound timing, accurate rate one turns), that your timer will show 3 minutes when passing overhead
the station again.
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Holding on the G1000
Example: Holding radial 090, non-standard, left turns
STEP 0: Visualize the holding on the HSI
STEP 1: Steady from-indication, make a left rate 1 turn to heading 090
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STEP 2: Verify STATION LEFT, FROM INDICATION
STEP 3: Abeam radial (180), wings level, start timer
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STEP 4: 75% of outbound timing (45 sec, no wind), check: TEARDROP ALIVE (= RMI within
10º of teardrop radial)
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STEP 5: 1 minute passed: TIMING COMPLETE, left turn, rate one to inbound heading (note
that the airplane is at the teardrop radial 120)
STEP 6: Perform “60-degree check”: 60 DEGREES, CDI ALIVE
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STEP 7: Intercept inbound radial (note that total timing is now 2 minutes and that you are
2NM away from the station, which is exactly one-minute flight time at 120kts)
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STEP 8: After 3 minutes: back overhead the station
VIDEO: Standard holding, right turns holding on radial 090, no wind.
The effect of wind
Wind affects our holding patterns in 2 different ways:
• tailwind or headwind affects the timing.

• crosswind affects the outbound tracking.
Using the G1000 for holding patterns greatly simplifies calculating crosswind components. Use the
correct wind option that shows both a crosswind and a head/tailwind indication. You need those values
to adjust your timing and your tracking.
This image indicates a 10 knots crosswind from the left and a 6 knots tailwind.
Headwind/tailwind in the holding
In order to adjust for headwind or tailwind in the holding, you have to adjust the outbound timing. By
increasing (for headwind) or decreasing (for tailwind) the outbound timing, you compensate for the
inbound segment, and your final timing should still be 3 minutes.
Adjust the timing with 1 second per 2 knots headwind or tailwind.
NOTE: the timing of the “teardrop alive check”, which is at 75% of the outbound timing, must be
adjusted along with the outbound timing.
Example: when you have 8 knots of headwind on the outbound leg, add 4 seconds to your timing. The
new timing is 64 seconds. The teardrop alive check will be done at 75% of 64 seconds, which is 48
seconds.
Timing can be accurately adjusted after flying the first holding. When you have calculated an
outbound timing of for example 66 seconds, having taken into account the present wind but the final
timing is for example 3 minutes and 4 seconds, you have 4 seconds too much. Those 4 seconds are to
be divided in 2 seconds too much on the outbound and 2 seconds too much on the inbound. By flying 2
seconds less on the outbound (error divided by 2), you will finetune your timing in the next holding.
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Holding with headwind Holding with tailwind
Crosswind in the holding
Crosswind affects the outbound tracking of the holding. When flying inbound to the station, it is logic
to apply wind correction in order to correctly track the inbound radial.
However, when flying outbound, no tracking guidance is available and, more importantly: a single wind
correction on the outbound tracking is not enough to correctly complete a holding pattern. This
is due to the fact that crosswind in the holding will affect the turn radius differently when turning
outbound or when turning inbound.
Take a look at the drawing below and note that, with the wind coming from the non-holding side, the first
(rate one) turn in a standard holding will be wider, whereas the second (rate one) turn will be tighter.
When you apply a single wind correction on the outbound track, you do not compensate for the fact that
the inbound turn will be tighter due to the crosswind affecting the airplane in the opposite way. Applying
single wind correction will not reposition the airplane on the inbound radial, as required.
The effect of a single wind correction on the outbound track: the first turn is completed
with a higher radius, whereas the inbound turn is completed with a lower turn radius,
this positions the airplane in a way that it will not be able to pick up the inbound radial
at the end of the inbound turn.
To solve this problem and to take the changing turn radius into account, you need to apply a double
wind correction on the outbound track (but still a single wind correction in the inbound track, in order
to track the inbound radial).
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Look at the drawings below. When the crosswind comes from the non-holding side, the first turn radius
will be bigger and needs to be compensated by steering a double wind correction angle into the wind.
For wind coming from the holding side, the same principle applies, with the first turn having a reduced
radius.
Holding with crosswind from the non- Holding with crosswind from the holding
holding side. side.
The crosswind in this example is 18 knots. The TAS of the airplane in this example is
120 knots. Using the drift formula (Crosswind/speednumber = 18/2), we calculate a
drift of 9 degrees. As we have to steer double the drift correction on the outbound track
(=2 x 9 kts), we have to steer 18 degrees into the wind (hdg 072). The track diamond
helps visualizing the correct heading: when flying outbound, the track diamond should
be positioned exactly in the middle between the OUTBOUND TRACK (090) and the
present heading (072), as is the case here.
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17.3 Holding entries
Introduction
As it is often not possible to approach the holding facility directly on the correct inbound course, an entry
maneuver will often be required in order to position the airplane correctly in the holding. The holding
entry is defined by the track to the station.
There are three main entry maneuvers (Direct, Offset, Parallel) described by ICAO in DOC 8168, that
allow aircraft to arrive from every direction and fly a holding with any inbound direction.
When the airplane approaches from a direction close to the divisions between sector 1 and 3 or sector
2 and 3, two “special entries” will be flown in order to facilitate a smooth entry.
Sector 1: Parallel entry, Sector 2: Offset entry, Sector 3: Direct entry.
Direct entry
If the holding is approached from sector 3, the airplane will be able to position itself directly into the
holding after passing the station. It suffices, after station passage to make a rate one turn to the right (in
case of a standard holding).
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Parallel entry
When approaching from sector 1, a direct entry is impossible. The holding fixed is approached from the
opposite direction and a more complex maneuver is required.
After station passage, the airplane will pick up a track parallel to the inbound track but in opposite
direction and this for 1 minute (corrected for the wind). After 1 minute, a left (for standard holdings)
rate one turn back to the station will bring the airplane in a position to turn on the correct outbound track
after station passage.
Offset (teardrop) entry
When approaching from sector 2 (the smallest sector), an offset, often called a “teardrop” entry must be
flown. When passing the station, intercept the teardrop radial (30 degrees from the inbound radial)
and track it outbound for 1 minute (corrected for the wind). This will bring you more or less on the
“teardrop point” in the holding. After one minute, turn right (for standard holding) to intercept the inbound
radial. This positions you in the correct way to fly the holding after passing the station.
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Special entry: Direct close to teardrop entry
When on the limit between an offset and a direct entry (10 degrees on each side of the division), a
special entry called “Direct close to teardrop entry”, will assist in a smoother entry process.
When passing the station, fly the abeam radial for 18 seconds (corrected for the wind). After 18
seconds turn right (standard holding) and fly the outbound leg. After 90 seconds, you should arrive
approximately at the teardrop position, where you turn right again to intercept the inbound radial.
Special entry: Direct close to parallel entry
When on the limit between a parallel and a direct entry (10 degrees on each side of the division), a
special entry called “Direct close to parallel entry”, will assist in a smoother entry process.
When passing the station, make a right rate one turn to the cross radial track (do not intercept the
cross radial!). When passing abeam the station, start the timer for 18 seconds (corrected for the wind).
After 18 seconds, turn right again onto the outbound track. When passing the abeam radial, restart
the timer and time for 1 minute. After 1 minute, turn right again to intercept the inbound track.
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Visualizing the entry on the HSI
Deciding on which entry to make depends on the holding radial (or QDM), turning direction and the
aircraft’s present track to the station. A good visualization on the HSI helps to correctly determine the
entry.
As mentioned before, in order to correctly interpret the aircraft’s position relative to the beacon’s position
on the HSI, you have to visualize the beacon in the middle of the HSI and the aircraft at the tail of
the bearing needle, pointing in the direction of the heading.
When flying directly to the holding facility (bearing needle pointing in the direction of the aircraft’s track),
you can visualize the holding on the screen by preselecting the correct radial and visualizing how the
holding is situated relative to the aircraft’s position.
Holding visualization, standard (right Holding visualization, non-standard (left

turns) turns)
ENTERING THE HOLDING: EXAMPLE
ATC: OO-SKX, direct to NIK VOR, hold radial 279, non-standard

OO-SKX: direct to NIK VOR, hold radial 279, non-standard, OO-SKX
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Track directly to the station
Latest 3 NM before arriving at the

station, turn the course selector to
select the correct radial (tail of the
CDI on the holding radial)
Visualize the holding sectors (for

non-standard turns) and determine in
which one the assigned holding
radial is situated (offset entry in this
case)
Determine “OTIX”:
O: 279
T: 309
I: 099
X: 009
Determine “next step”: “Next step:

passing the station, start the timer
and intercept radial 309 outbound
for 1 minute.”
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Intercept and track radial 309
outbound for 1 minute
Turn left and re-intercept the holding

radial inbound to the station.
17.4 Leaving the holding

Leaving the holding happens after an ATC instruction to do so. This can happen in several different
ways:
Cleared for approach

Often, a holding facility is also an initial approach fix. When ATC clears you for approach, this means
that you must finish the holding pattern and then leave on the published approach transition course after
station passage. If not specified otherwise, a full holding pattern must still be completed. (e.g., when you
have just started your outbound turn and ATC clears you for approach, the full holding pattern must be
completed first).
“Leave the holding at time xxxx”

If you are required to leave the holding at a certain time, you shorten your outbound leg to be
overhead the fix again, at that given time.
Radar vectors
When under radar control, the ATC radar controller may, at any time, issue a radar heading to be
followed, cancelling the holding with immediate effect.
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FCTM IFR 18 Point-to-point navigation
18. Point-to-point navigation

Introduction
Point to point (or fix to fix navigation) is the process of navigating from one RADIAL/DME to another
one, without direct guidance to/from a VOR. Fix to fix navigation is a technique of basic IFR navigation,
without using moving maps and GPS systems capable of proceeding direct to fixes. The technique used
is a rule of thumb and its accuracy may not be a hundred percent.
The technique
To fly point-to-point, use the same visualization technique as used for interceptions and DME arcs:
visualize your airplane at the tail of the RMI (bearing) needle, and the station in the middle. This time
add another dimension: that of distance.
The center of the HSI compass rose represents 0 DME. Depending on your position, mentally divide
the HSI rose in different distance circles. Locate the point you wish to fly to from your present position
by turning the CDI on the desired radial (as you do with interceptions) and visualizing the point on the
radial and the appropriate distance. Estimate the heading you need to fly and adapt for the wind. Correct
as you approach the fix.
Self-positioning
This technique can be used when a so called “self-positioning” is requested by the pilots. In a “self-
positioning” procedure, the pilot navigates himself to a fix (often on the final approach track).
The pilot must realize that, when self-positioning, he is not anymore on a so-called procedural
track (meaning the track is pre-described, published on a chart and provides a minimum altitude
to fly). When leaving pre-described tracks for self-positioning, the pilot must remain radar-
controlled altitudes, or, when cleared for approach and to descent at own discretion, above MSA.
Example
Self-position to ANT VOR R284, 8 DME to intercept the final approach course.
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Visualize your airplane on the RMI needle and Estimate and visualize the distance rings and
set the CDI on the required radial locate the fix
Visualize the procedure on the HSI Visualize the track from your airplane to the fix
Transpose this track on your compass and derive the approximate heading to be flown
Correct for wind and for deviations as you come closer.
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VIDEO: Point to point navigation
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FCTM IFR 19 Approaches
19. Approaches
19.1 Introduction
As decreased ceilings and visibility in IMC make it impossible to conduct a visual traffic pattern, the
runway needs to be approached with the help of ground based or satellite-based navigation systems.
Depending on their capabilities and accuracy, different types of instrument approaches exists.
Some offer guidance for both the lateral and the vertical approach path (3D approaches, formerly known
as precision approaches), others only for the lateral path (2D approaches, formerly known as non-
precision approaches). The more precise the approach guidance is, the lower the minimum weather
requirements are.
19.2 MDA and DA

Every approach has a minimum altitude published at which sufficient visual contact must be
established to safely land the airplane on the runway, if this is not the case, a go-around must be
initiated.
Two type of minimum altitudes are used: the DA and the MDA.
DA (Decision altitude): A specified altitude or height in the 3D or 2D approach (after CDFA) at which a
missed approach must be initiated if the required visual reference to continue the approach has not
been established.
Whilst initiating the go-around, it is possible and allowable that the airplane will go below the DA as a
result of the aircraft’s inertia, as long as the go around is initiated no later than the DA. A pilot may not
fly level on a DA.
MDA (Minimum descent altitude): A specified altitude or height in a non-precision approach or circling
approach below which descent must not be made without the required visual reference.
When conducting a circling approach, an MDA will be published and the pilot must fly the visual
segment at or above the MDA, as long as visual contact remains established with the landing runway.
19.3 Vertical path management on a non-precision approach

In earlier times, non-precision approaches were designed in such a way that the pilot could “dive” to the
MDA, fly level until reaching the MAP (missed approach point), and then, if not visual, start the missed
approach. This technique often resulted in high rates of descent, close to the ground, causing a
significant CFIT risk (controlled flight into terrain).
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CDFA – Constant Descent Final Approach
In order to reduce these risks, the CDFA technique for non-precision approaches has been introduced.
CDFA: a stabilized approach technique for the final segment of a non-precision approach. It
requires a constant descent (without level-off) from an altitude at or above the FAF altitude, down
to the flare above the runway. Most approach plates (depending on the state authority), now
publish DA’s for non-precision approaches. This means that it is acceptable, if not visual, to go
slightly below the DA, as a result of the inertia during the go around.
Note: According to EU AIR OPS, all commercial air transport is obliged to fly a CDFA in case of a non-
precision approach. It is also Skywings’ policy to fly every non-precision approach using CDFA
technique.
In order to correctly fly a CDFA, the following considerations must be made:
Q An approximate final rate of descent must be calculated in function of the ground speed;
Q The altitude must be checked against the DME distance (if available), using the DME versus altitude
table on the approach plate;
Q The airplane must not level off! When reaching the DA and not visual, a go-around must be initiated;
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VDP: VISUAL DESCENT POINT
As the vertical path on a non-precision approach, using a CDFA might be less accurate due to the lack
of vertical (glideslope) guidance, the distance to the runway when reaching the DA might differ. The pilot
could face a situation where he is too close to the runway and could only land by making a destabilizing
“dive” towards the runway. In another case, the pilot could end up too far from the runway, meaning that
he would have to fly level to pick up a correct descent path again. In both such cases, a go-around must
be initiated, because a stabilized landing is not possible any more.
To calculate the VDP from the runway, a simple rule of thumb can be used:*
VDP = MDH/300
Example: MDH = 600 feet. 600/300 = 2. The VDP is 2 NM from the runway.
*Note: this VDP formula only works for a 3 degree glide path.
Keep in mind that, because of the position of the VOR, a VDP distance might not be the same as the
DME distance. If needed, convert the VDP into a DME distance. Note that a visual descent point may
not be published on an approach plate and that it is up to the pilot to calculate it.
19.4 ILS approach

The ILS approach is the most commonly used precision approach. It uses ground-based navigation
aids and two antennae in the aircraft and provides lateral and vertical guidance. A standard vertical
profile will be a 3º path originating from the touchdown zone. If the glideslope angle deviates, this will
be published on the approach plate.
Due to their precision, ILS approaches allow aircraft to fly the approach down to low minima without
seeing the runway. For general aviation, most aircraft are certified down to CAT I approaches, meaning
a required RVR of 550m and a decision altitude at a height of 200 ft. CAT II and CAT III approaches
allow even more minima, up to a ceiling of 0 feet.
The ILS approach guides the airplane by means of a localizer antenna on a VHF frequency in the lateral
field and by means of a glideslope antenna on a UHF frequency in the vertical field. The two frequencies
do not have to be tuned separately as the glideslope frequency is paired to the localizer frequency.
Tuning the localizer alone is enough. Identification of the approach will also be done by means of the
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localizer identifier. Many ILS approaches also have a DME antenna coupled, giving distance information
to the runway. Also this frequency is paired to the localizer frequency.
Marker beacons
Marker beacons provide a means of verifying the aircraft’s position on the ILS and crosschecking the
altitude. Markers do normally not serve as directional aids and can thus not be tuned as navigational
beacons. For civil aviation, mostly only the outer marker is used (OM), that is often located around 4 NM
on final. When overflying a marker, it will automatically trigger an aural warning in the cockpit as well as
a visual indication. The outer marker will be visually represented by a blue boxed “O”.
Sometimes, the marker is co-located with an NDB antenna, as is the case in EBAW. The switchover of
the NDB RMI needle can also be used as a marker indication.
ILS with DME pairing

Most ILS’s today feature DME pairing, meaning that the distance to the threshold is available. This
enables pilots to cross-check altitude versus distance as an indicator of being on the correct glide slope
and not on a false one. DME pairing on an ILS greatly increases situation awareness. The DME
frequency is paired to the localizer frequency and separate tuning is not needed.
The DME antenna may not be placed exactly on the threshold of the runway but is calibrated to provide
a “0 DME”-reading when crossing the threshold.
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The OM on the ILS approach runway 29 in EBAW is co-located with ONW NDB. On
the vertical depiction of the approach, you can read the expected altitude on the
glideslope of 1280 feet.
An “O” boxed in blue will indicate when the airplane is passing overhead the outer
marker beacon.
Airborne equipment
The airplane has a localizer and a glideslope antenna and the Localizer frequency can be tuned and
identified using the NAV 1 or NAV 2 radio on the G1000.
The G1000 represents the localizer and glidepath information as follows:
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The localizer is represented on the HSI

with 2 dots on each side with every dot
indicating 1.25º deviation.
The localizer deviation bar will move in

the direction to be steered, meaning that,
if the bar is on the right, the airplane is
left off course and should steer right.
The Glideslope is represented as a

diamond in a vertical box next to the
attitude indicator. The proximity of the
altimeter and the vertical speed indicator
allow for an easy scan. Every dot
represents 0.14º deviation.
The dot indicates the position of the

glidepath. In this case, the glidepath is
below the aircraft’s position so the pilot
will need to increase his rate of descent
to catch up with the glideslope.
Rate of descent on the approach
As attitude flying means proactive flying and not “chasing the needles”, the pilot must prepare the vertical
speed that he will fly on the approach. The vertical speed will depend on the groundspeed and can
easily be calculated for a 3 degree glidepath:
ROD on 3º glideslope = 5 X groundspeed
Example: an airplane has an approach speed of 100kts, meaning that the rate of descent will be
approximately 500 feet per minute.
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If corrections have to be flown because the airplane is high or low on the profile, correct with 100 to 200
feet per minute. Avoid “diving” back towards the profile or climbing back to it. A proper scan will avoid
big deviations.
False glideslope beams
Due to the design of the glideslope system, there is a risk of capturing false glideslope beams. False
glideslopes are signals that will be interpreted by the glideslope antenna as being “on glide”, and hence
give a correct glideslope indication in the flight deck. The danger is however that the pilot collides with
obstacles in IMC or conducts an approach that is too steep.
Verification of the correct glideslope can be done by

Q Making a proper descent planning in order to capture the glideslope from below
Q Cross-checking DME distances versus altitude
Q Making the outer-marker check.
Lateral path management on an ILS

An aircraft is considered “established on the localizer” when the deviation is within half the scale. (1,25
degrees in case of a localizer).
19.5 VOR approach

A VOR approach is a non-precision approach. The lateral guidance is foreseen by a VOR station that
is located on or near the airfield. The pilot will tune the VOR approach and select the radial to be flown
for final approach.
Contrary to the ILS, where the lateral path is aligned with the extended centerline of the runway, the
VOR beacon may be positioned in such a way that this is not the case when flying a VOR approach. In
this case we speak about an “offset approach”: the pilot will need to make a final alignment with the
runway once visual to proceed for landing.
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The VOR can be located in many different locations relative to the landing runway: to the side of it
(causing an offset final approach with a requirement to make a final alignment with the runway), in front
of the threshold, behind the threshold or even between the threshold and the final approach.
Use of DME in a VOR approach
Most VOR approaches have DME information available to the station. Note that the DME distance is
a distance given to the station, not the threshold of the runway! As shown in the image above, the
location of the VOR relative to the runway may vary. The consequence of this is that the DME will not
necessarily read “0” when passing overhead the threshold (as is the case normally for an ILS/DME
approach). If the station is located behind the runway, the DME could read more than 1 NM overhead
the threshold. If the station is located between the runway and the final approach track (as shown in the
right example of the image above), the DME will even increase as you approach the runway.
It is important to discuss the location of the VOR and the expected DME reading overhead the threshold
when performing an approach briefing.
The DME readings will assist in conducting a CDFA (constant descent final approach). Approach plates
publish an altitude versus DME reading for every nautical mile, allowing follow-up of the vertical path
during the approach (as real time vertical guidance is not available for a non-precision approach). The
pilot has to make verbal DME versus altitude checks when flying a non-precision approach. He
has to correct when becoming low or high. Continue altitude versus distance readouts until you are
visual with the runway.
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Example: Approach with DME readings from 6DME to 1DME. The pilot will follow up DME versus altitude
out loud as follows:
“Next step: 6 DME, 1690 ft – 5 DME: on profile, next step: 4 DME, 1320 ft – 4 DME 100 ft high,
correcting, next step: 3 DME: 950 ft - ...”
Lateral path management on a VOR approach
An aircraft is considered “established on the inbound radial” when the deviation is within half the scale.
(5 degrees in case of a VOR).
19.6 NDB approach

In many ways, an NDB approach is similar to a VOR approach in the way it is flown. However, there are
some things to take into account:
Q An NDB approach has no DME, so altitude versus DME distance calculations are not possible,
making a perfect CDFA more challenging;
Q The NDB suffers interference from many sources such as thunderstorm activity, coastal
refraction and so on, making a stabilized lateral path more challenging;
Q The NDB cannot be automatically identified on the G1000, meaning that constant ident
monitoring is required during the approach;
Q The NDB can only be tracked using the RMI (bearing) needle, no CDI is available.
Due to these factors, DA’s/MDA’s will be significantly higher for NDB approaches.
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Lateral path management on an NDB approach
An aircraft is considered “established on the QDM” when the deviation is within 5 degrees.
Overlay approach
To have a more constant, accurate guidance and more information to conduct a CDFA, a so-called
“overlay approach” can be flown. Overlay approaches use GNSS position information together with a
database-stored approach. This allows the pilot to fly the NDB-approach, using more accurate GNSS
information (with the CDI selected on GPS, a deviation bar is available and the distance to the runway
will be displayed).
Note: An approach may be flown as an overlay approach only if:

Q The primary NAVAID (the NDB in this case) of the approach is operational, selected, identified
and displayed to cross-check GPS accuracy
Q The approach procedure is correctly stored in the aircraft’s navigation database and all points
are checked versus the original approach plate.
Overlay approaches may also be flown when flying other non-precision approaches such as VOR
approaches. The same conditions apply however.
19.7 Localizer approach

If the glideslope on an ILS is out of service or a certain approach only features a localizer antenna, a
localizer only approach can be flown. A localizer approach is a non-precision approach as the vertical
profile will have to be calculated by the pilot.
Where an ILS approach is normally available, the localizer approach will be published on the same chart
as the ILS chart. The vertical profile can be calculated by defining the desired vertical speed and then
cross-checking this vertical speed with the distance versus speed table.
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The localizer approach for runway 29 in EBAW is published on the ILS chart with
separate, higher minima. Note that the minimums can be used as a DA if a CDFA is
flown.
19.8 PBN approach
PBN and RNAV approaches
Over the last 2 decades, satellite navigation systems such as “GPS” (Global Positioning System), have
become a vital part of daily life.
These navigation systems allow very accurate position defining in many different applications. Through
a complex network of satellites, receiver position can now be identified with extreme accuracies.
This extreme accuracy allows satellite navigation to be used not only for en-route navigation for aircraft,
but also for departure, arrival and even approach phases of flight.
The last decade, IFR approaches based on GPS have become more and more present on big and many
smaller airports. These approaches have many advantages: they require little or no ground-based
navigation equipment, they are not limited to line of sight, they allow complex routings in areas with high
terrain or many obstacles and they do not require complex hardware on board of aircraft.
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More and more, these GNSS-based approaches replace traditional “non-precision” approaches such as
VOR and NDB approaches and they are well under the way to replace existing ILS approaches in the
future with the first autoland trials, purely based on GNSS already successfully completed.
Though, current satellite navigation systems such as GPS have weaknesses too: the standard GNSS
system used in aviation, GPS, is a military system and its accuracy and reliability is out of the hands of
airports and pilots.
Therefore, in order to use them, integrity monitoring is necessary. These come in the form of aircraft-
based augmentation systems such as RAIM (receiver autonomous integrity monitoring) and satellite-
based augmentation systems (SBAS) such as EGNOS in Europe and WAAS in the US.
What is PBN?
GNSS based navigation falls under the RNAV category as it is navigation that is not based on “station-
to-station” principles.
Since RNAV has been expanded with these relatively new GNSS-based technologies, there is a
requirement for new ways of defining system accuracy and reliability. These are key performance
indicators of system safety and usability. Therefor the concept of “PEFORMANCE BASED
NAVIGATION” (PBN) was designed.
ICAO defines PBN as “Area navigation based on performance requirements for aircraft operating along
an Air Traffic Services (ATS) route, on an instrument approach procedure or in a designated airspace.
What are RNP and ANP?
The degree of required accuracy and integrity depends on the area and phase of flight. When flying on
Oceanic tracks, the required navigation performance will be less stringent compared to final approach
phases for example. This degree of required accuracy is called “Required Navigation Performance”
(RNP).
RNP, briefly summarized, is the minimum navigation accuracy an aircraft is to be able to maintain for
95% of the flight time.
Typical, common values of RNP are the following:

B-RNAV (Basic-RNAV, on ATS routes for example) has an RNP of 5NM
P-RNAV (Precision-RNAV, used in the terminal area for specific SIDs and STARs) has an RNP of 1NM
An aircraft must be able to fulfill the RNP requirements of the applicable area or procedure before
entering or commencing it. The actual performance of the aircraft at that specific moment is called
“ANP”, actual navigation performance.
Bear in mind that PBN is not limited to aircraft equipped with GPS only. In some increasingly rare
occasions, even larger aircraft are still not equipped with GPS. These aircraft may still very well be
RNAV-equipped by using other ways of defining position such as inertial reference systems (IRS) and
position updates based on ground-based navigation equipment such as DME`s and VOR`s. The
absence of GPS will, however, limit the aircraft in its ANP and it will not be able to fly RNAV GNSS
approaches, as they are primarily based on GNSS and require accuracies as low as 0.3 NM (and in
some cases even 0.1NM).
19.8.1 The RNP approach
RNP approaches (also called PBN approaches, RNAV GPS approaches or RNAV GNSS approaches)
are in essence 2D and 3D IFR approaches that use GNSS as primary navigation aid and are defined in
their accuracy by PBN requirements.
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They come in many forms and a good understanding of which type of approach you are allowed to fly
and to which minima is important.
RNP approach buildup philosophy
An RNP approach consists of RNAV waypoints that are normally independant of traditional navigation
beacons such as VOR`s, DME`s and NDB`s (with exceptions in the initial, intermediate and missed
approach phase of the approach). These waypoints are represented on the chart as star symbols. These
waypoints can have easily pronouncable names, just like enroute RNAV waypoints such as “ARPUR”
and “BEVRI”, but they can also have a combination of letters and numbers, often related to the position
of the waypoint and the approach runway.
The final approach fix of the RNAV GNSS approach on runway 11 in Antwerp is called “AW11F”, where
the AW relates to Antwerp, the 11 to the runway and the F to the fact that this is the final approach fix.
RNAV waypoints on the RNAV GNSS approach RW 11 in EBAW
As these procedures are designed primarily for autopilot use, coupled to a “NAV” mode that follows the
programmed flight plan, these waypoints can be flown as “FLY-BY” waypoints instead of “FLY-OVER”.
This means that the autopilot will create a smooth transition from waypoint to waypoint, not overflying
the active waypoint when turning to the next one.
RNP zones on an RNAV GNSS approach
Depending on the segment of the approach (Initial, Intermediate, Final, Missed approach), the required
system accuracy changes. It is logic that the closer to the ground you are, the lower (more accurate)
the required navigation performance must be.
Unlike an ILS, where the localizer and glideslope beams form “beams” that become narrower as we
come closer to the runway, the procedural boundaries in RNAV approaches form rectangles.
Above: a localizer beam, below the final approach of an RNAV GNSS approach
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The RNP of the final approach segment of an RNAV GNSS approach must be 0.3 NM. For all the other
segments, it is 1 NM, meaning that these areas have larger deviation tolerances from the procedural
center line.
The transfer an RNP of 1 NM to one of 0.3 NM happens latest at the FAF. This is not a gradual change,
meaning that, on passing the overhead FAF, the ANP must be 0.3 or less.
A problem may arise when aircraft would be cleared directly to the FAF, especially from large angles
such as a 90° base. As the airplane would not overfly the FAF exactly, but create a FLY-BY waypoint,
it is possible that the turn radius needed is bigger than the 0.3 NM boundary, established from the FAF
onwards.
Therefore, most RNP approaches will often have a point at at least 2 NM before the FAF to which ATC
can issue a direct clearance without a problem. As a general rule, vectors and direct routings should not
come closer than 2 NM from the FAF to ensure a correct lateral path.
SEGMENT Starting point Ending point RNP
Initial approach IAF IF 1
Intermediate approach IF FAF 1
Final approach FAF MAP / RW 0,3
Missed approach MAP / RW END OF MISSED APP 1
Distance to the runway instead of DME distance
Traditional approaches often rely on DME stations to provide the distance to a runway or the approach
beacon. RNAV approaches based on GNSS are normally based on distance to the runway, meaning
that the distance to final approach is provided as a distance to the next waypoint, normally being
“RWXX”. This distance is “over-the-ground-distance” and not “slant range”.
Signal augmentation and integrity monitoring
As GNSS is used as a primary means of navigation in RNAV GNSS approaches, reliability and
availability must be assured. To do so, different techniques are available. For RNAV GNSS approaches,
there are basically two methods: ABAS (aircraft-based augmentation system) through RAIM (Receiver-
autonomous integrity monitoring) and SBAS (satellite-based augmentation system), through various
systems, depending on the area (EGNOS in Europe).
For detailed description of these systems, consult your “Radio navigation” ATPL manual.
RAIM prediction
RAIM basically works with excess satellites that are available while flying. These extra satellites will
augment the aircraft`s position by detecting faulty satellites. There could be remote cases where only
the absolute minimum amount of satellites (4) for GPS position is available. If so, RAIM is not available
and some RNAV GNSS approach types (LNAV and LNAV/VNAV minima) cannot be flown.
As GPS satellites move in predictable patterns, it is possible to predict RAIM availability during the time
of flight in the area of the intended flight. The availability depends on the location and the time.
RAIM prediction can be checked online on: https://augur.eurocontrol.int/ec/status
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19.8.2 Who can fly what and when?
The pilot
Until 2020, PBN did not form part of the IR training, meaning that PBN was a specific endorsement that
existed under the form as an entry into the pilot`s logbook after having followed a training and a check
flight. The approach minima that could be flown depended on the training and the training device/aircraft
used. To use the lowest applicable approach minima, the training must have taken place on a device or
aircraft that was approved down to those minima and these minima had to be specifically trained.
As from 2020, PBN is a component of the IR training syllabus and an IR-entry into the EASA pilot license
automatically allows the pilot to perform RNP approaches.
The aircraft
The aircraft itself must also be certified to conduct RNP approaches. The type of minima that can be
flown depends on the equipment. An aircraft certified for RNP approaches may not automatically
perform approaches down to the lowest possible minima. This information can be found in the IFR
certification paperwork of the airplane.
The navigation database
Next to the specific approval stating that the aircraft has all the necessary equipment to perform RNP
approaches, those approaches must also be present in the NAVIGATION DATABASE of the on-board
navigation equipment. The exact approach title of the approach to be flown must match with the title of
the selected approach in the navigation-interface of the aircraft. Also note that you can only legally fly
the loaded RNP approach when the on-board navigation database is not expired.
19.8.3 RNP approach types
RNP approaches can be subdivided into 2 categories: those with vertical guidance (3D approaches)
and those with no vertical guidance (2D approaches).
The type of RNP approach that can be flown depends on the approach minima. 2D approaches only
provide guidance laterally, meaning that the pilot must manage his own vertical path (comparable to the
traditional “non-precision approach” such as the VOR approach). 3D approaches provide vertical
guidance as well, but their accuracy depends on the way that this path is created (barometric source for
LNAV/VNAV and SBAS for LPV).
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Representation of the most common type of RNP approach minima.

Note: 3D approaches are also called “APV”: Approach with vertical guidance
Approach minima in EBAW for the RNAV GNSS approach runway 11. Note that the
LNAV minima are the highest and the LPV minima the lowest (almost down to CAT I
ILS minima)
LNAV minima
RNP approaches down to LNAV minima are commonly the most restrictive ones. They only provide
lateral guidance and the pilot has to perform altitude versus runway distance checks. The pilot is
responsible for the vertical path, just like in a traditional non-precision approach, now called a 2D-
approach. This must happen by means of a CDFA. If the pilot is not visual at the minimums, he must go
around. Integrity monitoring is normally provided by RAIM.
LNAV/VNAV minima
RNP approaches with LNAV/VNAV minima are called “APV-BARO” approaches. They provide vertical
guidance by displaying a “glidepath” (to the analogy of a glide slope). This glide path does not work the
same way a glideslope does, however. The BARO-glidepath is created by a calculation between the
altimeter and the GPS distance to the beginning of the runway. If the QNH is incorrectly set, the glidepath
will guide the aircraft on a glidepath that matches with the indicated altimeter. If the QNH is lower than
the one that is set in the altimeter, the plane will be below the intended path. This mistake is commonly
referred to as “blunder error”.
NOTE: before commencing any approach that is based on a barometric altitude, cross check if the QNH,
given by air traffic control when they issue a descent clearance below transition level, matches more or
less with the one given in an ATIS. This avoids blunder error (if a QNH is set 10hPa higher than the
actual one, e.g. 1020 instead of 1010, the airplane`s actual altitude will be roughly 300 feet lower than
the indicated one)
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LPV minima
LPV stands for: localizer performance with vertical guidance. The angular lateral and vertical guidance
is based on GNSS augmented by SBAS. The final approach segment is a data block that is coded in
the on-board navigation database. LPV minima are often almost as low as CAT I minima.
19.8.4 The influence of the temperature
RNP approaches with vertical guidance (those down to LNAV/VNAV minima and LPV minima) do not
need to be corrected for colder temperatures in the final approach segment (as from the FAF).
LPV approaches rely on vertical guidance, created by a fixed profile in space. Hence, they are not
influenced by varying barometric levels due to temperature changes.
APV-BARO approaches (those down to LNAV/VNAV minima) provide vertical guidance but rely on a
path that is created by a barometric profile that will vary with temperature. The design of the procedure,
however, takes into account that, when relying on barometric vertical guidance, the profile and
steepness of the approach will depend on the actual temperature (the lower the temperature, the lower
all true altitudes and the shallower the approach path).
However, 3D approaches with barometric vertical guidance (LNAV/VNAV minima) can only be flown
when the temperature is at or above the published minimum temperature. Below that temperature, if
unable to perform an LPV approach, the minima must be increased to LNAV minima and the vertical
path must be monitored by the pilot by means of a CDFA. Generally, this minimum temperature is
between -10°C and -20°C, depending on the area.
MINIMUMS TYPE TEMPERATURE CORRECTIONS
LNAV 2D YES, all phases
LNAV/VNAV 3D (APV- NOT in final approach phase

BARO)
But cannot be flown below published
minimum temperature
LPV 3D NOT in final approach phase
No minimum temperature
Minimum temperature of the RNAV GNSS approach RW11 in EBAW is -10°C
19.8.5 Other types
Some airports have RNAV approaches that have RNP requirements that deviate from the standard
ones, those can normally only be flown with specific approval from the authorities (so called “AR” -
“APPROVAL REQUIRED” approaches). These can be recognized by their special minimums. These
minimums can consist of an RNP value for example instead of “LNAV/VNAV” for example.
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As a general rule: if you do not recognize the type of minimums, do not fly the approach, unless formal
approval is received from the authorities.
RNAV approach in Juneau, Alaska. The minimums are defined by RNP values,
meaning that prior approval is required, and they fall under the “AR”-category
(Approval Required).
Note: there is little standardization worldwide in the approach titles, names range from “RNP approach”
to “RNAV GNSS approach” or “RNAV GPS approach” etc. The best way to see which approaches you
can fly, is by looking at the minimums.
19.8.6 Contingencies
System degradation does not necessarily mean that a diversion is necessary. Depending on the type of
failure, alternate minimums can be used. This depends on the system requirement per type of minimum.
Loss of RAIM
In case of loss of RAIM, the integrity monitoring is not any more guaranteed for RNP approaches with
LNAV or LNAV/VNAV minimums. If available and the pilot and airplane are approved to do so, an LPV
approach can still be flown as its integrity monitoring is through SBAS.
Temperature below minimum published temperature
If the temperature is below the minimum published one, either an LPV approach must be flown (if
available and the pilot and the aircraft are approved), or the pilot must revert to LNAV minima and
perform cold temperature corrections.
SBAS failure
In case of an SBAS failure, no LPV approach can be executed. The pilot must revert to the higher
LNAV/VNAV or LNAV minima. If this happens during final approach, a missed approach must be
executed unless the pilot has sufficient visual references to continue the approach. When reverting to
LNAV minima, the pilot must execute a CDFA and cross-check altimeter versus distance to the runway.
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GPS fail
If there is a full GPS failure, the aircraft can no long define its position based on GPS-based RNAV
points. If this is the case before commencing the approach, another type of approach must be flown, or
a diversion must be started. If this happens during the final approach, a go around must be executed.
Some approach procedures provide a missed approach in case of loss of GPS. This procedure is based
on conventional navigation aids. If no such missed approach is available, contact ATC for instructions.
Alternate planning
When planning a flight to an aerodrome with only RNAV GNSS approaches, the destination alternate
aerodrome should have at least one approach not based on GNSS.
19.8.7 RNAV approach on the G1000
To correctly program the RNAV approach in the G1000, refer to the G1000 manual. The following things
should be taken into account:
Loading the approach
When loading the approach into the G1000, it is important to check the EGNOS channel and ident when
preparing for an RNAV GNSS approach to LPV minima. Double check these with the approach plate
RAIM check
RAIM availability can be checked on the GPS aux page by selecting “COMPUTE RAIM?”
Waypoint information
Correct sequencing of the waypoints can be found in the flight plan. There you can check the waypoint
name, the track and the distance to the next point.
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In the top of the PFD and the MFD you can find information regarding the active waypoint. It will give a
distance to the next waypoint. This is where you will also find the distance to the runway (indicated as
a waypoint called “RWXX”) when performing altitude versus distance checks on a 2D approach.
In this example, the aircraft is flying from the FAF to the RW11 waypoint and the
distance to the runway is 7.7 NM.
HSI indications
The CDI must be set to “GPS” during RNAV GNSS approaches (magenta color). Inside of the HSI, the
area, linked to the applicable RNP will be indicated. This could be for example “TERM” in the terminal
area (RNP 1.0), “LPV” when in final approach for an LPV approach (RNP 0.3) and “MAPR” for the
missed approach (RNP 1.0)
19.8.8 RNP approach checklist
Prior to every planned RNP approach, check the following:
Aircraft Approved for RNP approach down to applicable

minima
Pilot Endorsed for RNP approach down to applicable

minima
RAIM prediction Checked if applicable (not for LPV)
Approach title Loaded in the NAV DATABASE with the correct title
Waypoints, tracks and distances Cross-checked and correctly programmed in the

flight plan
==> LNAV minima Prepare to make altitude vs. distance to runway
checks to ensure CDFA
Check RAIM
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==> LNAV/VNAV minima Check minimum temperature
Check RAIM
==> LPV minima No minimum temperature
No RAIM check needed
SBAS must be operative
19.9 Circling approach

In some cases, the intended landing runway may not have its own published IFR approach available.
This could be due to navigation aid unserviceability or terrain considerations. By flying a circling
approach (flying an approach to another runway, followed by a visual maneuver to position for final for
the intended landing runway), this may be resolved.
A pilot may fly a circling approach, provided that the published minimum visible reference requirements
are met.
Visual maneuvering area
The size of the visual maneuvering area depends on the airplane category. Category “A” aircraft have
a standard visual maneuvering area of 1.68 NM.
Visual maneuvering (circling) area for category A aircraft.

Picture from ICAO DOC 8168.
Types of circling approach
A “traditional” circling approach is an approach where the IFR procedure is flown for the runway,
opposite to the landing runway. In a non-traditional circling approach, the approach runway and the
landing runway are not opposite. Specific procedures can be published in this case. If they are not
published, the pilot must establish a plan for the visual maneuvering part of the approach.
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Traditional circling pattern Non-traditional circling pattern
Circling minima
Circling minima are published on the approach chart depicting the IFR approach flown until the circling
maneuver. They are normally published to the right of the straight-in landing minima and feature an
MDA and minimum visibility depending on the circling speed.
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Circling technique
The pilot will fly the airplane down to the circling MDA (or higher if visual with the runway at an earlier
stage). If visual references are established, a left or right turn (depending on the pilot flying’s position
and/or specific ATC/procedural requirements) to commence visual maneuvering towards the landing
runway. In a traditional circling approach, this means entering a downwind after a 45º “breakoff”.
At all times the pilot must maintain visual contact with the landing runway and stay within the circling
area. If visual contact is lost, a go around must be initiated.
Note: The detailed steps in flying a circling approach are airplane-dependent and are published in the
applicable Skywing’s QRH.
Missed approach
The go around maneuver depends on the aircraft’s position during the approach.
Not visual at MDA: follow the published missed approach procedure.
Losing visual contact during the visual maneuver: Make a climbing turn in the shortest way towards
the approach runway (not the landing runway) and pick up the published missed approach.
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19.10 Missed approach procedure

The pilot can only descend below MDA or continue the approach when passing the DA if the aircraft is
in a position at which a safe landing can be carried out and the runway environment is clearly visible to
the pilot flying the aircraft. If the necessary visual criteria are not established, a missed approach must
be carried out.
The procedure to be flown depends on the approach that is conducted and is published in the applicable
approach chart, with a missed approach altitude. The standard climb gradient for a missed approach is
2,5%. If a higher than necessary climb gradient is needed for obstacle or terrain clearance, this will be
published on the chart.
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A missed approach maneuver is considered a normal maneuver but requires nevertheless swift and
correct aircraft handling close to the ground. The decision to go around must be followed by a positive
and correct sequence of actions, as described in the aircraft’s POH (for aircraft in the Skywings’ fleet,
refer to the OM part B of the applicable aircraft).
The actions will generally consist of: application of power and resetting the flaps to a go-around position
in which the flaps produce primarily lift and less drag than the landing flap setting. Make the callout to
go around loud and clear and announce the actions, e.g.: “GO AROUND, FLAPS TAKE OFF”.
Missed approach climb gradients
A standard 2,5% climb gradient must be achieved when flying a missed approach. Some approaches,
however, require higher climb gradients due to obstacles, terrain or nearby airspace. If the required
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climb gradient exceeds 2,5%, this will be mentioned on the approach plate. Some approach plates will
also publish higher approach minima with less restrictive climb gradients.
In Liege (EBLG), the missed approach climb gradient for the ILS on runway 22R is
higher than the standard 2,5%.
Visibility and RVR
Both RVR and visibility give the pilots information about the how far they can see along the take-off or
landing path. The difference lies in the way they are determined.
Visibility is determined by an observer assessing distance markers from an observation point. This
method is not very precise and only used when visibility is generally fine.
RVR is determined in a much more precise way, near the runway, by RVR Transmissometers. These
are electronic visibility detectors capable of giving precise readings. RVR readings are given for the
touchdown zone, the runway midpoint and the runway end.
RVR’s are issued instead of visibility when the general visibility drops close to approach minima.
The location of RVR transmissometers, as shown on a taxi chart of Liege Airport

(EBLG).
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Converted Meteorological visibility (CMV)
When an RVR is not available, normal visibility may be converted into a higher RVR. This is because
normal visibility does not take into account the presence of approach lights. During nighttime, observed
visibility may be converted into a higher RVR because of the further reach of approach lights in nighttime
conditions.
The conversion may not be used for take-off and not when actual RVR’s are given. Conversion from
visibility to RVR is done according to the ICAO-published table below.
Approach ban
To continue an approach down to the minimums, a minimum required visibility must be reported. E.g.
when the minimum RVR is 550M (CAT I ILS standard), an approach must not be completed to the
minimums if the RVR is below that value.
You can, however, commence the approach and continue up to the approach ban point (1000 feet AAL),
if by that time, an improved RVR is not given by ATC, the approach must be discontinued, and a missed
approach must be flown.
The approach ban criteria only count for visibility, not for ceiling, meaning that the approach may be
continued down to the minima with a lower than required reported ceiling.
The function of approach lights
Depending on the presence and the type of approach lights, different minima may be published. This is
because approach lights provide guidance before seeing the actual runway. The intensity of approach
lights can be controlled from the air traffic control tower and the intensity can be changed on pilot’s
request.
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Example of an approach light system.
Approach lights come in many different forms and shapes and depending on their type and functioning,
approach minima and required visibilities might vary. The types of approach lights can be found in the
Jeppesen introduction manual.
The ILS approach in EBAW publishes different visibility requirements for full approach
lights system functionality (550M) or “Approach Light System out” (1200M RVR). Note
that, when no autopilot, HUD or flight director is used, the minimum RVR with full
approach lights systems is 750M instead of 550M.
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FCTM IFR 20 IFR flight planning
20. IFR Flight planning

Planning an IFR navigation flight from A to B requires meticulous planning. This preparation should be
done step by step:
Q Define routing
Q Define cruising altitude
Q Check for NOTAM restrictions
Q Check weather and winds aloft
Q Prepare navigation log
Q Make fuel calculation
Q Make performance calculation
Q Define alternate
20.1 Routing
When planning an IFR cross country navigation, a pilot cannot just plot a direct course on a chart. Many
factors such as terrain, airspace, fuel requirement, IFR route structures and so on must be taken in
consideration.
Having an accurate idea of the routing that will be flown is of utmost importance for fuel planning. A
pilot will need to exercise sound judgement to plan a routing that will be accepted by air traffic
control by the means of an IFR clearance and calculate a realistic fuel requirement. An IFR
navigation can be subdivided in 4 major parts:
Initial departure Q SID: Standard instrument departure. A SID forms the connection
routing between the departing runway and the point where you join an airway or
enroute part of your navigation. Most major airports have multiple SID’s
per runway leading towards waypoints in every departure direction. An
expected SID can be planned but will depend on the departure runway
in use and the ATC IFR departure clearance. In the planning stages, the
pilot needs to have an idea of the approximate distance between the
departure airport and the first point on the enroute section, without
knowing for sure which star will be flown. The pilot will need to make an
educated estimate of the distance, using the SID and airway charts.
Q Omnidirectional departure: In some cases, in smaller airports without

published SID’s or by ATC clearance, an IFR departure will not be via a
SID. In this case, an omnidirectional clearance can be given. The
airplane is in that case expected to maintain runway track until passing a
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height of 400 feet, before making the initial turn onto a cleared heading
or before intercepting a radial, QDM or QDR.
Enroute portion Q Airways: As primary means of IFR overland navigation, pilots should
plan to use airways that guide him towards his destination airports. If
airways are not available mean big detours, direct routings can be
planned.
Arrival Q STAR: Standard arrival. A STAR forms the connection between the
airway or the last point of the enroute portion and the initial approach fix.
The STAR that will be flown will depend on the runway in use and air
traffic control. Airport with no published STARS will provide alternative
means of guiding the airplane towards the initial approach fix. This may
include a direct routing from the last point on the airway to the IAF of an
interception of a radial, QDM, QDR of DME arc. For fuel planning, just
like with an SID, the pilot will need to make an educated estimate of the
distance between the last part of the enroute portion and the IAF.
Q Radar vectors: For busy, radar-controlled airports, air traffic control will
often revert to radar headings and altitudes. This means that the arrival
controller will guide the aircraft to the final approach course (or a point
earlier on the approach) from where the pilot will be cleared for the IFR
approach. Whilst receiving radar vectors, ATC is responsible for terrain,
obstacle and traffic separation. ATC will often use radar vectors to make
more efficient use of the airspace. When receiving radar vectors to final
approach, short cuts can be expected and the descent needs to be
carefully planned. If unsure about how many track miles to expect, a pilot
can ask the controller.
Approach Q In the planning stage, a pilot will not be 100% sure of which approach to
expect at the destination aerodrome. Also in this case, the pilot will need
to make an educated distance estimate to calculate trip fuel needs. By
doing so, he should take into account the possibility of long approach
transitions etc. A pilot cannot just assume that the routing from the last
point of the enroute portion will lead straight to final approach.
20.2 Cruising altitude

When planning a cruise altitude, take into account the following:
Q Minimum altitudes (on airways): (do not plan routings below MEA’s on airways.) When planning
navigation off-airways, make sure to stay clear of terrain and obstacles.
Q Fuel use: when flying higher, the airplane will consume less fuel
Q Trip distance: on short navigations, you might have to limit your altitude to ensure a proper descent
planning.
Q Oxygen requirements: Do not plan above 10.000 feet/FL100 if the airplane is not equipped with a
pressurized cabin or without supplemental oxygen.
Q IFR levels: plan IFR flight levels for your trip, taking into account the semicircular system where
the magnetic direction of the airplane defines the level choice.
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Note: keep in mind that above the transition altitude (4.500 feet in Belgium, flight levels must be filed,
not altitudes)
20.3 NOTAM Restrictions

Use official NOTAM sources (such as Skeyes.be) to check NOTAMS that might affect your routing.
20.4 Weather and winds aloft

Use official weather sources (Skeyes.be) to check winds at altitude. You can use wind charts or general
aviation forecasts.
Example of winds at altitude, taken from the general aviation forecast on Skeyes.be.
Interpolate between levels if needed.
20.5 The navigation log

The IFR navigation log has 2 purposes: it structures the pre-flight planning and serves as a working
document to follow up fuel and timing estimates in the air.
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Flight preparation:
Q Wind, & variation corrected headings to steer

Q Groundspeeds
Q Leg timings (ETE’s = estimate elapsed timings)
Q Fuel requirements
Enroute follow-up
Q Calculation of ETA (estimate time of arrival)

Q Fuel tracking
The Skywings IFR Navigation log.
20.6 Fuel planning
EASA fuel policy
Fuel planning is more than “just filling up the fuel tanks to the limit”. When preparing for an IFR flight,
accurate fuel planning is needed to ensure a safe landing at the destination or, if needed, an alternate
aerodrome. An accurate prediction of the required fuel forms part of your IFR flight preparation.
Fuel allowance must be made for engine startup and taxi and the segment from take-off to landing. Next
to that, a pilot is required to take fuel to account for unforeseen event such as bad weather at the
destination or unforeseen detours enroute. After this, a final reserve must still be on board. The full legal
requirement is stipulated as the “EASA Fuel policy”:
Taxi fuel Fuel used for startup, taxi and runup

Trip fuel Fuel used from the beginning of the take-off roll to the landing via the
most probable route
Contingency fuel Fuel to account for unforeseen detours enroute (thunderstorm
avoidance, longer SID, non-optimum flight level):
It is the highest of: *
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Q 5% of the calculated trip fuel
Q 5 minutes of flying time at holding speed, 1500 feet above the
destination aerodrome in ISA
*Note: for the full EASA fuel policy, refer to your flight planning ATPL
coursebook
Alternate fuel The fuel needed from the missed approach at your destination to the
arrival at your destination alternate
Final Reserve fuel 45 minutes flying time at endurance speed
(Extra fuel) The extra fuel taken above the legal minimum.
Note: when taking more than the minimum legal required fuel, take into
account weight and balance considerations. Many piston engine aircraft
are restricted in weight when the tanks are full.
The use of aircraft fuel planning documentation
Calculating required fuel is more complex than estimating a fuel requirement using an average overall
consumption. Fuel consumption changes with the phase of flight and fuel planning tables from the
pilot’s operating handbook (POH) must be used.
Example: fuel flow table for power load percentage of de Diamond DA40. Use this and
the other relevant tables to calculate climb and cruise fuel flow.
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20.7 W&B and performance calculation
After calculating fuel requirements, make a mass and balance and performance calculation for take-off
and landing. Use the mass and balance documents on the Skywings website and the performance
tables in the aircraft’s POH.
Note: All planning must be done in accordance with OM part C section 1: performance.
20.8 Alternate planning

For every IFR flight, a destination airfield should normally be backed up with an alternate airfield. This
ensures that, when weather drops below minima at the destination, the pilot has a backup landing option
for which fuel is foreseen.
A second alternate can be filed on the flight plan but is only legally required when there is no weather
available at the destination airfield or when the weather is expected to be below planning minima
between 1 hour before and 1 hour after the expected arrival time.
Note: Alternate airfields are included in the filed ATC flight plan but are not mandatory diversion airports.
It is up to the PIC to decide the safest course of action.
Requirements for selection of alternates are published in OM part C, section 4.5.4: Alternate minima.
20.9 Weather minima

During training at Skywings, the Skywings OM minima apply, as published in OM part C section 4:
weather minima.
20.10 The ATC flight plan

For every IFR flight, an ATC flight plan must be filed. The ATC flights plan provides the applicable ATS
unit(s) with all relevant information regarding the intended flight in terms of routing, type of aircraft
etc. This enables those ATS units to anticipate on the planned IFR flight. Next to that, it serves as a
valuable document containing information for search and rescue operations in case of emergency.
Filing the flight plan
In Belgium, filing a flight plan for an IFR flight ins normally done via the SKEYES website
(https://ops.skeyes.be/).
Scan the QR code below to find assistance in correctly completing every item in the ATC flight plan.
Note: A list of equipment codes per aircraft in the Skywings fleet is available online on flight logger.
Flight plan acceptance by Skeyes
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Approximately 5 minutes after your flight plan has been submitted, phone up Skeyes ARO (Air Traffic
Services Reporting Office). They will confirm your flight plan as filed or propose changes.
Note: If you have an updated departure time, phone up the ARO to revise your EOBT. This avoids not
getting an IFR clearance when sitting in the airplane because your flight plan is expired.
Skywings flight plan policy
It is Skywings policy that for IFR training flights, the student prepares the IFR plan on the OPS
room computer or personal tablet/computer using his personal account. The flight plan will be
shown to the instructor as part of the “Ops Room Briefing” and then submitted with updated timings
together with the instructor.
All IFR training flight plans are filed as full IFR flights in order to maximize the flying time in an
IFR environment. This means that in item 8 (flight rules), the student will fill out the letter “I”. “Y”
and “Z” flight plans are not normally filed, unless the instructor decides to do so.
Sample flight plans
Below are two example flight plans: one for IFR local training overhead NIK and one for an IFR
navigation.
EBAW-EBAW: Local IFR training overhead NIK at 3.000ft
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EBAW-EBOS: IFR navigation
Note: the above flights plans are for reference only and items such as the equipment might deviate from
the actual onboard equipment. To ensure a correct flight plan is filed before the training flight, do not
submit it before the instructor has approved it.
Note: the Skeyes website allows you to store flight plans. This reduces work for future similar flight
plans.
20.11 Flight follow-up

Leaving the ramp with enough fuel does not mean that you will arrive with enough fuel at your
destination. Extended taxi times, stronger headwinds, detours, non-optimum flight levels and, in the
worst case, a fuel leak, may cause the airplane to fall below the minimum required fuel to safely reach
the destination and alternate. This is why a fuel follow-up in flight is required. Next to that, air traffic
control may require timing estimates of waypoints down the route.
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Timeline of flight follow-up with fuel and timing checks from departure to destination.
Time recording
The exact take off time must be recorded on the IFR navigation log and the consequent timing estimates
must be calculated. This allows the pilot to calculate his estimated time of arrival at the destination as
well as waypoint estimates.
Record the take-off time on the IFR navigation log at the top of climb. To have the correct take-off
time, you can either start the timer at the beginning of the take-off roll and then subtract the elapsed
chronometer time from the actual time at top of climb (e.g. actual top of climb time is 14:30Z, the timer
reads 00:23, in this case, the take-off time was 23 minutes earlier than 14:30Z: at 14:07Z. Base all your
estimate timings on a take-off time of 14:07Z). You can also use the recorded take off time of your
G1000 or any other source providing such time.
Fuel checks
Fuel checks should be done at regular intervals, ensuring you have enough fuel to continue to your
destination. If actual fuel is lower than expected fuel in flight, a diversion might be necessary.
Fuel should be checked at least at the following moments:
Q Before startup: Is the fuel on board above the minimum legally required?
Q Before take-off: Is actual fuel equal to or more than the minimum take-off fuel? (extended taxi times
can cause the airplane to have use more than the calculated taxi fuel, requiring the airplane to turn
back for refueling before taking off)
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Q At the top of climb: Is the fuel used for climb and initial departure as foreseen? Was some of the
contingency fuel already used?
Q At regular intervals in cruise: Check fuel progress with +/- 20-minute intervals
Q Before TOD: What is the fuel situation to start the arrival and approach? Is there any extra fuel left
for holding patterns at the destination? Compare expected arrival fuel with the sum of final reserve
and alternate fuel.
Q After a missed approach: Is there fuel left for another approach at the destination or will you have
to divert or commit to land at the destination? Make it a habit to always check fuel situation after a
missed approach.
If you notice you are getting behind on planned fuel, investigate the reason why: did ATC give you a
longer than expected departure? Did you have to avoid weather? Are the winds different than foreseen?
Contingency fuel normally accounts for these things and ensures that you can continue as
planned. If you expect to land with less than the minimum required fuel or if a fuel leak is suspected,
the pilot should look to a diversion airfield.
When expecting to land with less than final reserve fuel, a distress call might be required.
Note: flight follow-up should only be done when workload allows. Remember: fly-navigate-communicate-
organize. Do not start paperwork when you are still occupied with more important things.
20.12 Descent planning

The pilot must calculate the top of descent point (TOD) in function of his altitude. The TOD is defined
by the distance between the initial approach altitude and the point where the pilot initiates his descent.
The higher the cruising altitude, the earlier a descent must be commenced.
In unpressurized aircraft, a planned descent rate of 500 feet per minute is advisable to ensure
passenger comfort. When descending at a TAS of 120kts, the airplane will move forward approximately
two miles per minute. This means that in 1 minute, the airplane moves 500 feet down and 2 miles
forward. Evidently, per 1000 feet that the aircraft descends, it will move forward 4 miles.
Practically this means that the top of descent calculation is a function of the altitude to lose (cruise
altitude minus initial approach altitude) and the speed number. The higher the (ground)speed number,
the sooner a descent has to start.
To calculate a top of descent distance, double your speed number and divide it by a thousand. If you
are for
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TOD =
ALTITUDE X 2 X SPEED NUMBER
1000
Note: Allow 3 extra miles extra margin to slow the airplane down and for possible tailwind consideration.
Proper descent planning avoids rushed approaches, the requirement for extra track miles, holdings, or
high, uncomfortable descent rates. It is the pilot’s ultimate responsibility to request descent
clearance from air traffic control.
If it becomes apparent that your descent calculation was incorrect and you end up too high to start the
approach, inform ATC. They can create extra track miles in the form of delaying vectors, or you can
enter a holding.
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FCTM IFR 21 Adverse weather conditions
21. Adverse weather situations

21.1 Turbulence
Turbulence can occur at any phase of the flight and could pose a threat to the flight. This threat is
aggravated under IFR conditions, as maintaining level and assigned route is crucial. Heavy turbulence
may lead to an aircraft upset and requires a coordinated upset recovery.
Not all turbulence can be avoided, but having a good look at significant weather charts and reports,
together with being aware of when turbulence could arise (low pressure, high reported winds, inversions,
hot weather with cloud buildups etc.) can increase situation awareness and remove a startle effect when
turbulence occurs.
When encountering turbulence in flight, ensure a continuous basic instrument scan and strictly stick
to the FLY-NAVIGATE-COMMUNICATE hierarchy. Concentrate on flying and maintaining the assigned
level. Postpone less important tasks such as arranging charts and paperwork.
If you are unable to maintain altitude or routing, inform ATC and request another level. ATC may need
to organize bigger separation from other aircraft in your vicinity.
WAKE TURBULENCE
video: wake turbulence on short final
Another significant threat to aircraft is wake turbulence. Wake turbulence has been the cause of many
fatalities in aviation and is especially dangerous to smaller, general aviation aircraft.
Wake turbulence is created by wingtip vortices of preceding aircraft and is mostly dangerous for other
aircraft during take-off and landing. As a general rule, the slower and heavier the aircraft and the lighter
the ambient winds, the more wake turbulence can be expected. Wake turbulence dissipates slowly and
only dissolves with time.
ATC will normally ensure enough time separation between aircraft, depending on the wake turbulence
category (light/medium/heavy/super) but a general awareness of the preceding airplane in final can
avoid being surprised by wake turbulence remains, because, even with a correct time separation, some
wake turbulence might be still present.
If you do encounter wake turbulence in final, a go around might be necessary. Steering upwind in case
of a crosswind and climbing above the wake turbulence trail will help you exit the wake turbulence.
When wake turbulence brings the airplane in an upset, knowing the correct upset techniques is vital.
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Diamond Da-20 after wake turbulence accident due to a C-130.
21.2 Cold temperatures

When the temperature is low, pressure levels are closer to each other, meaning that the true altitude
will be lower than the indicated, barometric altitude. This means that published values such as MSA’s,
approach minima, missed approach altitudes and so on need to be corrected when temperatures drop
to low values (generally corrections are done once the reported temperature is 0 degrees or lower).
Cold temperature corrections can be calculated using the following rule of thumb:
Correction (in feet) =

4 X (isa deviation) X altitude
1000
When the temperature on the ground is -5 degrees, for example, and the MSA is 3000 feet. The
correction to be added is (4 X 20 X 3000)/1000 = 240 feet.
Apply cold temperature corrections to:
• Approach minima
• Marker altitude
• MSA
• Procedural altitude
• Missed approach altitude
• Radar altitude (technically, ATC does not correct radar altitudes, however, when applying cold
temperature corrections, inform ATC you are doing so, as they will have readings of your
indicated altitude, that deviates from their clearance, on their radar screen)
Note: do not apply cold temperature corrections to RNAV GNSS 3D approaches (LNAV/VNAV and LPV
minima), as they are published with a minimum temperature (often -15 degrees).
21.3 Icing
Icing has a direct impact on the airworthiness of an airplane. Wing profiles are meticulously designed
and the slightest disturbance on the wing leading edges and surfaces leads to an increased stall speed
and decreased performance capabilities. Icing occurs when there is visible moisture present at
temperatures as high as 10 degrees Celsius and below.
Icing may also affect propellers, carburetors and pitot tubes.
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When flying in clouds, pilots should always be attentive to the possibility of icing, even when
temperatures are positive on the ground and especially when ambient temperatures approach the
freezing point. As a general rule, when flying IFR, it is recommended to always have the pitot heating
system switched on. Also, when entering the clouds, a pilot demonstrates good airmanship when
verifying the pitot heating system is actually switched on.
Aircraft with a carburetor must also be careful of carburetor icing that might disturb the airflow entering
the engine or block the throttle valve. Low power settings and cold temperatures require the carburetor
heat to be on. In Skywing’s TDI equipped Diamond aircraft (no carburetor), selecting alternate air on
may be necessary in case of icing obstructing the regular air inlet filter.
As many small general aviation aircraft have no anti icing or de-icing system (anti-icing is ice prevention,
such as chemicals sprayed on the leading edge or a heated leading edge, de-icing is ice removal by for
example de-icing boots), flight into known icing must be avoided*. When ice builds up on the wing’s
leading edges of surface, action must be taken to avoid further buildup and remove the existing ice.
*See the airframe’s POH for guidance about flying into known icing.
Icing strategies
Q Prevention:
o check significant weather charts for areas with icing;
o Use pilot reports and ATC reports in flight to avoid entering zones with icing;
o Stay out of cumulonimbus clouds and clouds with vertical buildup.
Q When encountering icing:
o Consider a 180º turn;
o Descend to a warmer altitude;
o Increase speed to increase total air temperature.
21.4 Low visibility

Flight at low visibility on take-off and landing holds significant risks. Therefore, careful consideration is
needed. Low visibility typically occurs when the air is moist, when the wind is (nearly) calm and
temperatures are relatively low.
Risks on the ground
Reduced visibility may make it hard for pilots to read taxiway and apron markings, and to see other
traffic and obstacles. Many smaller, general aviation airports have limited taxiway and runway lighting
so extra care should be taken.
Risks in the air
Low visibility imposes the biggest risk when, after becoming airborne, the engine fails. Especially for
single engine aircraft, this is very critical as it disables the pilot to find a suitable landing spot. Multi-
engine aircraft have to take into account reduced climb performance and nearby obstacles that might
be more difficult to clear and invisible when losing an engine in low visibility conditions.
Bear in mind that an airfield may have a lower minimum take off visibility than the one needed to return
for landing. This means that the pilot can legally take off but will not be able to return for an approach if
needed for technical or other reasons. A take-off alternate aerodrome with better weather conditions
might be necessary.
When visibility and ceiling at the destination are low, alternate aerodromes should have adequate
weather in case a landing would not be possible at the destination.
Low visibility strategies
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Q Awareness:
o Study METARS and TAFS of departure, destination and alternate aerodromes
carefully;
o Study obstacles and terrain in the area;
o Study taxi and apron charts;
o Calculate take-off and climb performance;
o Visually assess visibility on the apron;
o Be aware of indications that may lead to quickly deteriorating visibility: small difference
between temperature and dew point temperature (the so called “spread”), low wind
speeds, dropping temperatures (just after sunrise for example) etc.;
o Consider the need for a take-off alternate;
o Consider the possibility of icing;
o Regard legal minimums not as a goal but as an absolute limit.
Q Operating in low visibility:
o Use reduced taxi speeds;
o Maintain a sharp look out on the aprons and taxiways;
o Be aware of runway crossings and holding points;
o Stop the aircraft if unsure about your position and contact ATC immediately;
o Ask a follow me car or progressive taxi;
o Switch on aircraft lights;
o Be aware of slippery taxiways due to moisture;
o Listen carefully to other traffic talking to ATC in order to form an image of surrounding
traffic ;
o Be aware of visual illusions due to limited visibility;
United 1448
On 6 December 1999, a United Airlines Boeing 757 made an incorrect turn after landing, resulting it to
inadvertently enter the runway again, where traffic is taking off on. The visibility is low and the pilots of
the 757 are confused about their position. Whilst discussing with the ground controller, who is unable to
see them, the pilots hear an aircraft taking off very close to them. The confusion nearly led to a
catastrophic disaster. Fortunately, the 757 was able to vacate the runway before more take offs were
performed, as other traffic overheard the confusion and preferred to delay take off until there was more
clarity about the 757’s position.
Scan the QR code to listen to the ATC transcripts of this incident.
21.5 Convective weather

Convective weather, characterized by vertical cloud buildup, may hold several risks such as icing, heavy
turbulence, hail and lightning. Towering cumulus and cumulonimbus clouds must be avoided
Mitigation strategies
• Check significant weather charts;

• Study METARS and TAFS;
• Be aware of embedded CB’s, especially when the aircraft is not equipped with on board weather
radar;
• Be aware of days with hot weather, especially later in the afternoon;
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• Deviate from route in order to avoid convective clouds. (thunderstorms should be cleared with
a big margin of at least some miles, depending on the size, as turbulence exists around the
cloud, especially under the anvil, NEVER TRY TO OUTCLIMB A CUMULONIMBUS).
Routing deviations due to weather
As stated before, thunderstorm clouds must be avoided, and this might mean that the pilot will have to
deviate from his cleared route. Do not wait until the last moment to start deviating and inform ATC
soon enough. ATC may not approve of your intended deviation due to traffic or neighboring airspace,
but will offer an alternative in this case.
Do not await approval from ATC when you have no time any more to contact them, avoid the CB and
inform ATC as soon as possible of your position.
Example:
OO-SKX: “BRUSSELS DEPARTURE, OO-SKX REQUEST 5 DEGREES LEFT OF
TRACK TO AVOID WEATHER 10NM AHEAD.”
BRU DEP: “OO-SKX, DEVIATION APPROVED, WHEN CLEAR OF WEATHER,

DIRECT TO COA VOR, THEN, AS FILED.”
OO-SKX: “WHEN CLEAR OF WEATHER, DIRECT TO COA VOR, THEN, AS FILED,

OO-SKX.”
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FCTM IFR 22 IFR Communications
22. IFR Communications

22.1 Introduction
Most of the IFR flying will happen inside controlled airspace and correct ATC discipline is of utmost
importance. IFR communication must be short, standardized and unambiguous. Use ICAO standard
phraseology and avoid the temptation of adopting popular expressions that you will hear on many
occasions.
Avoid using words that can be mistaken for numbers, such as “FOR” and “TO” (e.g. instead of saying
“Out of 1500 feet for 3000 feet”, say “Passing 1500 feet, climbing 3000 feet).
If unsure about an issued clearance, ask ATC to repeat itself by using “SAY AGAIN’ or “CONFIRM”.
When, for example, unsure about a cleared altitude, use “Confirm cleared altitude” or “Say again cleared
altitude”, rather than using “Confirm cleared FL050?”. By already including the altitude you assumed
you were cleared to in your question, you might bias a controller in just replying: “Confirmed”, rather
than re-confirming the clearance himself.
A correct ATC-discipline greatly reduces the risks of altitude busts, navigation errors and ensures clear
communication, also in countries where the level of English is poor.
22.2 The IFR clearance

The IFR departure clearance is an approval by the relevant air traffic services of the filed IFR flight plan,
including amendments. This clearance is necessary before commencing every IFR flight.
An IFR-clearance must be fully read back to the controller in the correct order.
If a flight is conducted fully under IFR, a full departure clearance is normally given on the ground and
generally includes the following:
Q Clearance for the route

Q SID or departure routing after take-off
Q Initial altitude
Q Transponder code
A typical communication for a flight from EBAW to EBOS could sound like this:
PIC “Antwerpen ground, OO-SKX”

GND “OO-SKX, go ahead”
PIC “OO-SKX, in front of the SKYWINGS HANGAR, ATIS information A,
request IFR clearance”
GND “OO-SKX, you are cleared from EBAW to EBOS via the NIK4C
departure, climb and maintain 3000 feet and squawk 3462”
PIC “Cleared from EBAW to EBOS via the NIK4C departure, climb and
maintain 3000 feet and squawk 3462, OO-SKX”
GND “OO-SKX, readback correct, startup approved, advise when ready to
taxi”
PIC “Startup approved, WILCO, OO-SKX”
This clearance would typically be picked up on initial contact with Antwerpen ground, when requesting
start up.
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On some occasions (for example when changing from VFR to IFR in flight, or when departing from an
uncontrolled aerodrome), an IFR clearance could be given in the air by a relevant air traffic service unit.
A typical clearance, when for example, departing VFR from GRIMBERGEN, and continuing IFR to EBLG
could sound like this:
PIC “Brussels information, OO-SKX”

BRU INFO “OO-SKX, go ahead”
PIC “OO-SKX, maintaining 900 feet, 3NM north of EBGB, airborne
time 07, request IFR clearance to EBLG”
BRU INFO “OO-SKX, you are cleared to EBLG via BRUNO direct, then as
filed, cruising level will be given by Brussels departure and
squawk 3462”
PIC “Cleared to EBLG via BRUNO direct, then as filed, cruising level
with Brussels Departure, squawk 3462, OO-SKX”
BRU INFO “OO-SKX, readback correct, contact Brussels Departure on
126.630”
PIC “Contact 126.630, OO-SKX”
When requesting an IFR departure clearance, be prepared to write it down on a piece of paper.
22.3 IFR Communication EBAW – EBOS example

Below is an example of IFR communication, all the way from startup in front of the Skywings hangar to
engine shutdown on the apron in Ostend.
Phase Message
In front of the SKW PIC “EBAW ground, OO-SKX”
hangar, engine off
EBAW “OO-SKX, EBAW ground, go ahead”
GND
PIC “OO-SKX, in front of the Skywings Hangar,
information C, request startup and IFR
clearance to EBOS”
EBAW “OO-SKX, cleared to EBOS, NIK3E departure,
GND climb and maintain 3000 feet, squawk 6323”
PIC “Cleared to EBOS, NIK3E departure, climb and
maintain 3000 feet, squawk 6323, OO-SKX”
EBAW “OO-SKX, readback correct, startup approved,
GND advise when ready to taxi”
PIC “Startup approved, will advise when ready to
taxi, OO-SKX”
After engine start PIC “OO-SKX, request taxi”
EBAW “OO-SKX, taxi holding point runway 11, via A1
GND and F, QNH 1011. Advise when ready for
departure”
PIC “Taxi holding point runway 11 via A1 and F,
QNH 1011. Will advise when ready for
departure, OO-SKX”
PIC “OO-SKX, ready for departure”
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Runup completed, ready EBAW “OO-SKX, contact EBAW tower on 135.205”
for departure GND
PIC “Contact EBAW tower on 135.205, OO-SKX”
PIC “EBAW tower, OO-SKX, holding point F runway
11, ready for departure”
EBAW “OO-SKX, EBAW tower, behind the landing
TWR traffic, line up and wait runway 11 behind”
PIC “Behind the landing traffic, line up and wait
runway 11 behind, OO-SKX”
EBAW “OO-SKX, wind 140 degrees, 8 knots, cleared
TWR for take-off runway 11”
PIC “Cleared for take-off runway 11, OO-SKX”
Initial climb out EBAW “OO-SKX, radar contact, contact Brussels
TWR departure on 126.630”
PIC “Contact Brussels departure on 126.630, OO-
SKX”
PIC “Brussels departure, OO-SKX, NIK3E
departure, passing 1500 feet, climbing 3000
feet”
BRU “OO-SKX, Brussels Departure, radar contact,
DEP climb and maintain FL060, confirm requested
level”
PIC “Climb and maintain FL060, request FL080, OO-
SKX”
BRU “OO-SKX, roger, climb and maintain FL080”
DEP
PIC “Climb and maintain FL080, OO-SKX”
Ready for descent PIC “OO-SKX, request descent”
BRU “OO-SKX, descend and maintain FL060,
DEP contact EBOS approach on 120.6”
PIC “Descend and maintain FL060, contact EBOS
approach on 120.6, OO-SKX”
PIC “EBOS approach, OO-SKX, descending FL060,
information D”
OST “OO-SKX, EBOS approach, radar contact,
APP COA3A arrival, expect ILS approach runway 26,
descend and maintain 3000 feet, QNH 1010”
PIC “COA3A arrival, expect ILS approach runway
26, descend and maintain 3000 feet, QNH 1010,
OO-SKX”
Arriving at IAF OST “OO-SKX, cleared ILS approach runway 26,
APP report localizer established”
PIC “Cleared ILS approach runway 26, report
localizer established”
Final approach PIC “Localizer established, OO-SKX”
OST “OO-SKX, contact EBOS tower on 118.180”
APP
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PIC “Contact EBOS tower on 118.180, OO-SKX”
PIC “EBOS tower, OO-SKX, localizer established
runway 26”
EBOS “OO-SKX, wind 200 degrees, 5 knots, runway
TWR 26, cleared to land”
PIC “Cleared to land runway 26, OO-SKX”
After landing, vacated on PIC “OO-SKX, runway vacated”
D1 EBOS “OO-SKX, contact EBOS ground on 121.980”
TWR
PIC “Contact EBOS Ground on 121.980, OO-SKX”
PIC “EBOS ground, OO-SKX, D1”
EBOS “OO-SKX, EBOS Ground, taxi D1, E2 and report
GND follow me car in sight”
PIC “Taxi D1, E2 and report follow me car in sight,
OO-SKX”
PIC “Follow me car in sight, OO-SKX”
EBOS “OO-SKX, continue to parking with the follow
GND me car”
PIC “Continue to parking with the follow me car,
OO-SKX”
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FCTM IFR 23 Rules of Thumb QRG
23. Rules of thumb Quick Reference Guide

Rules of thumb
Speed number (nautical miles per SPEED NUMBER =
minute) SPEED
60
Speed 60 90 120 150 180

Spd Nº 1 1,5 2 2,5 3
Drift corrections DRIFT =
CROSSWIND COMPONENT
SPEED NUMBER*
Head/tailwind corrections Correct 1 second per two knots
Rate of descent on final approach ROD = GS X 5*
*for 3º approach angle only, multiply by (GPA/3 in case of

different glide path angle)
VDP (visual descent point) VDP =

MDH
300
Rate of climb or descent per ROD or ROC =

degree of pitch change pitch change (in degrees) X SPEED NUMBER X 100
Correction rate of climb or rate of Altitude deviation X 2

descent for altitude deviations
Rate 1 turn bank angle BANK ANGLE =

(TAS/10)+7
Timing passing the threshold 3 seconds per 100 feet AGL

before turning base on a circling
approach
Top of descent distance TOD=

calculation (ALTITUDE TO LOSE) X 2 X Speed number
1000
Levelling off after a climb or Anticipate level off at 10% of vertical speed before
descent
Required rate of climb on an SID ROC =

CLIMB GRADIENT X GS
Cold temperature correction Correction (in feet) =

4 X (isa deviation) X altitude
1000
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FCTM IFR 23 Rules of Thumb QRG
21/01/2020 Revision V1.2 23-2

FCTM IFR 24 Sources and references
24. Sources and references

Skywings OM
PANS-ATM ICAO DOC 4444 Amdt 1
ICAO DOC 8168
Jeppesen introduction
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24-1
FCTM IFR 24 Sources and references
21/01/2020 Revision V1.2

24-2
FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
25. Annexes
Annex 1: Theoretical knowledge question database IR skill test
The following questions may be asked by examiners and can also be used to assist in the
theoretical study of the IFR theory in this manual, in conjunction with the relevant ATPL
theory manuals (air law, flight planning, meteorology).
GM1 to Appendix 6 Modular training courses for the IR

Aa. IR(A)(8)
The following elements may be used by the examiner for the applicant’s verbal
demonstration of knowledge:
(a) AIR LAW:

(1) explain the requirements for plus validity and privileges of instrument ratings;
(2) explain why a time check has to be completed before flight;
(3) describe the necessary action when an aircraft experiences a failure in
communications;
(4) state the responsibility of the operator when unable to utilise the published
departure procedures;
(5) explain when the omnidirectional method is used for departure;
(6) describe the solutions when omnidirectional procedures are not possible;
(7) justify the establishment of aircraft categories for the approach;
(8) state the minimum obstacle clearance provided by the minimum sector altitudes
(MSAs) established for an aerodrome;
(9) describe the point of origin, shape, size, and subdivisions of the area used for
MSAs;
(10) explain why a pilot should not descend below obstacle clearance altitude/height
(OCA/H) without visual reference, which is established for precision approach
procedures, non-precision approach procedures and visual (circling)
procedures;
(11) translate the following acronyms into plain language: decision altitude (DA),
decision height (DH), obstacle clearance altitude (OCA), obstacle clearance
height (OCH), minimum decision altitude (MDA), minimum decision height
(MDH), minimum obstacle clearance (MOC), decision altitude/height (DA/H),
obstacle clearance altitude/height (OCA/H) and minimum decision
altitude/height (MDA/H);
(12) explain the relationship between the following: DA, DH, OCA, OCH, MDA,
MDH, MOC, DA/H, OCA/H and MDA/H;
(13) define the following terms: initial approach fix (IAF), intermediate fix (IF), final
approach fix (FAF), missed approach point (MAPt) and turning point;
(14) state the accuracy of facilities providing track (omnidirectional radio range
(VOR), instrument landing system (ILS), non-directional beacon (NDB));
(15) state the optimum descent gradient (preferred for a precision approach) in
degrees and per cent;
(16) name the five standard segments of an instrument approach procedure and
state the beginning and end for each of them;
(17) describe where an arrival (ARR) route normally ends;
(18) state whether or not omnidirectional or sector ARRs are possible to be made;
(19) explain the main task of the initial approach segment;
(20) describe the main task of the intermediate approach segment;
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FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
(21) state the main task of the final approach segment;
(22) name the two possible aims of a final approach;
(23) explain the term ‘final approach point’ in case of an ILS approach;
(24) state what happens if an ILS glide path (GP) becomes inoperative during
approach;
(25) describe the main task of a missed approach procedure;
(26) define ‘MAPt’;
(27) state the pilot’s reaction if upon reaching the MAPt, the required visual
reference is not established;
(28) describe what a pilot is expected to do in the event that a missed approach is
initiated prior to arriving at the MAPt (a missed approach, after an approach
flown as CDFA, should be made when reaching the MAPt or DA/H, whichever
occurs first);
(29) state whether the pilot is obliged to cross the MAPt at the A/H required by the
procedure or whether they are allowed to cross the MAPt at an A/H greater
than that required by the procedure;
(30) describe what is meant by ‘visual manoeuvring (circling)’;
(31) state the conditions to be fulfilled before descending below MDA/H in a visual
manoeuvring (circling) approach;
(32) state how the pilot is expected to behave after initial visual contact during a
visual manoeuvring (circling);
(33) describe what the pilot is expected to do if visual reference is lost while circling
to land from an instrument approach;
(34) describe the shape and terminology associated with the holding pattern;
(35) state the bank angle and rate of turn to be used whilst flying in a holding
pattern;
(36) explain why pilots in a holding pattern should attempt to maintain tracks and
how this is achieved;
(37) describe where outbound timing begins in a holding pattern;
(38) state where the outbound leg in a holding pattern terminates if the outbound leg
is based on distance-measuring equipment (DME);
(39) describe the three entry headings for entries into a holding pattern;
(40) define the terms ‘parallel entry’, ‘offset entry’, and ‘direct entry’;
(41) determine the correct entry procedure for a given holding pattern;
(42) state the still-air time for flying on the outbound entry heading with or without
DME;
(43) define the following Q codes: ‘QNH’ and ‘QFE’;
(44) define ‘flight level’ (FL);
(45) state the intervals by which consecutive FLs should be separated;
(46) describe how FLs are numbered;
(47) define the term ‘transition altitude’;
(48) define the term ‘transition level’;
(49) state how the vertical position of the aircraft should be expressed at or below
the transition altitude and transition level;
(50) define the term ‘transition layer’;
(51) state when the QNH altimeter setting should be made available to departing
aircraft;
(52) state how a QNH altimeter setting should be made available to aircraft
approaching a controlled aerodrome for landing;
(53) state where during the climb, the altimeter setting should be changed from
QNH to 1013.2 hPa;
(54) describe when a pilot of an aircraft intending to land at an aerodrome should
obtain the transition level;
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FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
(55) describe when a pilot of an aircraft intending to land at an aerodrome should
obtain the actual QNH altimeter setting;
(56) state where the altimeter settings should be changed from 1013.2 hPa to QNH
during descent for landing;
(57) state the modes and codes that the pilot should operate in the absence of any
air traffic control (ATC) directions or regional air navigation agreements;
(58) state when the pilot should ‘squawk ident’;
(59) state the transponder mode and code to indicate: a state of emergency, a
failure in communications, an unlawful interference;
(60) describe the consequences of an in-flight transponder failure;
(61) state the primary action of the pilot in the case of an unserviceable transponder
before departure when no repair or replacement at that aerodrome is possible;
(62) understand the various rules and services that apply to the various classes of
airspace;
(63) describe the aim of clearances issued by the ATC with regard to instrument
flight rules (IFR), visual flight rules (VFR) or special VFR flights, and refer to the
different airspaces;
(64) explain what is meant by the expression ‘clearance limit’;
(65) explain the meaning of the phrases ‘cleared via flight planned route’, ‘cleared
via (designation) departure’ and ‘cleared via (designation) ARR’ in an ATC
clearance;
(66) list which items of an ATC clearance should always be read back by the flight
crew;
(67) justify the speed control by the ATC;
(68) explain how the change from IFR to VFR may be initiated by the pilot in
command (PIC);
(69) define the following terms: ‘transition level’, ‘transition layer’, and ‘transition
altitude’;
(70) indicate how the vertical position of an aircraft in the vicinity of an aerodrome
should be expressed at or below the transition altitude, at or above the
transition level, and while climbing or descending through the transition layer;
(71) list the six items that are normally included in a voice position report;
(72) name the item of a position report which must be forwarded to the ATC with the
initial call after changing to a new frequency;
(73) understand the difference among the types of separation within the various
classes of airspace and among the various types of flight;
(74) state who is responsible for the avoidance of collision with other aircraft when
operating in visual meteorological conditions (VMC);
(75) explain the term ‘expected approach time’ and the procedures for its use;
(76) state the reasons which may probably lead to the decision to use another take-
off or landing direction than the one into the wind;
(77) define the term ‘radar vectoring’;
(78) explain the procedures for the conduct of surveillance radar approaches
(SRAs);
(79) state the mode and code of secondary surveillance radar (SSR) equipment that
a pilot may operate in a (general) state of emergency, or (specifically) in case
the aircraft is subject to unlawful interference;
(80) describe the expected action of the aircraft after receiving a broadcast from air
traffic services (ATS) concerning the emergency descent of another aircraft;
(81) name the colours used for the various markings (runway (RWY), taxiway
(TWY), aircraft stands, apron safety lines);
(82) describe the application and characteristics of RWY centre line markings and
threshold markings;
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FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
(83) describe the wing bars of a precision approach path indicator (PAPI) and an
abbreviated precision approach path indicator (A-PAPI); and
(84) interpret what the pilot sees during approach, using a PAPI, an APAPI, a T
visual approach slope indicating system (TVASIS), and an abbreviated T visual
approach slope indicator system (ATVASIS);
(b) FLIGHT PLANNING AND FLIGHT MONITORING:

(1) select the preferred airway(s) or route(s) considering:
(i) altitudes and FLs,
(ii) standard routes,
(iii) ATC restrictions,
(iv) the shortest distance,
(v) obstacles, and
(vi) any other relevant data;
(2) determine courses and distances from en route charts;
(3) determine bearings and distances of waypoints based on radio navigation aids
on en route charts;
(4) define the following altitudes:
(i) minimum en route altitude (MEA),
(ii) minimum obstacle clearance altitude (MOCA),
(iii) minimum off-route altitude (MORA),
(iv) grid minimum off-route altitude (Grid MORA),
(v) maximum authorised altitude (MAA),
(vi) minimum crossing altitude (MCA), and
(vii) minimum holding altitude (MHA);
(5) extract the following altitudes from the chart(s):
(i) MEA,
(ii) MOCA,
(iii) MORA,
(iv) Grid MORA,
(v) MAA,
(vi) MCA, and
(vii) MHA;
(6) explain the reasons for studying standard instrument departure (SID) and
standard ARR (STAR) charts;
(7) state the reasons why the SID and STAR charts show procedures only in a
pictorial presentation style which is not to scale;
(8) interpret all data and information represented on SID and STAR charts,
particularly:
(i) routings,
(ii) distances,
(iii) courses,
(iv) radials,
(v) altitudes/levels,
(vi) frequencies, and
(vii) restrictions;
(9) identify SIDs and STARs which may be relevant to a planned flight;
(10) state the reasons why it is imperative to be familiar with instrument approach
procedures and appropriate data for departure, destination, and alternate
airfields prior to departure;
(11) select instrument approach procedures appropriate for departure, destination,
and alternate airfields;
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FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
(12) interpret all procedures, data and information represented on instrument
approach charts, particularly:
(i) courses and radials,
(ii) distances,
(iii) altitudes, levels or heights,
(iv) restrictions,
(v) obstructions,
(vi) frequencies,
(vii) speeds and times,
(viii) DA/Hs and MDA/H,
(ix) visibility and runway visual ranges (RVRs), and
(x) approach light systems;
(13) find communications (COM) frequencies and call signs for the following:
(i) control agencies, service facilities, and flight information services
(FISs),
(ii) weather information stations, and
(iii) automatic terminal information service (ATIS);
(14) find the frequency and/or identifiers of radio navigation aids;
(15) complete the navigation plan with the courses, distances, and frequencies
taken from charts;
(16) find standard instrument departure and ARR routes to be flown or to be
expected;
(17) determine the position of top of climb (TOC) and top of descent (TOD),
considering appropriate data;
(18) determine variation and calculate magnetic/true courses;
(19) calculate true airspeed (TAS) according to given aircraft performance data,
altitude, and outside air temperature (OAT);
(20) calculate wind correction angles (WCA)/drift and ground speeds (GSs);
(21) determine all relevant altitudes/levels, particularly MEA, MOCA, MORA, MAA,
MCA, MRA, and MSA;
(22) calculate individual and accumulated times for each leg until destination and
alternate airfields;
(23) convert between volume, mass, and density given in different units commonly
used in aviation;
(24) determine relevant data from the flight manual, such as fuel capacity, fuel
flow/consumption at different power/thrust settings, altitudes, and atmospheric
conditions;
(25) calculate attainable flight time/range considering fuel flow/consumption and
available amount of fuel;
(26) calculate the required fuel considering fuel flow/consumption and required
time/range to be flown;
(27) calculate the required fuel for an IFR flight considering expected meteorological
conditions and expected delays under defined conditions;
(28) find and analyse the latest state at the departure, destination, and alternate
aerodromes, in particular with regard to:
(i) opening hours,
(ii) work in progress (WIP),
(iii) special procedures due to WIP,
(iv) obstructions, and
(v) changes of frequencies for COM, navigation aids, and facilities;
(29) find and analyse the latest en route state with regard to:
(i) airway(s) or route(s),
(ii) restricted, dangerous, and prohibited areas, and
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FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
(iii) changes of frequencies for COM, navigation aids, and facilities;
(30) state the reasons for a fixed format of an International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO) air traffic services flight plan (ATS FPL);
(31) determine the correct entries to complete an FPL, as well as decode and
interpret the entries in a completed FPL, particularly as regards the following:
(i) aircraft identification (Item 7),
(ii) flight rules and type of flight (Item 8),
(iii) number and type of aircraft and wake turbulence category (Item
9),
(iv) equipment (Item 10),
(v) departure aerodrome and time (Item 13),
(vi) route (Item 15),
(vii) destination aerodrome, total estimated elapsed time, and
alternate aerodrome (Item 16),
(viii) other information (Item 18), and
(ix) supplementary information (Item 19);
(32) complete the FPL using information from the following:
(i) navigation plan,
(ii) fuel plan, and
(iii) (iii)operator’s records on basic aircraft information;
(33) explain the requirements for the submission of an ATS FPL;
(34) explain the action to be taken in case of FPL changes;
(35) state the action to be taken in case of inadvertent changes to track, TAS, and
time estimate, affecting the current FPL; and
(36) explain the procedures for closing an FPL;
(c) METEOROLOGY:
(1) describe qualitatively and quantitatively the temperature lapse rates of the
troposphere (mean value of 0.65 °C/100 m or 2 °C/1 000 ft and actual values);
(2) explain the characteristics of inversions and of an isothermal layer;
(3) explain the cooling and warming of the air on the earth or sea surfaces;
(4) describe qualitatively the influence of the clouds on the cooling and warming of
the earth or sea surfaces as well as of the air near those surfaces;
(5) explain the influence of the wind on the cooling and warming of the air near the
earth or sea surfaces;
(6) define ‘atmospheric pressure’;
(7) list the units of measurement of atmospheric pressure used in aviation (hPa,
in.);
(8) describe isobars on the surface weather charts;
(9) explain the pressure variation with height;
(10) describe qualitatively the variation of the barometric lapse rate (note: the
average value for the barometric lapse rate near mean sea level is 27 ft (8 m)
per 1 hPa, whereas at about 5 500 m above mean sea level (AMSL) is 50 ft (15
m) per 1 hPa;
(11) describe and interpret contour lines (isohypses) on a constant pressure chart;
(12) describe the relationship between pressure, temperature, and density;
(13) describe the vertical variation of the air density in the atmosphere;
(14) describe the effect of humidity changes on the air density;
(15) explain the use of standardised values for the international standard
atmosphere (ISA);
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FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
(16) list the main values of ISA (mean sea level pressure, mean sea level
temperature, a vertical temperature lapse rate up to 20 km, as well as height
and temperature of the tropopause);
(17) calculate the standard temperature in Celsius degrees for a given FL;
(18) determine a standard temperature deviation based on the difference between
the given OAT and the standard temperature;
(19) define the following terms and acronyms and explain how they are related to
each other: H, A, pressure A, FL, pressure level, true A, true H, elevation, QNH,
QFE, and standard altimeter setting;
(20) describe the following terms: transition A, transition level, transition layer, terrain
clearance, and lowest usable FL;
(21) calculate the different readings on the altimeter when the pilot changes the
altimeter setting;
(22) illustrate with a numbered example the changes of the altimeter setting and the
associated changes in reading when the pilot climbs through the transition
altitude or descends through the transition level;
(23) derive the reading of the altimeter of an aircraft on the ground when the pilot
uses different settings;
(24) explain the influence of the air temperature on the distance between the ground
and the level reading on the altimeter as well as between two FLs;
(25) explain the influence of pressure areas on the true altitude;
(26) determine the true A/H for a given A/H and a given ISA temperature deviation;
(27) describe why and how the wind changes direction and speed with H in the
friction layer in the northern and southern hemisphere (rule of thumb);
(28) describe and explain the origin and formation of mountain waves;
(29) explain how mountain waves may be identified through their associated
meteorological phenomena;
(30) describe turbulence and gustiness;
(31) list common types of turbulence (convective, mechanical, orographic, frontal,
and clear-air turbulence);
(32) indicate the sources of atmospheric humidity;
(33) define ‘dew point’;
(34) define ‘relative humidity’;
(35) describe the relationship between temperature and dew point;
(36) estimate the relative humidity of the air based on the difference between dew
point and temperature;
(37) explain the influence of relative humidity on the H of the cloud base;
(38) list cloud types typical for stable and unstable air conditions;
(39) identify by shape cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds;
(40) explain the influence of inversions on vertical movements in the atmosphere;
(41) name the factors contributing in general to the formation of fog and mist;
(42) name the factors contributing to the formation of haze;
(43) describe significant characteristics of orographic fog;
(44) summarise the conditions for the dissipation of orographic fog;
(45) list and describe the types of precipitation given in the aerodrome forecast (TAF)
and aerodrome routine meteorological report (METAR) codes (drizzle, rain,
snow, snow grains, ice pellets, hail, small hail, snow pellets, ice crystals, freezing
drizzle, and freezing rain);
(46) assign typical precipitation types and intensities to different clouds;
(47) describe the boundaries between air masses (fronts);
(48) define ‘front’ and ‘frontal surface’ (‘frontal zone’);
(49) define ‘warm front’;
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FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
(50) describe the cloud, weather, ground visibility, and aviation hazards at a warm
front depending on the stability of the warm air;
(51) explain the seasonal differences in the weather at warm fronts;
(52) describe the structure, slope, and dimensions of a warm front;
(53) define ‘cold front’;
(54) explain the seasonal differences in the weather at cold fronts;
(55) describe the structure, slope, and dimensions of a cold front;
(56) describe the cloud, weather, ground visibility, and aviation hazards in a warm
sector;
(57) describe the cloud, weather, ground visibility, and aviation hazards behind the
cold front;
(58) define the term ‘occlusion’;
(59) identify the typical flat pressure pattern on a surface weather chart;
(60) describe the weather associated with a flat pressure pattern;
(61) explain the general weather conditions under which ice accretion on airframe
occurs;
(62) indicate in which circumstances ice may form on an aircraft on the ground: air
temperature, humidity, precipitation;
(63) explain in which circumstances ice may form on an aircraft in flight: inside
clouds, in precipitation, outside clouds, and in the absence of precipitation;
(64) describe the different factors influencing the intensity of icing: air temperature,
amount of supercooled water in a cloud or in precipitation, amount of ice
crystals in the air, speed of the aircraft, shape (thickness) of the airframe parts
(wings, antennas, etc.);
(65) define ‘clear ice’;
(66) define ‘rime ice’;
(67) define ‘hoar frost’;
(68) state the ICAO qualifying terms for the intensity of icing;
(69) describe in general the hazards of icing;
(70) assess the dangers of the different types of ice accretion;
(71) state the ICAO qualifying terms for the intensity of turbulence;
(72) describe the effects of turbulence on an aircraft in flight;
(73) indicate the possibilities of avoiding turbulence
(i) in the flight planning: weather briefing, choice of track, and altitude, and
(ii) during flight: choice of appropriate track and altitude;
(74) define ‘wind shear’ (vertical and horizontal);
(75) describe the conditions in which wind shear forms and how it forms (e.g.
thunderstorms, squall lines, fronts, inversions, land and sea breeze, friction
layer, and relief);
(76) describe the effects of wind shear on flight;
(77) indicate the possibilities of avoiding wind shear in flight:
(i) in the flight planning, and
(ii) during flight;
(78) name the cloud types which indicate the development of thunderstorms;
(79) describe the different types of thunderstorms, their location, the conditions for
and the process of their development, and list their properties (air mass
thunderstorms, frontal thunderstorms, squall lines, supercell storms, orographic
thunderstorms);
(80) assess the average duration of thunderstorms and their different stages;
(81) summarise the flight hazards of a fully developed thunderstorm;
(82) describe and assess ‘St. Elmo’s fire’;
(83) describe the effect of lightning strike on aircraft and flight execution;
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FCTM IFR 25 Annexes
(84) describe practical examples of flight techniques used to avoid the hazards of
thunderstorms;
(85) describe the influence of a mountainous terrain on cloud and precipitation;
(86) describe the effects of the foehn;
(87) describe the influence of a mountainous area on a frontal passage;
(88) indicate the turbulent zones (mountain waves, rotors) on a sketch of a mountain
chain;
(89) describe the reduction of visibility caused by precipitation (drizzle, rain, and
snow);
(90) describe the differences between ground visibility, flight visibility, slant visibility,
and vertical visibility when an aircraft is above or within a layer of haze or fog;
(91) define ‘ground visibility’;
(92) list the units used for visibility (m, km);
(93) define ‘RVR’;
(94) list the units used for RVR (m);
(95) compare visibility and RVR;
(96) define ‘ceiling’;
(97) name the unit and the reference level used for information about the cloud base
(ft);
(98) define ‘vertical visibility’;
(99) name the unit used for vertical visibility (ft);
(100) interpret ground-weather radar images;
(101) describe the basic principle of airborne weather radars as well as the type of
information they provide;
(102) describe the limits and errors of airborne weather radar information;
(103) interpret typical airborne weather radar images;
(104) decode and interpret significant weather charts (low-, medium-, and high-level
charts);
(105) describe the flight conditions at designated locations or along a defined flight
route at a given FL, based on a significant weather chart;
(106) describe, decode (by using a code table), and interpret the following aviation
weather messages (given in written or graphical format):
(i) METAR;
(ii) aerodrome special meteorological reports (SPECI);
(iii) trend forecast (TREND);
(iv) TAF;
(v) information concerning en route weather phenomena which may affect
the safety of aircraft operations (SIGMET);
(vi) information concerning en route weather phenomena which may affect
the safety of low-level aircraft operations (AIRMET);
(vii) area forecast for low-level flights (GAMET);
(viii) automatic terminal information service (ATIS);
(ix) meteorological information for aircraft in flight (VOLMET);
(x) special air-report, and
(xi) volcanic-ash advisory information;
(107) list in general the cases where a SIGMET and an AIRMET are issued; and
(108) describe, decode (by using a code table), and interpret the following messages:
runway state message (as written in a METAR) and general aviation forecast
(GAFOR).
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Quality over quantity
FCTM IR (A)
Revision V1.2
Issue date: 21/01/2020
www.skywings.be
Ó Skywings Flight Training BE/ATO-020
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FLIGHT CREW TRAINING MANUAL

INSTRUMENT RATING IR(A)

© Skywings Flight Training 2019. All rights reserved.

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21/01/2020 Revision V1.2

1. List of revisions .................................................................................................................................... 1-1

2. General introduction ........................................................................................................................... 2-1

3. Foreword ............................................................................................................................................. 3-1

4. List of abbreviations ............................................................................................................................ 4-1

6. Future captain concept ........................................................................................................................ 6-1

7. Basic instrument flying ........................................................................................................................ 7-1

8. Upset recovery .................................................................................................................................... 8-1

9. Radionavigation general ...................................................................................................................... 9-1

10. HSI Visualization ............................................................................................................................ 10-1

11. Tracking and homing ...................................................................................................................... 11-1

12. Interceptions.................................................................................................................................. 12-1

13. Reversal procedures ....................................................................................................................... 13-1

21/01/2020 Revision V1.2

14. DME Arcs ....................................................................................................................................... 14-1

15. Airways .......................................................................................................................................... 15-1

16. SIDs and STARs............................................................................................................................... 16-1

17. Holdings ......................................................................................................................................... 17-1

18. Point-to-point navigation ............................................................................................................... 18-1

19. Approaches .................................................................................................................................... 19-1

20. IFR Flight planning.......................................................................................................................... 20-1

21/01/2020 Revision V1.2

20.10 The ATC flight plan ......................................................................................................................... 20-6

21. Adverse weather situations............................................................................................................ 21-1

22. IFR Communications ...................................................................................................................... 22-1

23. Rules of thumb Quick Reference Guide .......................................................................................... 23-1

24. Sources and references .................................................................................................................. 24-1

25. Annexes ......................................................................................................................................... 25-1

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Version number Release date Version notes

V1.0 12/11/2019 First Issue

Chapter Date Author Description

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SIMIONIC G1000 APP FOR IOS

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BRING YOUR MANUAL TO LIVE!

OTHER REFERENCE MATERIALS

Use this document in conjunction with the following documents:

Download the Jeppesen introduction here

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21/01/2020 Revision V1.2 3-2

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6. Future captain concept

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7. Basic instrument flying