P.

Dance (Sayaw)

Sayaw – saya happy, Danson stretching results to dance

it has a therapeutic effect to the dancers. They do not simply heal some pain. It gives satisfaction and
success

Typically, rhythmic and to music, used as a form of audience entertainment in a performance setting. It
is a powerful impulse, but the art of dance is that impulse channeled by skillful performers into
something that becomes intensely expressive and that may delight spectators who feel no wish to dance
themselves.

There are two concepts on the arts of dance:

1. Dance as a powerful impulse and dance as skillfully choreographed art practiced largely by a
professional few.

2. The most connecting ideas are running through any consideration of the subject. In dance, the
connection between two concepts is stronger than in some other arts, neither and can exist without the
other.

Components of Dance

1. Dancer - Dancers are not just performing artist; their bodies are also the instruments through which
the art is created. The quality of art is dependent on the physical qualities and skills of the dancers.

2. Basic steps and formation - The basic steps and formation of a dance depends on the kind of whom
the dancers present. Basic dance steps in ballet and modern dance is of difference art the basic steps
and formation of folk dance and social dance.

3. Choreography - is the art of making dance, the gathering and organization of movement in order and
pattern. A choreographer needs to master the dance.
The choreographer must be:

A dancer or a former dancer

Someone who has studied dance techniques and who understands the capabilities and limitations of his
aesthetic material; that is the human body.

Someone who has a variety of steps at his command to avoid monotony; and

Someone within imagination and feeling who can give character and beauty to the dance.

TYPES OF DANCES

1. Ballet - Ballet serves as a backbone for many other styles of dance, as many other dance genres are
based on ballet. Ballet is based on techniques that have been developed over centuries. Ballet uses
music and dance to tell stories. Ballet dancers transport audience to another world.

2. Jazz - Jazz is a fun dance style that relies heavily on originality and improvisation. Many jazz dancers
mix different styles into their own expression. Jazz dancing often uses bold, dramatic body movements,
including body isolation and contractions.

3. Tap - Tap dancing is an exciting form of dance in which dancers wear special shoes equipped with
metal taps. Tap dancers use their feet like drums to create rhythmic patterns and timely beats.

4. Hip-hop - Hip-hop dance style usually danced to hip-hop music that evolves from the hip-hop culture.
Hip-hop includes various moves such as breaking, popping, locking and krumping, and even house
dance. Improvisation and personal interpretation are essential to hip-hop dancing.

5. Modern - Modern style is a dance style that rejects many of the strict rules of classical ballet, focusing
instead on the expression of inner feelings. Modern dance was created as a rebellion against classical
ballet, emphasizing creativity in choreography and performance.

6. Swing - Swing dance is lively dance style in which couples swing, spin and jump together. Swing
dancing is a general term that means dancing to swing music or music that “swings”.
7. Country and Western - Country and Western dance includes several dance forms usually danced to
country-western music.

8. Belly Dance - Belly dance is a unique form of dance characterized by sharp rolling movements of the
hips and abdomen.

9. Latin Dance - Latin dance is a fast paced, often sensual, partner dance characterized by sexy hip
movements. However hip movements are not intentional in any of the Latin dances. The hip motion is a
natural consequence of changing weight from one foot to the other.

10. Folk Dance - It usually deals with traditional representation belonging to the past. Its cultural
characteristic is specific to the people of a given time and place. The people and place may not be exact
but its origin could be assumed. Folk dance also has national items particularly the costume. It is
universal.

BASIC ARMS POSITION

1. Arms Raise to a Circle at Chest Level. This is also known as the first position.

2. Open Arms Sideward. Elbows slightly rounded pointing downward to the ground; it is also known in
dance as second position.

3. Raise Arms Sideward. While the other arm stays in the second position the other is raised overhead.
This is the third position.

4. In front of the chest raise one arm while the other remains overhead. This is the fourth position.

5. Raise Both Arms Overhead Forming a Graceful CurVe. This is the fifth dance position.
FEET POSITION

1. Toes of both feet are turned out of both feet are placed together. This is referred to as the first
position.

2. From the first position, the right foot is placed sideward with heels apart from the line. This is referred
to as the second position.

3. Pull the heel of the right foot to the instep of the left foot. This is the third position.

4. From the third position, obliquely bring the right foot forward; the right toe points outward. This is
the fourth position.

5. Place the heel of the right foot to the toe of the left. This is the fifth position.

DANCE TERMS

1. Arms in Lateral Position. Two arms are suspended all together to both sides of the dancer

2. Bleking. The heel of the foot is placed on the floor

3. Bow. An act showing salute of honor to the audience or to the partner or opposite dancer; it is done
before and after the dance performance.

4. Brush. An act of sweeping the foot against the floor

5. Cabeceras. The word is Spanish origin which mean head. It refers to the couple of dancers occupying
the length of the hall while other dancers are making a square formation.
6. Costados. It is also known as side pairs. Couple of dancers occupying the width of the dance hall while
other dancers are making a square formation.

7. Cut. A quick transferring of a body’s weight from one foot to the other.

8. Do si- do. In a moment the dance partners face each other; then, they exchange place passing either
left or right with their shoulders, without turning.

9. Free-foot. foot without the weight of the body

10. Free-hand. The hands without movement or anything being held, hands resting on the waist

11. Hayonhayon. This refers to the free swinging of hands.

12. Inside Foot. A dancer’s foot meets the partner’s foot while they stand side by side

13. Inside Hand. The performer’s hand is near that of his partner’s standing side by side

14. Jaleo. Elbows of dance partners almost touching each other while doing a step or walking

15. Kumintang. Clockwise or counter clockwise movements of the hands from the waist.

16. Kundaykunday. It is exactly the same with the kumintang only this one is done in a faster way.

17. Leap. An act of jumping on one foot and landing on the other foot

18. Outside Foot. A dancer’s foot away from that of the partner’s as they stand side by side
19. Outside Hand. The hand of the performers away from his partner

20. Pivot. Turning the body using the ball of the foot that is fixed in a place.

21. Place. Putting the foot on the ground without giving the body weight on it. Direction of the foot
depends on the desired place.

22. Point. A light touch on the ground of the toes of one of the feet with the weight of the body on the
other foot.

23. Salok or sarok. This is swinging on the arm to a download and upward direction passing through the
front side of the body, in doing it trunk is bent forward.

24. Set. It is made up of two dancers, the unit of a dance formation.

25. Slide. An act of a forceful bringing of the foot to the ground without the weight of the body in it.

26. Stamp. An act of a forceful bringing of the foot to the ground without the weight of the body in it

27. Step. An act of transferring the weight of the body from one foot to another

28. Supporting Foot. The foot that carries the weight of the entire body

29. Whirl. An act of a fast turn using a small step

Countries in the world have their own culture made more colorful, beautiful and vibrant because of
FOLK DANCES that are reflection of who they are. In the east, the Chinese have their symbolic Dragon
Dance, the Japanese have the ancestral dance Bon Odori, In the west, the Americans have their Square
Dance. On the other hand, the Philippines will not be left behind. “The pearl of the Orient” Boasts of a
variety of Filipino Folk Dances.

Ethnic dances are found among the ethno linguistic groups scattered all over the Philippine islands, who
have not been substantially Westernized, either by Spain or the United States.

3 forms of ethnic dance:

the ritual dances, which connect the material world to the spiritual

the lifecycle dances, which celebrate an individual’s birth, baptism, courtship, wedding, and demise

the occupational dances, which transform defense and livelihood activities to celebratory performances.

At the base of ethnic dance are those that imitate nature and life while at the social core are perform
rituals that keep an ethnolinguistic group which is spirited and cohesive.

Different Birds and Fowls that became inspiration for the various ethic dances;

● Tikling - adept rice-preying birds interpreted into TINIKLING

● Itik - ducks, into ITIK-ITIK

● Kalapati - doves, into KALAPATI and SINALAMPATI

● Klingkingan - swift, clicking birds, into a dance named after them

DIWATAS- spirit that dwells in nature

BABAYLAN- Local version of Shaman

The Ethnic groups perform a panoply of dances that show their musical skills. These are the following
tools and equipment that ethnic group used.
● Haglong- boat-shape guitar

● Kubing- carved jaws harp

● Dabakan- various drums like the goblet-shaped

● Kulintang- gongs

● Gabbang- Bamboo xylophone

RITUALS

1. Pagdiwata of the Tagabanwa of Palawan - thanksgiving ritual and is linked with harvest time and full
moon.

● She dances armed with a hood, palaspas (fronds), kris or dagger, to the accompaniment of gongs.
Dancing swaying in a swing, she goes into a trance to commune with a spirit, especially the one called
MAGUINDUSA.

2. The Subanons of Zamboanga - set up a platform above ground, centered around a long pole (pathaw)
that digs like a pestle into a log (dulugan) that serves as a resonating mortar from below.

● They dance the Buklog that is also officiated by a Babaylan to address the spirit.

● Sundayo- a ritual where people bounce up and down and around to sound out a communal call to
the gods and ancestor.

Other rituals:

Dugso of the Bukidnon

Anito Baylan of the Mandaya

Bawi of the Itneg

Anituan of the Negrito of Luzon

Different Ethnic Dances

a. People’s life-cycle - blessing a child among the Bago (an Itneg group) is done in the Gabook, where
the officiating by the mandadawak (the north’s babaylan) dances.

b. The coming of age of a girl is dramatized in the Pandamgo of the Matigsalug (culminating in a
deathly combat between suitors)
c. Pangalay and Lunsay dances of the Tausug and Jama Mapun exhibits a slow spectacle or a game

d. The ifugao’s Talip is a courtship dance that approximates those of the fowls;

e. Marriages are always with dances as the Yakan’s Pagkawin, Bagobo’s Kasal sa Banig and Pagasawa-
uy of the Matigsalug

f. Udol - a musical log of the Tagkaolo, they dance to call the on the dead spirits to come home from a
distance battle.

g. Idudo - the Integ man raise up their babies with singing and dancing, while their women are in the
fields

PHILIPPINE FOLK DANCE

1. Binasuan- originated in Pangasinan Province “meaning with the use of drinking glasses”, this
vibrant dance basically shows off the balancing skill of the performers.

2. Rogodon- Originated from Spain, this dance is commonly performed at formal affairs like
inaugural balls.

3. PandanggosaIlaw- Originated from Lubang Island in Mindoro. It is characterized by lively steps

and clapping while following a varying ¾ beat. Pandanggo requires excellent balancing skills of the
performers.

4. Sublian- The dancers appear to be lame and crooked throughout the dance. This version is
originally a ritual dance of the native of the Bauan, Batangas, which is shown during fiestas as a
ceremonial worship dance to the town’s icon, the holy cross.

5. Kuratsa- Commonly performed in the festivals in Bohol and other Visayan towns, this dance
portrays a young couple’s attempt to get each other’s attention. It is performed in a moderate waltz
style.

6. Itik- itik- Originated in Surigao Del Norte, it is performed by imitating the movements of an “itik”,
a duck, as it walks with choppy steps and splashes water on its back while attracting its mate.

7. Tinikling- It is considered as the national folk dance with a pair of dancers hopping between two
bamboo poles held just above the ground and struck together in time to music. Originated from Leyte
Province. This dance mimic movement of “tikling birds”.
8. Maglalatik- Originally performed in Binan Laguna as a mock war dance that demonstrates a fight
between Moros and the Christians over the prized latik or coconut meat during the Spanish rule. All
dancers are male with harness of coconut shells attached on their chest, backs, thighs and hips.

9. Cariñosa- a word that describes an affectionate, friendly and lovable woman. This dance is
performed in flirtatious manner with fans and handkerchiefs to assist the dancers hide and seek
movements.

10. Sakuting- Originated in Abra, this dance interprets a mock fight between Ilokano Christians and
non- Christians with training sticks as props.

11. Pantomina- Meaning the “Dance of Doves”, this dance is the highlight of Sorsogon’s
Kasanggayahan Festival every third week of October. It is a courtship dance imitating the courtship
and love making of doves that then showed during the dance where men attempt to please the
women.

CONTEMPORARY DANCE

⮚       A collaborative style that includes jazz, ballet and hip-hop elements.

⮚       A genre of dance performance that developed during the mid-twentieth century and has since
grown to become one of the dominant genres for formally trained dancers throughout the world, with
strongly popularity in the US and Europe.

⮚       Referred to the movement of new dancers who did not want to follow strict classical ballet and
lyrical dance forms, but instead wanted to explore the area of revolutionary unconventional
movements that were gathered from all dance styles of the world.

⮚       Does not use fixed moves and instead try to develop totally new forms and dynamics, such as
quick oppositional moves, shifting alignments, expression of raw emotions, systematic breathing,
dancing moves performed in non-standing positions and in general trying to find the absolute limits
of our human form and physique.

⮚       Focused much more upon unconventional choreographic moves that were devised in the first
60 years of the 20th century by various masters of the craft.

⮚       Dancers who introduced and greatly popularized the contemporary dance to the worldwide
audience was Martha Graham (1894-1991)

⮚       Most dances prefer using their bare feet or soft ballet slippers, and often costumes as well that
will express their story and allow for easy movement on stage.

MODERN DANCE
⮚       A specific style of dance that is free form and stems from the core or torso, of the body and
uses elements like contact- release floor work, fall, recovery and improvisation.

⮚       A free expressive style of dancing started in early 20 th century as a reaction to classical ballet.
In recent years it has included elements not usually associated with dance, such as speech and film

⮚       It is a style of dance that developed as a reaction to the strict rules that define ballet.

BENEFITS OF MODERN DANCE

If most of the dances were concern over lack of co-ordination is keeping you away from dance
classes, trying some modern dance moves is a very good, safe place to start.

Modern dance moves are all designed to encourage freedom of movement and personal interpretation
while weaving in many varied and demanding steps and positions.

As there are many dances that you’ll do under the umbrella of Contemporary dance that are free
flowing and aren’t series of choreographed steps for you to remember, you’ll have freedom to move
the way you like moving.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN DANCE

Use of Space - While ballet dancers typically face the audience directly, modern dancers use all
orientations, even completely turning their back on the audience.

Relationship to music - in ballet, the dancer’s movement corresponds harmoniously with the music,
but in modern dance, dancers may dance off-beat or in contrast to the music, ignore the music
completely, or dance on a silent stage.

Performers - contrasting the large casts and strict hierarchy of ballet, modern dance choreographers
often also perform. They may work alone or with smaller dance troupes. Women also gained
recognition and influence as choreographers.

Movement- ballet has a very strictly defines set of movements that get pieces together to create
different dances. In modern dance, however, dancers create a new language of movement with evert
piece, experimenting with hoe they can manipulate the body.
BALLROOM
DANCE                                                                                                                               

❖         A type of social dancing that is performed by couples and follows prescribed step

❖         Ballroom dancing is derived from the word ball, which in turn originates from the Latin
word Ballere which means “to dance”

❖         Ballroom dancing is a world class, tradition, and passion.

❖         Ballroom dancing traces its origin to the early 20 th century, when the West End
establishments were developing the art of ballroom dancing. The world’s leading board for ballroom
dance examinations, the Imperial Society of Teachers of Dancing (ISTD), was established in 1904.

People who were instrumental in the development and promotion of modern dance:

❖         Josephine Bradley- the ‘First Lady’ and world class champion of ballroom dance

❖         GK Anderson- who founded the English style

❖         Lady Humphries- who help establish the Modern Ballroom Dance Faculty of the Imperial
Society

❖         Alex Moore- who contributed to the writing of Technique of Ballroom Dancing.

TYPES OF BALLROOM DANCE

1. The cha-cha is a lively, flirtatious ballroom dance full of passion and energy. The classic
"Cuban motion" gives the cha-cha its style. Partners work together to synchronize each
movement in perfect alignment.

2. The foxtrot is a ballroom dance that is lots of fun and simple to learn, making it an excellent
dance for beginners. In the foxtrot, dancers make long, smooth, flowing movements across
the floor to swing or big-band music.

 
 3. Jive is a ballroom dance style that originated in the United States with African-Americans. It
is a lively form of swing dance and a variation of the jitterbug.

4. The Lindy Hop is the ballroom dance considered to be the father of all swing dances. It is
known for its athletic style and often contains aerial jumps, twists, and flips. It was named for
Charles Lindbergh's (Lucky Lindy) transatlantic flight and popular in the 1930s.

5. The mambo is one of the most emotional Latin American ballroom dances. Swaying hip
movements, facial expressions, arm movements, and holds all contribute to the sensuality on
display in the dance. It's different than what modern Americans call the mambo and was hot
in the 1940s and '50s in Cuba and New York, after being invented by Perez Prado.

6. The Paso Doble is one of the liveliest ballroom dances, originating in southern France. It is
modeled after the sound, drama, and movement of the Spanish bullfight and is danced to
music used during a bullfight.

7. The quickstep is a quick version (naturally) of the foxtrot. It is a ballroom dance composed of

extremely quick stepping, syncopated feet rhythms, and runs. The quickstep is exciting to
watch but among the most difficult of all the ballroom dances to master.

8. The rumba is considered by many to be the most romantic and sensual of all Latin ballroom
dances. It is often referred to as the "Grandfather of the Latin dances" and its music has an
insistent 4/4 beat. The ballroom version derives from Cuban son.

9. Possibly the most popular of all Brazilian ballroom dances, both young and old enjoy
dancing the samba. It can be performed solo, such as during the Carnival in Rio de Janeiro, or
with a partner socially.
10. The tango is one of the most fascinating of all ballroom dances. This sensual dance originated
in Buenos Aires, Argentina, in the late 19th century. The style used in competitions today is
different than Argentinian styles of tango.

11. The Viennese waltz is a quick rotating ballroom dance with a subtle rise and fall. It is
considered by most to be one of the most difficult dances to learn. The simple and elegant
 rotational movement characterizes the Viennese waltz. It's up to four times faster than the
regular, or slow, waltz, and the steps are slightly different.

12. The waltz is one of the smoothest of ballroom dances. It is a progressive dance marked by
long, flowing movements, continuous turns, and rise and fall. The dance is so graceful and
elegant that waltz dancers appear to glide around the floor with almost no effort.
 LITERARY PERIODS IN THE PHILIPPINES

The different literary periods in Philippine literature include the pre-colonial period, the Spanish
colonial era, the American colonial era, and the contemporary period. Literature in the Philippines
evolved as part of the country's changing history.

Pre-colonial Period

The first Philippine literary period was the pre-colonial era. During this time, folk songs, epics,
narratives, and sung narratives were popular. Many of the folk songs featured simple rhythms, while
narrative songs were used to tell historical stories. Philippine epics from the pre-colonial era told
mythological stories, and often reflected on community ethics.

Colonial Period

            During the Spanish colonial era, theater became popular. During this time, Spanish explorers
attempted to teach their language to indigenous people, which meant religious songs and poetry
found their place in society. The introduction of prose took a similar approach by attempting to
influence social behaviors. By the 19th century, Philippine writers were using prose to their own
benefit by writing about the negative effects of colonization.

American Colonial Period

            During the American colonial period, English was introduced to mainstream schools
throughout the country. This meant some American literary influences had an impact on Philippine
literature, including the introduction of free verse poetry. Short story telling also became popular, and
as romantic movie traditions intersected with Philippine culture, so did romantic novels.

Contemporary Period

Following military rule in the 1960s, the contemporary period emerged. Poetry, prose, and short
stories remain popular, but writing has become more competitive and professional throughout the
country. Writers are encouraged to attend workshops, and literary awards ceremonies are held each
year.

AMADO V. HERNANDEZ

Literature (1973)

Amado V. Hernandez, a poet, playwright, and novelist, is among the Filipino writers who practiced
"committed art". In his view, the function of the writer is to act as the conscience of society and to
affirm the greatness of the human spirit in the face of inequity and oppression. Hernandez's
contribution to the development of Tagalog prose is considerable -- he stripped Tagalog of its ornate
character and wrote in prose closer to the colloquial than the "official" style permitted. His
novel Mga Ibong Mandaragit, first written by Hernandez while in prison, is the first Filipino socio-
political novel that exposes the ills of the society as evident in the agrarian problems of the 50s.
Hernandez's other works include Bayang Malaya, Isang Dipang Langit, Luha ng Buwaya, Amado V.
Hernandez: Tudla at Tudling: Katipunan ng mga Nalathalang Tula 1921-1970, Langaw sa Isang
Basong Gatas at Iba Pang Kuwento ni Amado V. Hernandez, Magkabilang Mukha ng Isang Bagol at
Iba Pang Akda ni Amado V. Hernandez.

Jose Garcia Villa

Literature (1973)

Jose Garcia Villa is considered as one of the finest contemporary poets regardless of race or
language. Villa, who lived in Singalong, Manila, introduced the reversed consonance rime scheme,
including the comma poems that made full use of the punctuation mark in an innovative, poetic way.
The first of his poems "Have Come, Am Here" received critical recognition when it appeared in New
York in 1942 that, soon enough, honors and fellowships were heaped on him: Guggenheim,
Bollingen, the American Academy of Arts and Letters Awards.

Villa's works have been collected into the following books: Footnote to Youth, Many Voices, Poems
by Doveglion, Poems 55, Poems in Praise of Love: The Best Love Poems of Jose Garcia Villa as
Chosen By Himself, Selected Stories, The Portable Villa, The Essential Villa, Mir-i-nisa,
Storymasters 3: Selected Stories from Footnote to Youth, 55 Poems: Selected and Translated into
Tagalog by Hilario S. Francia.

Nick Joaquin

Literature (1976)

Nick Joaquin, is regarded by many as the most distinguished Filipino writer in English writing so
variedly and so well about so many aspects of the Filipino. Nick Joaquin has also enriched the
English language with critics coining "Joaquinesque" to describe his baroque Spanish-flavored
English or his reinventions of English based on Filipinisms. Aside from his handling of language,
Bienvenido Lumbera writes that Nick Joaquin's significance in Philippine literature involves his
exploration of the Philippine colonial past under Spain and his probing into the psychology of social
changes as seen by the young, as exemplified in stories such as Doña Jeronima, Candido's
Apocalypse and The Order of Melchizedek. Nick Joaquin has written plays, novels, poems, short
stories and essays including reportage and journalism. As a journalist, Nick Joaquin uses the nome de
guerre Quijano de Manila but whether he is writing literature or journalism, fellow National Artist
Francisco Arcellana opines that "it is always of the highest skill and quality". Among his voluminous
works are The Woman Who Had Two Navels, A Portrait of the Artist as Filipino, Manila, My
Manila: A History for the Young, The Ballad of the Five Battles, Rizal in Saga, Almanac for
Manileños, Cave and Shadows. Nick Joaquin died on April 29, 2004.

Carlos P. Romulo

Literature (1982)
Carlos P. Romulo's multifaceted career spanned 50 years of public service as educator, soldier,
university president, journalist, and diplomat. It is common knowledge that he was the first Asian
president of the United Nations General Assembly, then Philippine Ambassador to Washington,
D.C., and later minister of foreign affairs. Essentially though, Romulo was very much into writing:
he was a reporter at 16, a newspaper editor by the age of 20, and a publisher at 32. He was the only
Asian to win America's coveted Pulitzer Prize in Journalism for a series of articles predicting the
outbreak of World War II. Romulo, in all, wrote and published 18 books, a range of literary works
which included The United (novel), I Walked with Heroes (autobiography), I Saw the Fall of the
Philippines, Mother America, I See the Philippines Rise (war-time memoirs).

His other books include his memoirs of his many years' affiliations with United Nations (UN), Forty
Years: A Third World Soldier at the UN, and The Philippine Presidents, his oral history of his
experiences serving all the Philippine presidents.

Francisco Arcellana

Literature (1990)

Francisco Arcellana, writer, poet, e American playwright, writer, poet, and multimedia
performance artistssayist, critic, journalist and teacher, is one of the most important progenitors of
the modern Filipino short story in English. He pioneered the development of the short story as a
lyrical prose-poetic form. For Arcellana, the pride of fiction is "that it is able to render truth, that is
able to present reality". Arcellana has kept alive the experimental tradition in fiction and has been
most daring in exploring new literary forms to express the sensibility of the Filipino people. A
brilliant craftsman, his works are now an indispensable part of a tertiary-level-syllabi all over the
country. Arcellana's published books are Selected Stories (1962), Poetry and Politics: The State of
Original Writing in English in the Philippines Today (1977), The Francisco Arcellana Sampler
(1990).

Some of his short stories are Frankie, The Man Who Would Be Poe, Death in a Factory, Lina, A
Clown Remembers, Divided by Two, and his poems being The Other Woman, This Being the Third
Poem This Poem is for Mathilda, To Touch You and I Touched Her, among others.

Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzales

Literature (1997)

Nestor Vicente Madali Gonzalez, better known as N.V.M. Gonzalez, fictionist, essayist, poet, and
teacher, articulated the Filipino spirit in rural, urban landscapes. Among the many recognitions, he
won the First Commonwealth Literary Contest in 1940, received the Republic Cultural Heritage
Award in 1960 and the Gawad CCP Para sa Sining in 1990. The awards attest to his triumph in
appropriating the English language to express, reflect and shape Philippine culture and Philippine
sensibility. He became U.P.'s International-Writer-In-Residence and a member of the Board of
Advisers of the
U.P. Creative Writing Center. In 1987, U.P. conferred on him the Doctor of Humane Letters, honoris
causa, its highest academic recognition.

Major works of N.V.M Gonzalez include the following: The Winds of April, Seven Hills Away,
Children of the Ash-Covered Loam and Other Stories, The Bamboo Dancers, Look Stranger, on this
Island Now, Mindoro and Beyond: Twenty -One Stories, The Bread of Salt and Other Stories, Work
on the Mountain, The Novel of Justice: Selected Essays 1968-1994, A Grammar of Dreams and
Other Stories.

Edith L. Tiempo
Literature (1999)
Edith L. Tiempo, poet, fictionist, teacher and literary critic is one of the finest Filipino writers in English whose
works are characterized by a remarkable fusion of style and substance, of craftsmanship and insight. She was born
on April 22, 1919 in Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya. Her poems are intricate verbal transfigurations of significant
experiences as revealed, in two of her much-anthologized pieces, "The Little Marmoset" and "Bonsai". As fictionist,
Tiempo is as morally profound. Her language has been marked as "descriptive but unburdened by scrupulous
detailing." She is an influential tradition in Philippine literature in English. Together with her late husband, Edilberto
K. Tiempo, she founded and directed the Silliman National Writers Workshop in Dumaguete City, which has
produced some of the country’s best writers.
Tiempo’s published works include the novel A Blade of Fern (1978), The Native Coast (1979), and The Alien Corn
(1992); the poetry collections, The Tracks of Babylon and Other Poems (1966), and The Charmer’s Box and Other
Poems (1993); and the short story collection Abide, Joshua, and Other Stories (1964).
 
F. Sionil Jose
Literature (2001)
F. Sionil Jose’s writings since the late 60s, when taken collectively can best be described as epic. Its sheer volume
puts him on the forefront of Philippine writing in English. But ultimately, it is the consistent espousal of the
aspirations of the Filipino--for national sovereignty and social justice--that guarantees the value of his oeuvre.
In the five-novel masterpiece, the Rosales saga, consisting of The Pretenders, Tree, My Brother, My Executioner,
Mass, and Po-on, he captures the sweep of Philippine history while simultaneously narrating the lives of generations
of the Samsons whose personal lives intertwine with the social struggles of the nation. Because of their international
appeal, his works, including his many short stories, have been published and translated into various languages.
Jose is also a publisher, lecturer on cultural issues, and the founder of the Philippine chapter of the international
organization PEN. He was bestowed the CCP Centennial Honors for the Arts in 1999; the Outstanding Fulbrighters
Award for Literature in 1988; and the Ramon Magsaysay Award for Journalism, Literature, and Creative
Communication Arts in 1980.
 
Virgilio S. Almario (also known as Rio Alma)
Literature (2003)
Virgilio Almario, also known as Rio Alma, is a poet, literary historian and critic, who has revived and reinvented
traditional Filipino poetic forms, even as he championed modernist poetics. In 34 years, he has published 12 books
of poetry, which include the seminal Makinasyon and Peregrinasyon, and the landmark trilogy Doktrinang
Anakpawis, Mga Retrato at Rekwerdo and Muli, Sa Kandungan ng Lupa. In these works, his poetic voice soared
from the lyrical to the satirical to the epic, from the dramatic to the incantatory, in his often-severe examination of
the self, and the society.
He has also redefined how the Filipino poetry is viewed and paved the way for the discussion of the same in his 10
books of criticisms and anthologies, among which are Ang Makata sa Panahon ng Makina, Balagtasismo versus
Modernismo, Walong Dekada ng Makabagong Tula Pilipino, Mutyang Dilim and Barlaan at Josaphat.

Alejandro R. Roces

Literature (2003)
Alejandro Roces, is a short story writer and essayist, and considered as the country’s best writer of
comic short stories. He is known for his widely anthologized "My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken." In his
innumerable newspaper columns, he has always focused on the neglected aspects of the Filipino
cultural heritage. His works have been published in various international magazines and has received
national and international awards.

Ever the champion of Filipino cultures, Roces brought to public attention the aesthetics of the
country’s fiestas. He was instrumental in popularizing several local fiestas, notably, Moriones and
Ati-atihan. He personally led the campaign to change the country’s Independence Day from July 4 to
June 12, and caused the change of language from English to Filipino in the country’s stamps,
currency and passports, and recovered Jose Rizal’s manuscripts when they were stolen from the
National Archives.

His unflinching love of country led him to become a guerilla during the Second World War, to defy
martial law and to find the major opposition party under the dictatorship. His works have been
published in various international magazines and received numerous national and international
awards, including several decorations from various governments.

Bienvenido Lumbera

Literature (2006)

Bienvenido Lumbera, is a poet, librettist, and scholar.

As a poet, he introduced to Tagalog literature what is now known as Bagay poetry, a landmark
aesthetic tendency that has helped to change the vernacular poetic tradition. He is the author of the
following works: Likhang Dila, Likhang Diwa (poems in Filipino and English), 1993; Balaybay,
Mga Tulang Lunot at Manibalang, 2002; Sa Sariling Bayan, Apat na Dulang May Musika, 2004;
"Agunyas sa Hacienda Luisita," Pakikiramay, 2004. As a librettist for the Tales of the Manuvu and
Rama Hari, he pioneered the creative fusion of fine arts and popular imagination. As a scholar, his
major books include the following: Tagalog Poetry, 1570-1898: Tradition and Influences in its
Development; Philippine Literature: A History and Anthology, Revaluation: Essays on Philippine
Literature, Writing the Nation/Pag-akda ng Bansa.

 
CIRILIO BAUTISTA

Literature 2014

Cirilo F. Bautista (born 1941) is a multi-awarded Filipino poet, fictionist, critic and writer of
nonfiction.
Bautista has also received Carlos Palanca Memorial Awards (for poetry, fiction and essay in English
and Filipino) nine times and became a Hall of Fame of the Palanca Awards Foundation for
achievements in the field of literature, 1995. This is given to Filipino writers who have distinguished
themselves by winning at least five First Prizes in the Palanca Literary Contests., as well as
Philippines Free Press Awards for Fiction, He also was the recipient of the Manila Critics' Circle
National Book Awards, Gawad Balagtas from the Unyon ng mga Manunulat ng Pilipinas, the Pablo
Roman Prize for the Novel, and the highest accolades from the City of Manila, Quezon City and
Iligan City.

Bautista works include Boneyard Breaking, Sugat ng Salita, The Archipelago, Telex Moon, Summer
Suns, Charts, The Cave and Other Poems, Kirot ng Kataga, and Bullets and Roses: The Poetry of
Amado V. Hernandez. His novel Galaw ng Asoge was published by the University of Santo Tomas
Press in 2004. His latest book, Believe and Betray: New and Collected Poems, appeared in 2006,
published by De La Salle University Press.

His poems have appeared in major literary journals, papers, and magazines in the Philippines and in
anthologies published in the United States, Japan, the Netherlands, China, Romania, Hong Kong,
Germany, and Malaysia. These include: excerpts from Sunlight on Broken Stones, published in
World Literature Today, USA, Spring 2000; What Rizal Told Me (poem), published in Manoa,
University of Hawaii, 1997; She of the Quick Hands: My Daughter and The Seagull (poems),
published in English Teacher’s Portfolio of Multicultural Activities, edited by John Cowen (New
York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).

1. LUALHATI BAUTISTA

Lualhati Torres Bautista (born Manila, Philippines, December 2, 1945) is one of the foremost
Filipino female novelists in the history of contemporary Philippine literature. Her novels
include Dekada ’70, Bata, Bata, Pa'no ka Ginawa?, and ‘Gapô.

Works

Short fiction collections of

●        Buwan, Buwan,

●        Hulugan mo ako ng Sundang: Dalawang Dekada ng Maiikling Kuwento

●        Sakada

●        Kung Mahawi man ang Ulap

●        Bulaklak sa City Jail

●        Kadenang Bulaklak

●        The Maricris Sioson story

●        Nena

●        Bata, bata...pa'no ka ginawa?: The screenplay

●        Dekada '70

●        Ang Tondo ay may Langit din – Khonde

2. LINDA TY CASPER

Linda ty Casper is a Filipino writer who has published over fifteen books, including the historical

novel dream Eden and the political novels awaiting trespass, wings of stone, a small party in a
garden, and fortress in the plaza. She has also published three collections of short stories which
present a cross-section of Filipino society.

●        The Peninsulares (historical novel), Bookmark 1964

●        The Secret Runner (short stories), Florentino/national book, 1974

●        The Three-Cornered Sun (historical novel), New Day, 1974

●        Dread Empire (novella), Hong Kong, Heinemann, 1980

●        Hazards of distance (novella), New Day, 1981

●        Fortress in the Plaza (novella), New Day, 1985

●        Awaiting Trespass (novella), London, Readers International, 1985

3. Ingrid Chua-Go

Ingrid Chua-Go is a Filipino - Chinese fashion and lifestyle blogger based in Manila, Philippines.
She is known for her fashion blog the bag hag diaries and her society blog, manila social diary. She
blogs for the Huffington Post-UK and writes columns for the both the Philippine Daily Inquirer and
Look Magazine. She has also contributed fashion week photographs for online retailer Luisa via
Roma and Harrods of London.

4. Gilda Cordero - Fernando

Gilda Cordero - Fernando is a multi-awarded writer, publisher and cultural icon from the Philippines.
She was born in manila, has a B.A. from St. Theresa's College - Manila, and an M.A. from
the Ateneo de Manila University. Gilda Cordero-Fernando was born on June 4, 1932. Cordero-
Fernando has two landmark collection of short stories: The Butcher, the baker, and the candlestick
maker (1962) and a Wilderness of Sweets (1973).

These books have been compiled and reissued later as story collection (1994). Another book,
Philippine food, and life was published in 1992. Together with alfredo Roces, Cordero-Fernando
worked on Filipino heritage, a 10-volume study on Philippine history and culture published
by Lahing Pilipino in 1978. Afterwards, she founded ACF books which published a dozen titles that
deal with various aspects of Philippine Culture and Society. Cordero-Fernando has also won
numerous other hats as a visual artist, fashion designer, playwright, art curator and producer. In
February 2000, she produced a hugely successful extravaganza entitled Luna: an Aswang Romance.

5. JESSICA HAGEDORN

Jessica Tarahata Hagedorn (born 1949) is an Filipino author, essayist, dramatist, and a National
Artist of the Philippines for. Hagedorn was born in Manila to a Scot-Irish-French-Filipino mother
and a Filipino-Spanish father with one Chinese ancestor. Moving to San Francisco in 1963,
Hagedorn received her education at the American conservatory theater training program. To further
pursue playwriting and music, she moved to New York in 1978.

●        Chiquita banana. Third World Women (3rd World Communications, 1972)

●        Pet Food & Tropical Apparitions (Momo's Press, 1975)

●        Dangerous Music (Momo's press, 1975)

●        Mango Tango (Y'bird Magazine, January 1, 1977)

●        Dogeaters (Penguin Books, 1990)

●        Danger and Beauty (Penguin Books, 1993)

●        Charlie Chan is dead: An Anthology of Contemporary Asian American Fiction (editor)

(Penguin Books, 1993)

6. NICK JOAQUIN

Nicomedes Márquez Joaquín (May 4, 1917 – April 29, 2004) was a Filipino writer, historian, and
journalist, best known for his short stories and novels in the English language. He also wrote using
the pen name Quijano de Manila. Joaquin was conferred the rank and title of National Artist of the
Philippines for Literature. He is considered as one of the most important Filipino writers in English,
and the third most important overall, after José Rizal and Claro M. Recto.

 
Works

●        May Day Eve (1947)

●        Prose and Poems (1952)

●        The Woman Who had Two Navels (1961)

●        La Naval de Manila and Other Essays (1964)

●        A Portrait of the Artist as Filipino (1966)

●        Tropical Gothic (1972)

●        A Question of Heroes (1977)

●        Jeseph Estrada and Other Sketches (1977)

●        Nora Aunor & Other Profiles (1977)

●        Ronnie Poe & Other Silhouettes (1977)

●        Reportage on Lovers (1977)

●        Reportage on Crime (1977)

●        Amalia Fuentes & Other Etchings (1977)

●        Gloria Diaz & Other Delineations (1977)

●        Doveglion & Other Cameos (1977)

●        Language of the Streets and Other Essays (1977)

●        Manila: Sin City and Other Chronicles (1977)

●        Tropical Baroque (1979),

●        Pop Stories for Groovy Kids (1979)

●        Reportage on the Marcoses (1979)

●        Language of the Street and Other Essays (1980)

●        The Ballad of the Five Battles (1981)

●        Reportage on Politics (1981)

7. ALEJANDRO ROCES

Alejandro Reyes Roces (13 July 1924 – 23 May 2011) was a Filipino author, essayist, dramatist, and
a National Artist of the Philippines for literature. He served as Secretary of Education from 1961 to
1965, during the term of Philippine President Diosdado Macapagal.

Works:

During his freshman year in the University of Arizona, Roces won Best Short Story for We Filipinos
are Mild Drinkers. Another of his stories, My Brother’s Peculiar Chicken, was listed as Martha
Foley’s Best American Stories among the most distinctive for years 1948 and 1951. Roces did not
only focus on short stories alone, as he also published books such as Of Cocks and Kites (1959),
Fiesta (1980), and Something to Crow About (2005). Of Cocks and Kites earned him the reputation
as the country's best writer of humorous stories. It also contained the widely anthologized piece “My
Brother’s Peculiar Chicken”. Fiesta, is a book of essays, featuring folk festivals such as Ermita's Bota
Flores, Aklan's Ati-atihan, and Naga's Peñafrancia.

8. BIENVENIDO SANTOS

Bienvenido N. Santos (1911–1996) was a Filipino-American fiction, poetry, and nonfiction writer.

He was born and raised in Tondo, Manila. His family roots are originally from Lubao,
Pampanga, Philippines. He lived in the United States for many years where he is widely credited as a
pioneering Asian-American writer.

Santos received an honorary doctorate degree in humanities and letters from the University of the
Philippines, and Bicol University (Legazpi City, Albay) in 1981. He was also a Professor of Creative
Writing and Distinguished Writer in Residence at the Wichita State University from 1973 to 1982, at
which time the university awarded him an honorary doctorate degree in humane letters. After his
retirement, Santos became Visiting Writer and Artist at De La Salle University in Manila; the
university honored Santos by renaming its creative writing center after him.

Works 

●        Villa Magdalena (1965)

●        The Praying Man (1982)

●        The Man Who (Thought He) Looked Like Robert Taylor (1983)

●        What the Hell for You Left Your Heart in San Francisco? (1987)
9. GEMINO H. ABAD

The poet and literary critic Gémino H. Abad was born on February 5, 1939 in Sta. Ana, Manila. 

At present, he is a University Professor Emeritus at the University of the Philippines. His current
writing and research include “Upon Our Own Ground”, a two- volume historical anthology of short
stories in English, 1956- 1972, with critical introduction; “Our Scene So Fair”, a book of critical
essays on the poetry in English since 1905 to the mid- 50s, and; “Where No Words break”, a volume
of his own poems.

He was a columnist in The Manila Chronicle, a weekly column called “Exchange”, with NVM
Gonzales, Sylvia Ventura and Luning Bonifacio Ira; The Evening Paper, a weekly column “Coming
through”, with NVM Gonzales and Cristina Pantoja Hidalgo; Musa: The Philippine Literature
Magazine, a monthly column called “Vates: Our Poets Speak”, and; Flip, a monthly column “Poet’s
Clearing”.

10. CARMEN ACOSTA

Carmen Acosta was born in Manila on February 1, 1904 and died on September 13, 1986. She was
the daughter of Godofredo B. Herrera, and Paterna Santos. Her father was a journalist and served for
a time as municipal president (or mayor in modern usage) of Caloocan during the American colonial
rule. She was a University of the Philippines Bachelor of Philosophy graduate and taught at the
Torres High School in Manila.

A multi-awarded writer, Herrera Acosta's published books include "La Carta Redentora y Otros
Cuentos" (The Saving Letter and Other Stories) in Spanish; and in Filipino, "Kandidata at iba pang
mga Kuwento" (The Woman Candidate and other Stories); "Dangal ng Pangalan at Iba pang Mga
Dulang Panradyo" (An Honorable Reputation and other Radio Plays); "Bulaklak ng Pag-ibig at Iba
pang Mga Tula" (Flower of Love and other Poems); and "Kahapon at Ngayon" (Yesterday and
Today), a book of essays.

What is Philosophy?

            Philosophy derives from the Greek words Philos, which means lover of, or friend of
and Sophia, for wisdom. Note that this etymology involves wisdom, which does not necessarily
mean knowledge. So a philosopher is a lover of wisdom, which is not necessarily the same as
knowledge. As such, first and foremost, those who know a lot of things (e.g., experts, masters,
craftsmen, trivia buffs, perhaps your neighbor who often says “hey, did you know that…?”) are not
necessarily wise, though they are surely knowledgeable about things. As such, when Socrates is said
to be wise, his wisdom does not refer to knowing things (for he knows that he does no know), but his
wisdom consists of acknowledging the limits of his knowledge, the limits of the things he knows for
certain.

             In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand
fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the
world and to each other (philosophy.fsu.edu).

The Branches of Philosophy

            Considered as branches of philosophy are Logic, Epistemology, Ethics, Metaphysics, Politics,
and Anthropology.

            Logic, the art of correct thinking, deals with such questions as: What is reasoning? How do
we determine the validity of reasoning? What are known as fallacies or errors in reasoning? What
should we be logical?

            Epistemology, the theory of knowledge, addresses the following: How do we know? Does
cognition depend on sense perception? Or reason, or intuition? What can we really know? Is there
limit of what we can know? What makes knowledge true? What is our knowledge for?

            Ethics, the theory of the good-life, deals with the standard of norms of morality, is morality
absolute or relative? Why do we have to be moral? What are the different ethical theories? What
really constitutes the “good-life”?
            Metaphysics, the study of ultimate reality, inquiries into the question of what constitutes the
basic stuff of reality? Is reality eternal or was it created by what people call God? Is reality purely
physical or material, or is it spiritual or mental? Or, is it both?

            Politics, the theory of an ideal state, deals with the best form of government. What makes for
an ideal state? Is it anarchism? Or libertarianism? Or communitarianism? Who should really rule or
preside over society? What justification is there to for the state? For whose interest does the state
exist? Should politics, as an exercise of authority, be divorced from religion and morality?

            Anthropology, on the theory of man, deals with the question of man’s origin, nature and
destiny. It inquiries into the question of whether man is a special creation or a product of evolution
by natural selection. What is the place of man in the scheme of things? Is man the “master of his
destiny’, or is he but a “pawn” at the mercy of some “inscrutable power” Does man have a soul that
survives after death or is he doomed to total extinction? What future does man have on this plane?

Revealing the Whole

A.    Discovering Philosophical Reflection

 

            At some point of our life, you may have asked difficult questions though perhaps you never
discussed it to anyone. The fifth question in the entry point is a good example of such questions. To
think about it is to engage in a philosophical reflection because it compels us to look at a particular
experience from a wider perspective. It is not an ordinary question but a truly difficult one.

            To reflect philosophically is to think about an important question that does not have a definite
or ready answer. We are puzzled mostly about things we cannot fully know or understand because
we can ask. One of the things human beings ask are “why am I here?” which is a variation of the
questions “Why was I even born?,” or  “What am I here for?,” or “What is the purpose of my
existence?” Many also ask “why love when you only get hurt?” and “What if there is no after-life?”
Such questions usually come when we are going through a really difficult time in our life. Perhaps
when we are heartbroken, when we feel lost, or when we become conscious of our personal struggles
in this world.

Philosophy allows us the freedom to ask even those questions that others believe to already have a
definite answer. For instance, “What is love?” is often asked implicitly or explicitly in various art
forms. Philosophy, on the other hand, does not dictate conclusive or final answers to philosophical
questions. As you perhaps already know, love is not something that can be exhausted with a
definition.

When we ask a philosophical question, we do not simply inquire about a specific question that is
triggered by certain situations. A philosophical question always contains a bigger problem. For
example, in asking the question “Why am I here?” the person that is inquiring is actually concerned
with the bigger or universal problem of human existence. It is similar to asking “Why do I exist?”
and “What am I here for?” which express a search for meaning. Such questions are not only
personally significant; they are all-encompassing. The answer one finds will determine his/her
choices in life.

B.    The Universal and the Particular

A distinction between the universal and the particular will further clarify the nature of the
philosophical questions. In philosophy, we distinguish between the particular and the universal. One
of the simpler ways of distinguish one from the other is by saying that the particular refers to a part
of the whole, while the universal pertains to the whole. This is crucial in the field of logic which is
concerned with valid arguments and propositions. However, in dealing with questions of the kind
cited earlier, the universal and particular is dealt with in a different way. We can say that the question
“Why am I here?” seems to be a particular question because it is simply one among the others that
may be asked. It is a specific question and so, particular. But when you start thinking about the
question, you realize that it is neither confined to just one person nor to a specific situation. Rather, it
is a question that involves many other questions. Philosophical questions cannot be taken up in
isolations, that is, separate from the very experiences from which they arise.

For us to understand more about holistic perspective and partial point of view, refer to the table
below:

Holistic perspective (The Universal) and Partial Point of View (Particular)

For example:

A teacher listens first to both of her two arguing students before making any conclusion about the
issue.
 

Universal

Or

Holistic

Perspective
 

Particular

Or

Partial Point

Of View
·         Looks at each component part and how it is connected with one another to create a cohesive
whole.

·         Universal pertains to the whole.

·         Centers on just some aspects of the whole in such a way that the whole is overlooked or
discounted.

·         Particular refers to a part of the whole.

·         Look at all aspects of the given problem or situation.
·         All aspects are given importance when making conclusions.

·         All aspects are tied together to form a general overview of the problem or situation
·         Looks at only a limited number of aspects of the given problem or situation.

·         Conclusions are made based on considering some, but not all, sides of the problem or
situation.
For example:

 A teacher scolds Student A after Student B accused him of stealing her pencil case. However, the
teacher on listened to the story of Student B, and not to Student A, before deciding to scold the
students
 
 

 
 

 
 

Looking at the characteristics of holistic and partial points of view, it can be concluded that using a
holistic perspective is more desirable in doing philosophy than using a partial perspective. Partial
points of view only promote limited knowledge on the situation, and this leads to wrong conclusions.

           

            For now, you have to understand that every person engaged in a philosophical reflection must
recognize that possible answers to philosophical questions require adequate justification or rational
basis. Answers that sound right or seem right will simple not do. Philosophers have taught that we
can be misled if we are not careful. There are numerous sources we go to for answers such as books,
teachers, parents, Internet, television, and others, but philosophical questions as earlier said do not
have ready or definite answers. Plato warned as early as 360 B.C.E that there are things that deceive,
confuse, or mislead in this world. To know what is real requires much intellectual effort and rational
ability. Moreover, a person is responsible for the answers he/she holds on to. This means we are to
blame in case we are fooled into believing a falsehood.

C.    Truth and Dialectics

            Philosophers rely on the human faculty of reason as they philosophize. Through this rational
capacity, they arrived at a technique to resolve philosophical questions. This is called dialectics.
Dialectics is an art of refutation that dates back to the ancient Greeks. Philosophical discovery is seen
as the result of collaboration with partners in dialogue or conversation. This is the reason why ancient
Greek philosophers wrote dialogues. Dialogues illustrate how dialectics is an effective means of
examining and evaluating truth claims. Errors or inconsistencies of a claim are demonstrated using
rational abilities.

             The philosopher Socrates is most noteworthy in his use of dialectics. His method of
questioning and answering he subjected Athenians into was effective in drawing out underlying
assumptions. It is not enough to claim something as true. One has to give good reasons as basis for
any claim and the claim must be able to withstand further scrutiny and examination. Dialectics is
indispensable since it leads us closer to truth.
            Philosophy teaches us to be open as we strive to know better. Debating amiably (that is, a
confrontation without aggression) with someone allows us to discover many things. It reveals our
beliefs and challenges us to defend those beliefs. This rational activity teaches us to hold on only to
those beliefs we can defend, and to remain open so we can revise our views through time and in
collaboration with others.

The Value of Philosophical Reflection

Socratic Legacy
            There are different views on the value of philosophical reflection. What we will draw
attention to, however, are views attributed to Socrates and from which we would infer an answer.
Three claims of Socrates from Plato’s Apology and Protagoras are worth noting:

1.     “Know thyself”

2.     “The unexamined life is not worth living”; and

3.     “Virtue is knowledge of good and bad.”

           

            In what follows, these three claims will be related to one another in an attempt to persuade
you of the value of philosophical reflection.

            Socrates professed that philosophical reflection is necessary in the life of every person. His
pronouncements of “know thyself” and “the unexamined life is not worth living” are to be
understood this way. Socrates philosophized where people usually gathered (agora in Greek) and
compelled those he conversed with to think, to defend their views, to account for what they know and
do not know. He did this by asking individuals a series of questions. You can imagine how people
were annoyed! It is not common for people to welcome a discussion that reveals how little they
know.
            The series of questioning and answering that Socrates employed in engaging in philosophical
reflection came to be known as the Socratic Method. It is an effective method of education that is
valued even to this time. It is true that we need to reflect about what we believe or claim to know
because we are responsible for our thoughts. What we believe to be true becomes the basis for our
actions. Moreover, if we know something, it is worth sharing to others. If we are ignorant about
something, we need to learn from others who know.
            A life worth living is a life that examines what one thinks. An examination of beliefs or
thoughts provides us with opportunity to know ourselves better. We need to know ourselves because
we make choices daily. The choices we make in turn, create who we are. Philosophical reflection is
indispensable because we do not realize what we truly believe in until we are challenged to defend
them.

            Every person must confront the question “who am I?” because knowledge of oneself is
crucial in life where we make choices daily. If we don’t know ourselves, we are bound to make
wrong life decisions. We would purse things that are not suitable to us and would not truly make us
happy. We will have many regrets. If we do not ask ourselves who we are which essentially contains
some other questions like what are our strengths, our weaknesses, what satisfies us, what goals we
have, we will end up feeling miserable, without understanding why.
            This is why the third claim that “virtue is knowledge of good and bad” provides us with
another useful life advice. We need to ask philosophical questions that will provide us with insights
on what is truly good and bad for us. Virtue is knowledge because to truly know what is good
necessarily leads to the actual doing of what is good. Furthermore, when what we say and what we
do are not in sync with each other, what we claim to know is doubtful. In other words, a person who
truly understands what is good chooses to do what is good. One who pretends to know what is good
does not choose what is good. His/her ignorance is revealed in his/her actions. Philosophical
reflection enlightens us and make us better persons.

Doxa and Episteme

            To know the truth is different from believing something to be true. This is the reason why we
distinguish truth from opinion. There are different views presented to us every day. We are not
supposed to believe all view presented to us as true. We need to distinguish the false from the true, or
the illusions from the real. That is why philosopher like Plato devoted much of their time to the
problem between appearance and reality. Something that appears to be true is not automatically true.
When we talk about knowledge (Episteme in Greek), we are not concerned with mere belief or
opinion (Doxa in Greek).

·         Means opinion

·         Doxa is basically what in English we might call hearsay.

·         It’s the stuff you know because someone told you about it.

·         Refers to common belief and popular opinion

 

DOXA 
·         Means knowledge

·         It’s the stuff you know because you thought about it and reasoned it out. 

·         Episteme is portrayed as more of a justified, true belief

           
 

EPISTEME
 
 

            Remember that every person has a set of belief or opinion, and there’s nothing wrong with it
knowing that there is diversity of belief. Not unless when we claim that our belief or opinion is true.
We are required to explain why we know it to be true. To know is to be able to give rational
justification. Gut-feel that something is true would never be enough to justify what we claim to
know. Hearsays and opinions would not count as knowledge unless they pass a test of verification or
confirmation. We are responsible for our thoughts, in the same way in our actions. We should not
just accept whatever is given or presented to us. We should discover, unveil and seek for the truth.

Since the beginning of philosophy, it was recognized that truth is not readily accessible to human
beings.God alone, possess all truths andman has to exert mental effort to know some of these truths.
His rational capacity (reason) is his tool in such endeavor.

           

Philosophers presented their views on opinion and knowledge, one of them is Plato, which often
considered the first to differentiate knowledge from opinion. Knowledge, according to Plato, is
certain whereas opinion is not certain. We remain ignorant when we rely on opinions, for they are
based on appearance and not reality. Appearances are unreliable and deceptive. Knowledge on the
other hand, is seeing things as they really are.

The dialogues of Plato are activities directed toward discovering truths and acquiring knowledge.
Learning from his teacher Socrates, Plato’s dialogues begin with opinions that are agreed to by
interlocutors and then use series of questioning and answering to discover truth. Next is Aristotle,
who developed the syllogism to demonstrate the truth of a claim or conclusion. So, what is
syllogism? Syllogism is a deductive argument of a certain form where a conclusion is inferred from
two premises (Major and Minor premise). Valid arguments are those that begin with premises that
are knowable and guarantee the truth of a conclusion. The premises serve as explanation as to why
the conclusion is valid or acceptable. For example, all men are mortal (Major premise), Socrates is a
man (Minor premise), Therefore, Socrates is mortal (Conclusion), another example is this all roses
are flowers (major premise). This is a rose (minor premise). Therefore, I am holding a flower
(conclusion). Aristotle identified valid syllogisms as proof or demonstration of truth.

During the modern period, the most important contribution was made by Rene Descartes. He
considered the Father of Modern Philosophy for introducing the notion of indubitability means that,
statements that are false, doubtful or uncertain, cannot be used as basis for knowledge. The
Meditations uses the method of doubt as a test to distinguish the indubitable from dubitable. Clear
and distinct ideas alone can become the foundation of all knowledge. Descartes has offered us
criteria by which we can tell opinion from knowledge. Opinions are those that can be doubted and
are often confused in our thought. Their lack of clarity makes them dubious. Knowledge, on the other
hand, is indubitable and thus certain.

And lastly, during the contemporary period, Jacques Derrida developed deconstruction which
challenged traditional views in philosophy by looking at structures of language to open up limitless
interpretations. In contrast with Plato’s doctrine on appearance and essence (on which much of the
history of philosophy rests), Derrida’s theory of deconstruction significantly influenced
contemporary thought. In Plato, to find essence is to find knowledge. In Derrida, non-essential
elements or appearance is the basis of everything that can be spoken or written.

Contemporary Period may be best seen as a reaction against the views of the modern period, and one
of them most notable denials in the period known as postmodernism is the attack on the notion of an
objective reality. To post-modernist, such reality is nothing but a conceptual construction. Since there
is no objective reality, there is no “Truth”. There are many truths, that is, truth that is particular.
There is no Truth with a capital T, or truth that is absolute.

Methods of Philosophizing are different process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions
from statements using various philosophical methods, such as: Socratic Method, Dialectic Method,
Scientific Method, and Historical Method.

Both the Socratic and dialectic method are based on a discussion between two or more people who
may carry differing views but wish to pursue the truth by seeking an agreement with one another.
Meanwhile, the scientific method is a process of determining truth or knowledge through
experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.

The scientific method, also called empirical method, is a process of determining truth or knowledge
through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.

 
Types of Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning In this type of reasoning, conclusion comes first, followed by main points, and
the last will be the supporting data, facts, examples, and evidences. General idea comes first before
the specific or particular idea.

Inductive Reasoning In this type of reasoning, supporting data, facts, examples, and evidences come
first followed by the main points and conclusion will be the last part. This is the vice versa of the
deductive reasoning because particular idea comes first before the general idea.

            The historical method is the process of gathering evidences, examining them, and formulating
ideas about the past to come up with present truths.

What is a Human Person?

A human person is a living being that contains a real existing power to direct its own development
toward fulfillment through perfect, unconditional, and infinite truth, love, goodness, beauty, unity,
and will do so if all the proper conditions are met. (Alex Ray, 2016)

            The soul, mind, and spirit are the non-bodily component that a human person has.

What is an Embodied Spirit?

            Embodied Spirit particularly is inseparable union of the Human body and Soul.  

Qualities of an embodied spirit person

 Self-awareness refers to the person having a clear perception of oneself, including his thoughts,
emotions, identity and action

 Externality refers to the capability of a person to reach out and interact with others and the world.

 Self-determination refers to the capability of persons to make choices and decisions based on their
own preferences, monitor and regulate their actions, and be goal-oriental and self-directed.

 Dignity- Is the right of a person to be valued and respected for their own sake, and to be treated
ethically. (Wikipedia)

  the state or quality of being worthy of honor or respect (Oxford Languages)

           
 

Definition of Terms
Transcendence Possibility

means: 1. exceeding usual limits or is defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary as: 1.

SURPASSING; 2. extending or lying beyond the
limits of ordinary experience; 3. in Kantian
philosophy: being beyond the limits of all possible
experience and knowledge
a chance that something might exist, happen, or
be true; 2. the state or fact of being possible; 3.
something that might be done or might happen;
4. something that is possible; 5. abilities or
qualities that could make someone or something
better in the future.

Human persons cannot also breathe underwater without the aid of a breathing apparatus.

 
Limitations of the Human Persons Human persons are biologically deficient beings. This means that
we are not equipped with the best physical attributes among all the beings in the world.
 

Human persons do not have the natural ability to fly.

 As an embodied spirit, it provides us numerous opportunities to explore everything around us and
even within us. Though we enjoy a number of advantages compared to other beings, still there are a
number of things that we naturally cannot do.  Despite these natural limitations, we have used our
intellect to devise means to achieve several feats. We now use airplanes to fly, employ scuba gear to
swim underwater for extended periods, and invented tools and machines to lift gear weights and
perform other feats well beyond our physical capabilities. The ability to surpass limits is called
transcendence. Our mind is an important tool that allows us to go beyond many of our physical
limits. As persons, we are able to exercise our imagination and reflection to go beyond our own
thoughts and experiences.  Although we have physical limitations, we can transcend them because of
our spiritual dimensions. Being physically limited in our abilities does not prevent us from hoping for
or aspiring to greater things. Transcendence also means overcoming oneself or being in control even
if the body reminds us of certain tendencies. Although these tendencies are felt, the person can
govern them and ensure that they are exercised within the bounds of reason.  The essence of
transcendence is to acknowledge our limitations, identify possibilities for development, and change
ourselves for the better. It maybe physical or behavioral changes such, as trying a new sport or hobby
or adopting a healthier life style. You can also take on a mental challenge such as learning a new skill
or doing better in your studies. Our possibilities for transcendence give us the opportunity to work
toward becoming better versions of ourselves.
Environmental Philosophy is the discipline that studies the moral relationship of human beings with
the environment.

Human Being’s Perspective on Environment

 The kind of relationship that human being establishes with the environment depends on how he/she
perceives it. Human being sees and considers the environment as an erratic and disorderly thing that
needs to be analyzed, reformed and reshaped through the cultural tools of science and technology in
the service of the human self. Furthermore, the environment is considered as a commodity or
property to be used and disposed for one’s own individual welfare.

            In such cases, the human self fails to relate with the environment as another subject, as bio-
community. It sees the environment as something to be exploited. This is the cause of on-going
environmental crisis. Natural entities and resources such as individuals, species, and ecosystem are
destroyed. Approximately 50,000 species go extinct each year. Three fourths of the world’s birds and
a quarter of the world’s mammalian species face extinction. Climate change has rapidly accelerated
because of industrial-scale burning of both fossil fuels and tropical rainforest.  Multiple rivers and
tributaries have been converted as dumping sites of waste. The conversions of mountains into
settlement areas, agricultural land into gold courses have been the causes of massive destruction of
natural habitat and ecosystem (tropical and temperate rainforests, fresh water, lakes, streams, rivers,
coral reefs, and coastal mangroves).

Human Being’s Approaches to Environment

 This kind of relationship between the human self and the environment has led the emergence and
development of the various approaches to Nature such as:

 Instrumental Approach

    In this approach to environment, human being affirms the protection of the environment as long as
it possesses value or importance for human being. He/she takes care of the environment because it is
a medium in stabling his/her society and civilization. The problem with this approach is that when a
human being can no longer recognize the value of environment, it ceases to be of value.
Consequently, he/she tends to manipulate and utilize it as a mere thing. In such situation,
environment loses its being and significance.

Axiological Approach

 In this approach to environment, human being recognizes the intrinsic value of the environment.
This demands him/her to protect and take care of it. Beauty can be seen as the external expression of
such intrinsic value. Axiological approach needs a greater use of imagination and reflection on the
part of human being for him/her to see and experience the intrinsic value of the environment.

 Anthropological Approach

  In this approach, the primary concern of human being is to unveil his/her being as human or what
being human ought to be. The focus of establishing relationship with the environment is not
environment itself, but his “being.”  Consequently, he/she sees the importance of protection, care,
and respect for the environment. Nonetheless, the human being is the one who determines the
intrinsic value of it. The value of the environment comes from the external authority; from human
being. Human being does not recognize that the environment has its own consciousness and inherent
system. Such approach considers environment as an object without any consciousness of its own. It
can be manipulated and controlled for human being’s disposal. For instance, a hill or a ridge can be
converted as recreational park. To do this, the developer manipulates the hill according to the
recreational park’s plan. The value of the hill is associated to its recreational value.

Utilitarianism

This approach focuses on the consequences of human action, whether it is wrong or right. Our action
is ethically right when it produces greatest happiness for the greater number of people, otherwise the
action is ethically wrong. Human being uses such view to utilize and manipulate natural environment
for human development.

Biocentrism

 Biocentrism is the view that not only humans and animals, but also plants should be morally
considerable. They give due consideration to the preservation of biodiversity with its plants and
animals. They are advocating environmental protection for all living organisms including animal
rights. This is literally a life-centered theory. According to Paul Taylor, in his article
entitled, The Ethics of Respect for Nature, all living things should be considered as “teleological
centers of life.” That is, each and every living organism has its own telos, or goal or purpose to fulfill
in this world. For example, Taylor cited that an organism should be allowed to reach a state of
maturity for it to fulfill its goal of reproduction. Any interference with the fulfillment of an
organism’s goal or purpose is tantamount to harming that organism.

 Ecocentrism

 The ecosystem-centered ethic or ecocentrism regards ecosystems as holistic entities that should be
given moral consideration. His land ethic gives importance, not on individual moral consideration,
but a holistic regard for the biotic community or ecological systems. He claims that. “a thing is right
when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability, and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong
when it tends to do otherwise.” Aldo Leopold sees the system as having its own integrity as he
describes the ecosystem in a river sandbar with the unity of its different elements interdependently
co-existing and subsisting with each other.

            Aldo Leopold, who was an American conservationist and forester by profession, published an
article entitled A Sand Country Almanac(1949), which emphasized the importance of the adoption 
of a land ethic giving importance to land as an entity that should be given due respect and love. Thus,
an action is right and therefore, moral, when it has the tendency to preserve the integrity, stability,
and beauty of the biotic community; and wrong when it does the opposite.

Natural Law Ethics

 
            There is goodness in human nature to do good which is rooted in the goodness of God; the
God who created everything according to His Divine plan. This goodness of God in human being can
be seen and manifested through the expressions of human intellect and reason. The goodness of
reason and intellect is observed and experienced when human action is in accordance to God’s plan;
otherwise, such action is unethical and must be avoided. We respect nature because of God created it
for divine purpose. The environment is created and continuously being recreated for human being’s
well-being. But such process must not jeopardize the divine plan to make the environment
sustainable for the continuous existence of human race. The human being as the summit expression
of God’s goodness, and who possesses intellect and reason, has a greater responsibility to care for the
environment and not to destroy it.

Virtue Ethics Perspective

            The development of our virtue of care and respect for the environment is a habitual
performance of caring and respecting non-human beings. The act of caring and of respecting
becomes our second nature. This extends to non-human especially for the environment where he/she
lives and realizes his/her being.

The Spirit of Stewardship

            Stewardship, according to oxford languages, is the job of supervising or taking care of

something, such as an organization or property.

Human being is part of creation. He/she is not the author of his/her existence. His/her existence
comes from his/her Creator; he/she is not the master of his/her existence. According to Timbreza,
human being has the responsibility to take care, protect, and cultivate his/her potentialities, faculties,
and functions. But this responsibility is not limited to his/her own self, but it extends to his/her
external world, the environment (Timbreza 1982). A farmer has to take care of his/her rice field.
He/she has to know how to sustain the good condition of the soil. As a care taker, he/she has to know
the technology that does not destroy the soil, but cultivates its richness.

As part of creation, human being’s choice and action influences and affects the unfolding of
phenomena in the environment. The potentialities of the environment may be realized through
human. Nonetheless, these potentialities or even the established system in the environment may
disappear or be distorted by human action. This may lead to the disappearance of his/her
potentialities for self-actualization.

            Human being’s action must not distort the nature of things, but helps it to its realization and
sustainability. In doing this, environment becomes a proximate norm and the Creator becomes the
remote norm of human action. What the human being does to the environment has a great influence
and effect on his/her existence. For Timbreza, this gives us a holistic perception of life. Being
situated in the world, human has to establish loving relation with natural environment, and no to
dominate it for human being is not the measure of all things.
            As a steward, the human being has to take care of the environment, and not to destroy it; as a
steward, he/she is responsible for the well-being and harmony in the environment, and not to subdue
it as an enemy.

Human Being as the Summit of Creation

            Rationality makes human being different from other created beings. The capacity to think
unveils the inherent nature of human being as the peak of creation for he/she is created after the
image and likeness of the Divine Creator (Gen. 1:6). But being the summit of creation, it does not
mean that having the freedom and authority to control creation, the environment for its expense.
Being a rational being and image of the Creator, he/she has to protect and care for the environment.
This is the relational dimension for being the human with rationality and as image of the Creator.

            As the Summit of creation and image of the Divine Creator, he/she has moral responsibility to
take care and respect the environment. He/she participates in the Divine Creator’s creative acts in the
environment. In this context, he/she recognizes the “otherness” of the environment. in such context,
Emmanuel Levinas believes that human being’s action is for the good of the “other” and not for
his/her own good.

            Being the summit of creation does not give him/her authority to manipulate and control the
environment, but unveil his/her moral responsibility to care and not to manipulate the environment.
As a being with intelligence and reason, human being must use environmental resources with love
and care. This is a responsibility, and it shall be infinite.

10 ways to show your care for the Environment

1. Change your light   

            If every household replaced one regular light bulb with one of those new compact fluorescent
bulbs, the pollution reduction would be equivalent to removing one million cars from the road.

2. Don’t Rinse

            Skip rinsing dishes before using your dishwasher and save up to 20 gallons of water each
load. Plus, you’re saving time and the energy to heat the additional water.

3. Use both sides of paper

            American and Filipino businesses throw away about 21 million tons of paper every year,
equal to 175 pounds per office worker. For a quick and easy way to halve this, set your printer’s
default option to print double-sided (duplex printing). And when you’re finished with your
documents, don’t forget to take them to the recycling bin.
 

4. Recycle Newspaper

            There are 63 million newspaper printed each day in the U.S. and even in the Philippines. Of
these, 44 million, or about 69% of them will be thrown away. Recycling just the Sunday papers
would save more than half a million trees every week.

5. Rethink Bottled Water

            Nearly 90% of plastic water bottles are not recycled, instead taking thousands of years to
decompose. Buy a reusable container and fill it with tap water, a great choice for the environment,
your wallet, and possibly your health.

6. Brush without running water

            You’ve heard this one before, but many be you still do it. You’ll conserve up to five gallons
of water per day if you stop. Daily saving could add up to 1.5 billion gallons – more water than folks
use.

7. Plant a Tree

            It’s good for the air, the land; it can shed your house and save on cooking (plant on the west
side of your home), Make it meaningful for the whole family and plant a tree every year for each
member.

8. Turn off lights

            Always turn off incandescent bulbs when you leave a room. Fluorescent bulbs are more
affected by the number of times it is switched on and off so turn them off when you leave a room for
15 minutes or more.  You’ll save energy on the bulb itself, but also cooling costs, as lights contribute
heat to a room.

9. Choose Matches over Lighters

            Most lighters are made out of plastic and filled with butane fuel, both petroleum products.
Since most lighter are considered “disposable”, over 1.5 billion end up in landfills each year. When
choosing matches pick cardboard over wood. Wood matches come from trees, whereas most
cardboard matches are made from recycled paper.
 

10. Share!

            Take what you’ve learned, and pass the knowledge on to others. If every person you know
could take one small step toward being greener, the collective effort could be phenomenal.

Do you know that these situations are critical?

Here are some facts to consider:

·         We use 50% of the Earth’s land area for food production and 50% of the Earth’s available
fresh water for drinking.

·         The main source of water pollution is not chemical waste but excrement of farm animals

·          About 70% of the world’s marine species are at risk of extinction.

·         By the year 2100, extinction may reach one third (1/3) of all species now living.

·         Animals raised for food currently generate between 15 and 20% of methane emissions globally

·         Every ton of recycled office paper saves 380 gallons of oil.

·         Around 50 million tons of papers are consumed annually by people more than 850 million
trees are cut down.

·         Each year, over 63,000 square miles are destroyed resulting in more than half the world
tropical forests being lost.

We are changing the climate and health of the planet by our every choice. What can you do to show
you care about the environment and contribute to its health and longevity? Here are just a few
suggestions. For more ways to save the environment, check some books out of the library or do some
online research.

1.     Conserve energy at home.

Fix leaky faucets, turn off lights and appliances when not in use, and buy energy efficient products.
Check showerheads and toilets for leaks, and consider low flow models. Reduce the settings on water
heaters and household thermostats: limit use of air conditioning. Make sure your home is efficiently
insulated.

2.     Reduce, reuse, and recycle.

Dispose of harmful materials properly, re-use or recycle things you no longer need, and place
recyclables in proper bins for pick up. For every ton of paper recycled, 17 trees are saved.

3.     Buy safe products.

Don’t support toxic materials such as home improvement products like paint with lead or food
products with pesticides. Buy organic produce when possible, and learn what products are safest for
your consumption and for the health of the planet.

4.     Drive conservatively.

Carpool or take public transportation when you can, and consolidate your trips for gas conservation.
Observe speed limits, and avoid rapid acceleration and excessive breaking and idling. Ride a bike
and walk for local errands. Research how you can reduce carbon emissions by keeping your car in
top shape. Keep tires properly inflated to improve gas mileage. Every 10 days, driver with under-
inflated tires and poorly maintained engines waste 70 million gallons of gasoline.

5.     Green up your life.

Switch to solar energy at home if feasible, grow as much of your own food as you can, use natural
fiber clothing, and make your own cleaning and beauty care products.

Educate yourself as much as possible about the environment issues that concern every earth citizen,
and start taking actions that show you care about the environment. Be a role model and leader for
others. Each individual contributes tomorrow success of the whole.  Go green now.

How Environment Sustainability Benefits Human Health

    
1.     Cleaner air, resulting from fewer emissions from cars, buses, industrial processes, and so forth,
improves human health, improves human health through a lesser incidence of lung disease, asthma,
and allergy-like symptoms.

2.     Clean drinking water, reasonably clean water for bathing are very important in preventing
certain disease and symptoms such as chronic diarrhea. In this context “clean” means lacking in
obvious pollutants, such as human or animal waste, but also free of heavy metals and others
chemicals detrimental to human health. A low count of bacteria also is very important.

3.     If the environment is health in the sense of promoting active transportation, such as walking,
bicycling, or rollerblading for transportation, people will get more exercise than they will if they ride
in a motorized vehicle.

Developing Environmental Virtue Ethics

            Virtue ethics can be particularly helpful for any kind of leadership because they nurture the
formation of character, the lasting habits of the heart and mind necessary to effect positive change in
the world. Developing personal and community virtues can provide a framework for sustained
engagement with the ethical life. Given the seriousness of our environment crises and the challenges
these pose to human societies, the need for environmental virtues is all the more crucial.

Prudence
            Prudence is the intellectual habit that wisely assesses the means necessary to accomplish the
end at which you are aiming. Another more common word for this might be wisdom. Prudence and
environmental ethics invites us to consider those means, to have the capacity to make wise judgments
in complex trade offs.  This is a critical habit to develop for those seeking a more sustainable world.

            The responsibility principle is a contemporary expression of prudence. The virtue of prudence
is paramount in addressing climate change. This virtue is not only a necessary one for individuals in
leading morally good lives, but is also vital to the moral health of the larger community. Prudence is
intelligence applied to our actions.

Frugality

            Temperance or frugality can best be understood as restraint or self-control in the use of
resources. This virtue exists in tension with our culture’s appetite and materialistic values.

           

The Spirit of Non-coexistence

            The non-coexistence between human being and the environment when one is being
objectified by the other one makes the other as an object. Since the human being has the capacity for
reasoning, he/she has the power to control the environment as an object. This is the wall that hinders
to establish harmonious relationship between the two.

            A human being does not recognize the consciousness and systems that set natural movements
and occurrences in the environment. The environment, in turn, creates its own shield to protect itself
from human being’s unjust acts. The environment manifests its power and dissent against people
through uncontrolled natural calamities.

            The problem with non-coexistence between human beings and environment is not coming
from the environment, but from the human being.  Every time he/she chooses to act against the
environment, he/she does it even without considering the response of the environment. If human
being chooses to throw his/her garbage or waste into the river, the river cannot directly say to
him/her not to do such act.

            Another source of problem of non-coexistence between human beings and environment is
when a human being focuses on development and progress at the expense of the environment. He/she
can get natural resources for profit. But, if profit becomes the basis of development and progress,
human being uses the environment as mere commodity. The environment is not seen and recognized
as a community.

The Spirit of Coexistence

            The spirit of coexistence between human being and the environment is shown every time
human being recognizes his/her dependence upon the latter. As human being becomes aware of the
consciousness and the natural systems of the environment, he/she cultivates a more understanding
and caring relationship with it. The care and love that human being gives to the environment is, in the
end, beneficial for his/her survival. Human being should establish harmonious relationship with the
natural environment to experience goodness in life. This kind of relationship brings balance in the
environment. Mercado asserts that:

            The Filipino wants to be in harmony with nature through equilibrium – maintenance

(pagkakapantay-pantay, di pagkakatalo). If this balance is upset, the Filipino expects suffering and
other forms of misfortune (Mercado 1974,110).

           

            Human being should recognize the inherent consciousness and wisdom that pervade the
whole of creation. This recognition leads him to care and protect the environment. As he/she does
this, he/she is, in turn, caring and protecting his/her own life. We have to learn from the traditional
Filipinos who lived with nature. “Forests and rivers were his/her brothers. Their preservation and
conversation were his life, their destruction, his/her destruction” (Mercado 1994, 140).

Before we talk about what freedom is and what it means for a human person to be free, we need to
state and address a view that rejects the claim that a human person is free. This view is called pan-
determinism is “the view which disregards his/her [human] capacity to take stand toward any
conditions whatsoever” (Frankl 1984, 154). Specifically, it states that a human person Is not free
because his/her decisions. Actions, and behavior are determined by his/her biological, psychological,
and sociological conditions (Frankl 1973) Let us analyze this claim.

Biological Determinism

For pan-determinism, human genetic make-up plays a big role in human behavior, attitude, and
personality. What humans are and what they will be is determined by their biological make-up.
Humans are biologically pre-disposed to decide, act, or behave in a certain way. Some humans, for
example, are naturally calm, kind, friendly, and sociable; others have the opposite traits. Their
biological make-up explains this. Whether they like it or not, their biological constitution affects the
way they decide, act, and behave. They are simply not free from biological determination. This
probably explains why they find it difficult to change their attitude, behavior and personality no
matter how hard they try.

Psychological Determinism

Human actions, according to Freud, are not free. Human actions may appear free, but they are
nothing but a manifestation of the various mental states, which humans are not aware of and have no
control. These mental states, in turn, govern human decisions, actions, and behaviors. To understand
this view, let us briefly discuss Freud’s concept of the mind.

According to Freud, there are three levels of the mind: the conscious level, the pre-conscious level,
and the unconscious level. The conscious level pertains to a person’s current awareness. The
preconscious level pertains to the memories and stored knowledge that a person is not currently
aware of but can be brought to the present awareness easily by the process of remembering. The
unconscious level pertains to those fears, motives, sexual desires, wishes, urges, needs, and past
experiences that a person is not currently aware of and which cannot be easily brought to the
conscious level. Freud likens his concept of the mind to an iceberg. The conscious level is the tip of
the iceberg. The preconscious in in-between the two levels, and the unconscious level is the seat of
the mind, which is concealed, vast, and powerful. 

Freedom, for Freud, is an illusion. That is because human decisions, actions, and behaviors are
determined by those instincts, drives, hopes, wishes, and past experiences which humans are not
aware of and of which they have no control.

Sociological Determinism

According to B.F Skinner (1971), there is no autonomous agent in humans that determines their
actions. Human behavior is shaped by external conditions and not by the so-called inner self. Actions
that produce good consequences are reinforced; conversely, actions that yield negative effects have
the tendency not to be repeated. Positive or negative reinforcement (reward or punishment
mechanism) is, therefore imperative to shaping and changing human behavior. The best way to shape
and change human behavior is through a reinforcing environment. If human behavior is determined
by its consequences, reinforced if it has pleasant consequences and not reinforced if it has unpleasant
consequences, then it is externally determined. If human behavior is environmentally determined,
then it makes no sense to claim that the person is free, for to claim that a person is free is to posit an
autonomous agent in human person that decides independently of the consequences of human
behavior. Freedom, the, based on this view, is an illusion.

While the pan-determinist are correct in pointing this out, according to Viktor Frankl (1973) they are
wrong in claiming that human behavior is nothing except what is pre-determined by these factors.
For Frankl (1973), human freedom does not exist in a vacuum. To be free means to be free from.
Freedom always presupposes a condition or a restriction. Without condition or restriction, there is
nothing from which a person can be freed. A human person, for Frankl, is self-determining. As such,
he/she is not reducible to its genetic constitution nor is he/she just a product of his/her mental states
and social conditions. For Frankl, all these condition – biological, psychological, and social – serve
as the springboards of human freedom. (Frankl 1973, 75-76)

Now, having said that a human person has the power to transcend all the factors that condition
human freedom, let us examine the claim of pan-determinism in great detail.

SELF – DETERMINING BEING

  Viktor Frankl (1973) says that all persons are biologically, psychologically, and sociologically
destined. Biologically, all persons have individual genetic endowments. Psychologically, they have
varying instincts and drives that are part and parcel of their human nature. And sociologically, they
are thrown into different social conditions of which they have no control. While the pan-determinists
are correct in pointing this out, according to Frankl, they are wrong in claiming that human behavior
is nothing except what is pre-determined by these factors (Frankl 1973, 75)

Against Biological Determinism

If we are nothing more than our biological endowment, how can we explain the triumphs in life of
those persons who suffer from physical disabilities, and failures of those who got what it takes to
succeed in life? If biological determinism is true, then how do we explain also the lives of identical
twins, who are said to have the same genetic make-up but whom turn out to have different attitudes,
behaviors, and personalities?  Physically challenged individuals can go far beyond what their
biological conditions permit them to do. An example of this claim is the life of Nick Vujicic, born
without arms and legs but the world’s most popular evangelical and motivational speaker. Nick’s life
is a powerful testimony against the claim of biological determinism. Given a positive mental attitude,
a human person, just like Nick Vujicic, can transcend his/her physical condition in order to succeed
in life. Certainly, Nick Vujicic’s life proves the power of human will and determination.

Against Psychological Determinism

Freud says that human freedom is impossible because human behavior is determined by mental states
that human persons have no awareness and control. Freud is correct that there exists mental state
such as instincts and drives, hopes and wishes, past frustrations and successes. These mental states
condition human behavior, indeed. However, it is one thing to say that these mental states condition
human behavior; it is another thing to say that they determine human behavior. To condition does not
mean to determine. Instincts and drives are indeed powerful, which may turn our lives up and down.
If we allow these drives and past experiences to govern our lives, then Freud might actually be
correct in saying that human behavior is psychologically determined. But we know, based on our
experiences, that we can control process and direct out mental states for whatever purposes. Contrary
to Freud, Plato says that reason has the power to govern both our appetite and emotion. Father of
Modern PhilosophyThis capacity is a proof of human freedom. Clearly, psychological states are real
but humans have the power to be aware, to process, and to use them to their advantage rather than
being driven by them. This proves, once again, that a human person is free as opposed to what
psychological determinism claims.

Against Sociological Determinism

Karl Marx argues that “it is not the consciousness of men that determines their existence, but their
social existence that determines their consciousness”. This means that a person’s perspectives,
attitudes, values, and beliefs, according to this view, are nothing but a product of his/her social
condition.

Frankl negates this idea by saying that while it is true that a person is unavoidably influenced by
his/her environment, the environment does not completely determine his/her behavior. That though
some of a person’s behaviors are nothing but responses to his/her surroundings, he/she cannot be
reduced into a mere mechanical object completely determined by the outside world.

Freedom

 The power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint.
 Absence of subjection to foreign domination or despotic government.
 The state of not being imprisoned or enslaved.

Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint, and
the absence of a despotic government.

Exercise Prudence in Human Freedom

All human persons want to be happy. We want to pursue good in a way that will make us happy. This
means we have to learn how to act well which in turn involves an acquisition of virtue. If that sounds
complicated, let us put it more simply: virtue is about doing the right things, and if we do the right
things, we will become happy. But what is the first thing we need if we want to do the right thing?
Well, obviously, we need to know what the right thing to do is. This is where prudence comes into
the picture.

Prudence is the first of the cardinal virtues because it is the ability to look at a concrete situation and
know what ought to be done. It is the ability to make right judgements. Prudence gives us the
knowledge of what must be done when it must be done, and how it must be done. Prudence is not
timidity, an avoidance of all danger, cowardice, lack of initiative, self-preservation, never spending
any money, or an excessive focus on manners.

All Actions Have Consequences

  God confronted Eve, “What is this that you have done?” (Gen. 3:13) He also confronted Cain,
“What have you done?” (Genesis 4:10). A person is responsible for any directly willed act. Also, an
action can be indirectly voluntary (from negligence or ignorance).

A person is not responsible for an evil act if he did not will it and did not intend it as a means to an
end. For example, a person might incur death while trying to help another. A person is responsible if
he had not avoided the evil act (as a drunk driver killing someone). As a general rule, all our actions
have consequences. This relationship is as dependable as the ripples created by throwing a pebble
into a lake. Consequences can be either good or bad. Problems arise when we don’t think about or
recognize the consequences of our actions.

1. Freedom Implies Responsibility

 In the previous lesson, we stated that a human person is condemned to be free. A human person is
not only free to choose his/her actions, but also, to create meaning in his/her own life. That a human
person is nothing in the beginning and he/she becomes something through his/her actions. It is in
his/her actions that he/she becomes who he/she is. It is through his/her freedom to act that he/she
creates and recreates himself/herself. This is the condition of a human person and it demands much
from him/her. In this lesson, we will discuss the view that freedom, as Sartre (1975) argues, implies
responsibility.

Because a human person is free, he/she is responsible not only for himself/herself, but also, for
humanity. First, a person is in-charge of his/her own life. A person is the “master of his/her fate and
the captain of his/her soul” an adage says. A person has no excuse; he/she has to live his/her own life.
Proxy is not allowed. He/she cannot afford to be complacent and irresponsible.  He/she has to think
for everything in his/her own life. The world is not a mother’s womb of comfort and security. It is
full of uncertainties and insecurities and the person has to deal with them alone and without
substitute for the rest of his/her life. To be free, the, is to be responsible for one’s existence. What a
person is and how he/she should exist is his/her responsibility.

2. Freedom is doing what is Good as a Matter of Duty

According to Immanuel Kant, freedom is not an act of doing anything one wants. Doing what one
wants is not freedom; it is slavery to one’s appetite or emotion. Freedom does not react; it
commands. Freedom is not also doing things because they are beneficial; it is doing things because
they ought to be done (Sandel 2010).

According to Kant, as an autonomous rational being, a person acts freely only if he/she acts for the
sake of duty, which he/she imposes upon himself/herself in accordance with moral laws (Copleston
1994).

Let us dissect this statement. First, there exists a moral law that governs all human persons in the
world. This moral law is universal, that is to say, it applies to all human persons as rational beings
regardless of space and time. This moral law is also absolute in the sense that it requires complete
obedience from its subjects. Second, a human person is a rational being and, as such, he/she should
be governed by his/her own reason. This makes him/her an autonomous being, one who performs
actions based on his/her/own will. If this is the case, then there ought to be no authority over him/her.
If a human person does something because he/she is commanded to do it, then he/she is not doing it
as an autonomous being but someone who is governed by an authority. To be autonomous is to be an
authority of oneself. To be autonomous is to will one’s actions freely. Third, a human person acts
freely only if he/she acts for the sake of his/her duty, which is self-imposed but in accordance with
the moral law. As an autonomous being, a human person ought to act in accordance only with the
commands he/she imposes upon himself/herself. As a moral being, a human person has an obligation
to obey the decrees of the moral law. Hence, a human person has two obligations: to obey the
dictates of his/her reason and to obey the decrees of moral law.