Now Appiche Asian Hier “Ths dynamic neers pubs books on he iesonetin Asan itor Thos che come nine pra penade rar ning pola he [lca clar and soc evoluton of he eon, Books ae imended | trout for tens Be tard inthe clrom, They are aes ‘Rhos whee ret ate well elo int prclr Bes and ‘Shoe ary cts, taught te subject cos number of eas ks he srs {faith M. Bow, Gla South Asa eda the Moder Dispos Diane Lay, China's Rope Poser Lange, The Asan Miitary Revlon: Frm Camper the Bab Ian Talo and Gasharpl Sin The Parnon of ua Stephen Dale, The Main Empisefth Onomans, Safe ad Mughals The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals ‘Stephen Frederic Dale CAMBRIDGE wiinear DS 292 DSS 2010 ‘Then bung Combe CB? RU, UK ‘blaine Used Sef Aer CEU en New oe ‘ofraatns oe wc 7052161420 asa nn nn Asn di i peti eee fom te Bs wy Buveteasiaveanes, ‘nil ee pre en For Roderic Maurice Kausi Dale bhusband, father, brother, scientist, gentlemanContents, List sraons page i Lis of maps FI Preface a Lengage ond raisin a Ievroduction 1 1 nia fan, and Anatolia from the ret rorthe sateenth century 0 2 Thesis of Musi empices “« 3 The legitimacy of monarchs and she insitions ofempies n 4 The economies around 1600 106 5 Imperial eles bs © Golden ages: profine nd suered empires 7 1 Ampere in che gon age 208 8 Ques fora phoenic an Conexion 288 Gouary 23 Danas is 29 Bibowophy soz Ins saiIlustrations 1 Aya Sophia, nba, photograph by the author page 140 2 Humayun’ tomb, Dal phocoraph by e author 5 Shiin aera Khusraus palace. Los Angeles County ‘Mueum of Aa, Te Edwin Binney If Colleton ‘Turkish Acta the Los Angles County Museum of Art. Phorograph © 2008 Museum AsiocitesL ACMA 4 The Gun ami the “womb of he ami” Tembrs tomb, Samargand photograph by the author 5 An raian schol sone. Arthur M. Sucker Gallery, ‘Shithonian Isituion, Washington, D.C: purche ‘Smithonian Unrestricted Trust Funds Smithsonian Coleone Acquistion Program, and Dr. Arthur IM Sele, $1986221 6 hsm dncovers Si bashing. Freer Gallery of An Smithsonian Instiuson, Washington, DC. Git of Cares Ling Freer F1908.262e-b 17 The Mongol Qurachar. Freer Galler of Ar, Smithsonian Inston, Washington, D.C. Purchase, F10522 1 Atbur'sson, Pace Mira. Fete Galley of Ar Smithsonian Intrution, Washington, D.C: purchase, F1929.80, {9 Séleymanie Masi Istanbul, photograph bythe author 10 Sultan Ahmet Mosque, tanul, photograph by the suthor 11 ‘Alsip Palace, photogeaph by the autor 12 Shai Lala Masi, han, photograph by te author 13 Shai Lal Masi, han, photograph byte author 1 Masjid Sab, saan, photograph by the autor 15 Tr Mabal, Ara photopaph by the autor 16 Jama asi, Des, photograph by the sutbor 17 An Orman Pash, Los Angeles County Museum of At, ‘The Edwin Binney Il Colleton af Turkish Art atthe Line Angels County Museum of Art. Photograph © 2008, ‘Museum Atogate/L ACMA 18 Sultan Ahmet Los Angeles County Museum of Art, The Bin Binney I Collection of urtth Ae at the Lo Angles County Museum of Art. Phatograps © 2000 ‘Mateum Avocst ACMA, 19 Animagined young Iranian couple Arthur M, Sackler Galery, Smithonia Insitton, Washington, B.C purchase Smitionian Unvcristed Trust Pandy Snithsonin Goleions Acquistion Prosar, and Dr Aru M. Sackler, $1986.316 20 A forme pious and sbstinent Su shit is suid for taking wine, Frecr Gallery of At, Smithsonian lstistion, ‘Washington, D.C git of Chane Lang Freer, F1007-2 21 Janangir Freee Galley of Ar Smita Intution, ‘Washington, D.C purchase, F942. 158 22 Hind vilagesene, Freer Galley of At Smionian Insiration, Washington, D.C. git of Charles Lang Freer, 2 236 239‘Maps 1 The Mastin Empires in 1700, After F- Robinson, el ‘The Camridey Mcrae sory ofthe amie. Word 1990) 2 Theeastem provinces ofthe ‘Abbasid Caliphate, Aer G-Le Stange, Lands ofthe Ear Caliphate (1909) 3 The Ghuznaid Empire in 1030, After C.F, Bosworth, Th Ghasnarts (1963) 4 The Deli Sunstein 1400, Afler M.S, Asimov and CB, Brown edn His of Ciation of Cal Asia 098), 5 "The Great Sage of ran andthe Saige of Ram anc Kian in 1092, Afr]. Dosle, ed The Cambie Hisary (fan V, Tha Saba an Mong Pris (1968), 6 The Oxoman Empire to 1451, ww naghbanton. 4 The Safed Empize to 1514 ng was ae oto Suleyman f, 1520-60), 18 The Mughal Emin 1530. After John Kea, ia: Airs 2001), 9 The Onoman Empire in 181 10 The Safa Emp n 1629, 1 The Mughal Empsre 1605, Aer Keay Indias Hoy 12 Trade routes 13 The Otoman Empire in 1566 and 1683. 14 The Safad Empire in 1660. 15 The Mughal Empre 1658, Aer Keay Indias sony 1 Quin an in 1798. After Taya S. Diba ant Maram Lin ey Raye Persian Paintings: The Oar Ech 1785-1895 Cam, 17 The Mughal Empire in 1707. After Keay Indias iso 18 Orsoman exora nes, 107-1923. ew nagebandions, B st 6 5 96 m2 187 253 Preface Margo Acland of Cambridge Univerity Pres comminsoned this book snd, ke dozens ofother scolar, [daely aprcintebotbher encourage ‘ent and her sympa intrest im and sophingnted knowledge of Tlic studi. The Book was writen dasing a wonder leave fo funded by a research flowship fom the Natonal Endowment of te Humane: in Washington, DC, supported by matching fr fom he Obi State Universi. have tenetd from the werk of so many scholars 39 many dice plinth iis impo to cred thes all My intelectual dell be ‘vious fom the foots and bibliography, but beyond thos eon ‘rant to pardculaly acknowledge Cemell Melcher, who inode’ me to both Turks and Ottoman history, my own ellagues in Onoman ttudies, Carer Badly and Jane Hatuaway, Gilra Necogta fer bet ‘nual tudes of Onommen teitectrdl try and Sura Fach {rer many works on Ottoman soci istry. Hamid Alger introduced ‘me t Penan and moders Iranian history an John Masson Sith J Uught me the uve of documents and esis for premodern Iranian and “Middle Eastern history, In adton I arm patculaty indeed to Re “Matte fr hie plications on the Salvi anc to Pal Loven for hs reveling studies of Persian poor ofthe Sati and Mugler. Studied Indian sory with Eugene Frick and began yeas of ‘Mughal history with he work of the nt Joho Richards have so benefited ffom the work of Muze Alam and an ent guecy of Tadlan historians who have produced semizal scholip on che “Mughal period, epecaly Tapan Rayehaudan, [in Habs tar Ay nd the scholar of Indo-Pesian erature, Abr Gai Aina Oka Studies of Mughal ee have also shaped the way in which I Lok a he Palncngs ofthe imperil aller. “Tiree scholars tok theme wo ead and rtque this bok in manu sexpt orm, and they wil eognize that many of thi aun ase tds ae lnepated fro the fal tet. They ae Cathrine Aster hehistorian of Mughal aritecrua history; Gene Garba, aspen on ‘he Bakijar nomads andthehistory ede anand Ruby al, ho is know for her study of women in early Mughal story. The bok ‘sbeantly bower forte lp ‘My thanks got three into for pemission to quote fom spy sight mater. They az Pancston University Press fr Corll FL Plescher, Burson and Inlet! br the Onoman, Expt: le His Mata At (11-1600) (1986; he Univer of Washington Pros fora book ihose ight dey sow on, namely Oma Lv Psy, ct and wane, Walter G. Andrews, Naat lack, and MchmetKalpals ‘asia: Universi of Tens Pes, 1997: and Mad Pres, for Pal Losensky, Waloming Figheis Ikan and Pat India tthe ‘Sifesd-Muphl Ghaal (Conta Mesa, CA: Mara, 1098), have dediated this book wo my ate Brother, Reere M. K, Dale. ‘Languages and transliteration Languages “Tare principal languages were used in the Ouoman, Safad, and ‘Mughal emples, These wet! fist, tbe Semise language Arabic the ave language of tnic Arabs ar wel sels and acetic guage ‘ofthe Isc wold secondly the Indo-European language Persian the ‘te language of thn ranins tbe lngu ance af edad Musins In Anatolia, Cenel Asa, and orchern apd onal Idan the pret ows literary language of Muslims in ll ce emples tidy, Turk, ‘ne of ager family of some thiry-our related language, vometines Inbeled, contovesly a Alsic languages. All ee languages Were swine inthe Arabic srt, but the use ofthis seit fo Persian lo 0 “creation ofa leer to reflect Pesan pronuncason. Tis sep was parocular il sulted to Tore languages acuding Ouomsn, so he ome leters in Ontoman or other Ture dle have diferes vals ‘fom those they ave in Pesan or APA “Transiteraton Generally Arabic, Pesian, and Turkish words have been spelled i accordance wih the ster used by the Inertial Jounal of Middle ast Stl, However, some eacepoas have been made fr commonly accepted wags, sch ss" Mughal” fe" Mughal “Abu! Fax” tena (ofthe Mughal mister instead of AbwFFad" and afew other. Sach ‘sags pul elec catomary pronuncains nd the pronunciation of allure nguagss, belonging as they doo teee major language fais, ‘disney dierear To take stone simple example the common name fora Moti seligous judge is usually witen reflecting is erga Arable pronunciation, at gan Turk as wl be ace, xa ‘writen, ithe Lata sept adopted inthe Tasksh Rept, as ad we {Persian the words often writen, ati pronounced ant. Andi bothXv Language and vansiteron “Tuskish and Persian the “of ads sounded dierent than in Arabic Speakers of eath language hate even modifed the pronuncation of religous terminology. Readers familar ith one of more of these lan uae wil supply the own pronunciations. ier heed ot be con meds sic the meaning ofthe terminology a explained ia he text Ise in the Glosay, whi is most important. Introduction erween 1452 and 1526 Muss founded tree major sates in he “Medierancan, I, snd South Ass respecely the Onoman, Saf, snd Mughal empire By de early seveteemhcenary sr descendants ‘onl eretoris that encompassed mach ofthe Muslim worl set tng ltom the Balans and North Aca tothe Bay of Bengal an including ‘bined popula betwee 130 snd 10 milion people By tat ine the mentor of thee Gyuasties had demonrtaed ther papable sl fonidence by consructing many ofthe frre, more, zs | ‘obs at st stand as emblems fie ary wena, wealthy ove fon pide, religious commitment, and aetbeve sophieaon, Theit ‘cord of stung srcectura acevement caved when in 1643 the “Maghlemperor Sha aban completes the nt exceptonal ding of is ‘Maslin impel er th Ta Maal" Mae snnon- Mime aie loa tuck tothe stn these states collectively represnting eat et moment of Mass sovereignty. te wor tat Muti le in he ‘tghcen nieterth, an tense cours Many wen seen “Maslin ret profoundy saddened when they contemplate hs imperial stand compare wi th corms os of power wea infucnee ual spendin the contemporary wri These empires are Hgniicane Beene of what they represented end schiete nd because thei complet remins hat Mos ci “ation, tke the predominanty Chrinian European cation, cannot be equsted solely wit rigid, narrowly dctina ncerprtatons of the fst Inde mersors and monument of Kina, nthe ris of et in ‘he luminous paintings of arts, world Yeveae inthe fstoy nd falar ofthe empires hit carey to beimagined hy contemporary “Middle Eastern Maslin orby Werter observers nie ony wth he " nop 132, ea st a coma 6, a eo ‘Sa i GT ia aks Tan TH ew Te[Map The Main ips in 1700 Inredaeson 3 rabbed views of nrrow minded clerics othe simplistic distortions of| {heir own popular med. “The Otoman, Said, and Moghal empires are aso imporunt 2 « soup boca thes, ke the verse ut relat sate of Western Eons, ‘Comprised an imperial eularl ope win the broder Isami ciao, ‘whichnctdedpartofSouthea Asad p-Saaran An Musi n These consgnous empires join inerted policy egw, ery nd ‘sti traions, ander shared snertance wa enforced Oy the i Ison of nds along well-stblise and prseted rade rte ink ing laut wih hitan and Dehi® Merchant, pos, arts scholars elgious agahonds,misary adn, and pslwopers all mowed 938 Tete care slong there earavan route and across peal boundaries, ‘Whiethe history of ie cmpireuine shared compo cult t sha serves areminde as Mal empires erenotar Masi bt | pire. This means several hing. Fat, Iam ple an important et ocala dominane rl in thei plice,isacons and court ultare “The Oteman, Sale and Mughal ates ae characteronhere a Mim pire bear they ere rae by Mindat, hove ind fnonects embraced Mufmnad's reylaton and, vo vanng degre, ‘heered te tenes of te amc bh Tey patoniaed amie regis tied sch istrtons,diven by eer geet pict or eightened e- Interest ry diferingcminaons of these moves nth fey were nO {fren fom rulers Europe rin Ais hey were complex nd dint Indl ot ererypes of went centr sour dete ‘Some monarchs were eapccly pious and amped to mpoe thie vision of an imagined Quran cet onthe subjees, but Onomans, Sst, and Mapas er a ike contemporey European Chan monarchs, dinate rl, whe ft and lat ceern wa the scanty, rospery ana lngeiy othr ineager: Ment emir of hese mais flowed polis and exablished instations primary im oder 0 perp tute mae rule rater than to please God or ther religions clas, tithouth many fora piety and religious patronage to be cpa Tied to plta sura, Tit enked wit seme ofthe nabjecs pe ‘ily cles, many of whom Belews and sometimes open ater st ‘Sree ome mn No 2.09, > te AF Same a arco of oe Mie rd ee wo ‘See i darn Aaa’ Se aa Re Seen So N18 ey4 Musin mpi fe Ono Salih a Mae mpl aminiav cvs wee incompsiie wit los ew dined ffm the Quran she scone of te Peper Mahan’ Many ofthe ne rhs were se ely conscious of re ‘namic Irian, Roman, and Turco Mongol spesal eon that ‘quent leiang cones and prenigow precedents fe the sistem of vere popu ng tence Thy ers {ee fall tes matic vod pee sai nga! ania omen Clare such shh paar howto as walang ers Sf ngtp deed Gm te pean ain day te Sedans {226.851 CE. Otomane ao rel in he tle ear or Casa ar they orepid Constantinople rycen 990 and 138 CE te eal of the Hyzantn or Eaten Roma Erp) and uta ‘nme ihe nunc hat the posta the cy hao te Oem Ste of maces ein gand impel ation, now pore ty Turk tains, Descent mn he Coal Asan rs Chines an an Tene, pied the Mahal ad gay Ca Asa ‘Ture tadions comprised common bettage a es ial tee empires Mos Oxoman, Safi ant Mba nuh a pied lmmon tara ars cates at were pay cn, ‘hich speily pious nial sometime ceed fr ar een “The word “empire” al pls hi at ain oie po aad iain hat thse Musi marc ed tense eon tt Aivese poplin. be eo hw ps the ery ied Sent ences, soil groupe, and eigous communis, mst bromine ann ns, an Ars actuals ad les, oma, cli merchants ond ban tse, and Muslin and Chrsians of vrou edn, oa tet, an pesos ell 1 Je Indians of many eelgoon penn and ore, wi Iight be Iranian or fad, sens an Zs “The qusion ofelposdety wa pil inporacin sates where rules mee Masso paved Mac, whom the Maha mpeg (1605-2) eer eau "ay epeeee= Tere ‘rr bh item! dct dienes win the ed and cy ie non Misi popultns nc fhe sates Win th es ‘ot and in ba tes epi, doin andr etaran difeeces Somes coined with pls, eto socal sons The most 4 (ES-100) Pra Unis re, 0) Te ian Mls re en ea hem nds Hy obvious instance waste dtinction between Sunnis and Sas, which had both helo and otticl dimensions wes usted by the Rostliy| tesween he Sunn Onomans andthe Shi Satie orn, Tere wa lo 2 avid within bh Sunn and Shi communes betwen goverment Sancsoned or approved, eminally resuaned oroxoxy and popula, Semeines estat or een socially disruptive mllenarian beet of iret Secial groups within the populaon “Apart fom Muslim doctrinal and sectarian divisions all hee empires ako included substan and diverse non-Muslim populations, whose presence Mustim rulers tolerated or weleumed for «numberof practic fnd sometimes personal reasons. As @ Earasan state, the Otoman Empire inched Chrssen population of various denominations, snd icaleo weleomed Jews expeled by the intoerant Catole monarch of ‘Carsian Spain. Prot wo conquest of Ppt the Empire wes ume cally more, Chvistan than Musi, Iran leo contained subse ‘Cansian minors, aswell as Hindus, Zoroastans and Jews, nd the ‘Mal slays ruled ver predominany non-Muslim population, ‘compose primal of Hindus, br which ao included he religious ‘communes parcpsted inthe imperial re ofall ree Maslin dyn tir ina rity of mporane politel and economic roles, a imperial antocras slaves, a influential wives, os merchans "The Otoman, Savi an Mupl wate, ere designated as Mai ‘empires have als been characterizedin several other Ways some more Useful han owes. Thee ofthe most common label alo meant to Be ory categories are "petimona-bureucrase,” "gunpowder Iressersi” ir the mone rfl of these, because it dsceibes a rel and ipoant factional spect of all thre states arvana mes in thei histories. Al thee ase, ha operated ae governments thi involved both elements of Max Weber's ‘ize categories of personal and impersonal orburensratirule The ‘Otiomans nombly evolved fom a patimonial sat early heir story lngo « cenualzed highly bureaucratic slave empire air conquering Constantinople. Te Safivid and Mughal pasties displayed bah cae acteristics during thei historic, withthe Sead the leat bureaeratic fad cenualied, while the Mughals occupied « middle positon on ‘Web's tore spectrum, pstessing an elaborate bureaucracy, ut always retaining sigh degre of persona ruleMusi Empire ofthe Onomans Safi, nd Mughals ‘As for “gunponsr” ana “aay moder,” terms which mi be sen st ‘wo sides ofthe same Western European en” nether frm is ely pple wo all ee empires or dows explain mich aout fe ate ‘ofthese stats o the onion of ther ces, Fea, both ley ‘sd puns, were crite fctor ir Onoran icres oer Europea ‘on-Buropeas alk, butte id nora significant ae inthe eich ‘ent of he Said or Mughal sare ltough memos of these Taian {nd Ian dass succes employed them to varying Seren te ‘amprign. The sae es tha firearms gare ander canes inthe orgaion of a parscular Misi cps fen sued fo xt rarely demonsated in stmt fachion, dhs ye been apd those dee sats. The “punpowder emp” label psu soon ‘befor the Satis, who eter realy warmed to the eof ay aly “The tem “early modem” i een more probate for nrates tortured debates ober th teria of mnderiy st ay ie moment Js often evoke in casual fashion rater tan being riorowly employed ‘0 eaplain the nature of sate Many ofthe factors shed to dle cari" modemiy~longdance Avan of Euratian trade ommerc capitis, centralization, or rasonaliy cin also be found in eal ‘pres, whether Roman, pee-siamic Iranian or Mongol “Far mode fm" isa particule dict tm to deploy «concept to categorie oF pain more than sk centres of Oroman rus, Were the Ottomans ‘arly modern” before they eapeured Constantinople a 1453 or dating Uhr stenthcentury “ade ge” orn 1800? "More important than controversial labels ihe se fhe ise nf of empires: Ton Khaldun (4.1406), the Gresorllamic piosoptica historian, was the mos iniprtne Mim theonst of dypante sates, icing in analical metho he derived primal ftom Art's ‘writings known colectielyas the Orono Th Khaldun was prooeu ied with the problem of expluning the yc hstoy othe dynasties af Engr 50-1800 Wahingce D.C: mer Hae aco 68) Foran Jive Fecha tnop lice Pa nd incest wae Se ee eae +S ee ere a ee FeceaametaSn sya os vais ig, tone sora Cee cum tinen stn eins ct are et mee ‘SSSA nn Ronen at Cy Pee AD 3 rn Se Se nomadic origin that raed North Alia ac Spin in his ers. Yor hi ‘Gumi of the sgncance of ransent pital and military event in ‘indenting horcal change, nd is convicson that htc change ould only be understood by studying undeiyng socal psschologial ‘nd poiea con, nine fundamental querons about the fae of he (Onomun, Safad, and Mughal empires Inthe present boo, he chapter ‘devoted poll History ors on inva ery ar ite dence 0 tneadce unporaatineament of complex dani hire sed ‘umber of pager Ths emphasis ant mean 0 rages hae Ort, Seti, or Maghal snarcha were sutonrsent dives wo aay conti their or destiny a that of hie pie. nda {meligence apd dynamism were allen etl in estblshig and shaping ‘andertanting that the socal and political enaronment snd psyeoloey flier members ofa dynasty neiably fered from that ofthe ances tore addicon, he cealned that both founders of erptes and thelr Ascendant wre subject to a varety of soi, pita, and ecnomie bree bend thes conta “This abort story of cual cated and commercial ed sapere rom tr oundaton, though the igh ofthe powes ‘conor infcnce and arate cet and then totes dalton Tt fone on monarchs and the witocade ete - men whose det ruculire eibted the same seminglydivonant element 8 Spied ‘heir Rain nearcontemporres, the Medic, or the rig clases af many other sot rules Brualiy, selindulgence, and aesthetic fophisscnon." Ie necestariy ignores or ives hor sh a Vast) af ‘epics most parsicaley the day ie of on astocetc urban and rsa ‘Mii aries, her elgious tule and seta i, and ve realy short ives iuncated by poverty, disease, and war. Women spd members (Of ponrblaslim communis als receive setey Hine aention, Slough bath exened formidable infuence ia thelr sakes, Raye ‘women ae parla vile sn the histories of thee dates for tha pole! influence, boll inside and beyond the confines of Ue han, ‘peavey patrons ofrligius and chartableistusons. Man ‘ofthese women, particularly Said and Mughal royal, were abo Well * Ope fs Sm rar mt exp aneeona at indulgence ws peru af Se comer ‘Surtees eed to een nd conse Pe aManin Hie ft Ooms Sf, and Mahal vcard and rot rligous ueases or poetry. Members fon Masi Communities so sesine ently Ke tenon, except forte erica onmmercil functions inal te states and he amisrtratie, political, tnd mary sole inthe Mughal Empire, where some Hindas became imperal arcocrats”” Finally, iniatons of space have made ities Sle to do nic othe ul eange of architectre ia thee empires oto ‘Secue gardens: The architectural few here i onques ad tm, tniuing any setined dtcston of forte, lacey, bas ce even, Inthe Mughal cave, new cits. And gardens which had such social nd ‘ral mmportance inthe royal and aristocrat eof al re empires, ‘eoniy mentioned in passing “The sources for there and other subjects alo vary tremendously (oman records of thelr elaborate, cenlied bureaucracy hae been preserved in Istanbul a cy lst besiege and plundered in 1433, whereas tose Safavid and Mughal administrative documents were destroyed ‘using tbe polical ute recuring Warr, and dewrucson which ‘cuted inthe eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Silly, many more local court records sreived the divinegraon ofthe Oneman ‘Sate than ave ben preserved in Ian and Todi he later case te Sem-ropial climate fs par responsible fo ther dsnegraton. Such Tegal documents ave preserved she voices ao onl of women but aso of| ‘othennise unknown farmers and mechan, The Mughals ia ont, produced an especialy rich autobiographical and historical Mature, ‘which oes unusual insight ico indiidul character and mation of ‘oth men and women, wl nan, the religous debates of Shr sehaars senerated an tensive compas of esas and tats tha lamine dhe sunt’ clei tides and its rganlzaton. ‘The fellowing chapters Inviably eect te nature ofthe extane sources avaiable forte sao ' community of outstanding scholars in Turkey, ean, Tala and the ‘West have used both imperial and Tocl secords, vel accounts and "Penge Og oie. aa am a Ps The ‘wa in cs ‘a tan "B ies Ye ed ‘aw 140 tne Utero Mts 200) Raby a [Becta Pe ay ag Wa Cae Urry Pr 09 egret of a cn Sie NP Sea yf ae i Tae Grong tbe a8 ake ‘Gert ry A ua Te Sa ns ay oy ia au Ea Ste sn tees 0 nd ae a nS Aran asf hfe en la a Ga ‘en ne oe 5-9) eT Rina f Ierodeson . memoir elgious testes, poetry and art wo produce he arces and Tooke which eon the itech bass forts sythesis Cie in footnotes throughout this olume, they sndvidualyeepeset gues for fueure studs, though any such stdy should begin wih an examination ‘of contibutons to two euttanding encyclopedias aval for sudens St Islamic bstory and the story of these pecular empires: The Exorlopausia of lam and De Enocepacia Dance. The Eneopata ‘of Lam contains aries all aspects of Islamic faith, sociey and ‘story and ee parla tong on Osoman histor, while the sl Incomplete Enoypaaiia Ince is # supe source, nt ony for Fee Team and Islamic ea, bat ls fe Tndo-Persen history, nctading he Mughal Empire. The frticomiag mult-slume The Neu Canine “History of Tian (2010 as contains wealth of chronologies andthe atic estys on these empites and boade Islamic ciation,1 India, Iran, and Anatolia from the tenth, to the sixteenth century Introduction Founder of he Ooman, Saad and Mughal empires established thie ‘sates in errtories long characterized by puseal fagmentaton, reigns isintons, the Rowering of Greco-lamie philosophy, the persie {uence of Iranian sdminnative tans and clr ote and ‘Turco-Mongol military dominance. Its impossible to compre either, the coniuty or se noel of these hres empires with both Being sare of these lepaies and ls understanding how they ected the Istres of northern Ini Ian, and Anatolian the canaries pit 0 {he founding of te Oriomn ste inthe eal fourteenth century an he Stl and Mpa sees vo sits ate. “The decie and even dertructon of the “Abbas Caliphate 750— 1258) was theft af wo fundamental, interrelated changes tht alee the poll landscape ofthese contiguous eons hensen the eat ad seen centuries In he eighth century, Mui rlers governed at multiethnic religious diverse empie stretching rom Spain o Cael ‘Ai by the tenth cetury ‘Abbasid Caliph ort con of Baghdad, their ett well s more distant Musial eto, Whe the ‘Abbasids retained het stats asthe legitimate lenders of the Sut Maslin world, inthe midemh century the Bayi (945-1055), 4 ‘Shi dynasty tom northern Tru, occupied Baghdad and is adcent ‘erie, wile independent Muslin dys, arly known alan, ‘onuelled nos of the former provines athe Caliphate * 1 ie it a Se a ar ant Shs pe RE geen he ec Cae ‘en iv hey fw acy exe Pees eae hn ‘Wesel Snel sae ra na et ‘SSeseiatet Cee meas ea scye vee aoe Sata ees hare mas rates a eee ‘ieatacatatty hema teat aenceshc a ne “ins SS oe Ensen if Map 2 The ester provinces ofthe "Abs Cape “This potical agmentation ithe second major policlat ofthe era ‘Salemoy an evocatie term derived fe he Arabic ro! sgfing pow, ered their authors sll um tary promen king the lei ofthe Cap atthe beredary pote! lade of he Mim soma oF ‘Sommaniy. Nonctels, the sanctity and presige ofthe Cai ar {amis oreigny pred owt of thee eponal sultans to eck et acy by poy themselves a agents ofthe ‘Abbas, pettoning or Inverse by the reining Caliph and demonstnng thr lvaley and ‘Suuninnest 6 he grater anit coe by ncating is nas on oi, Avselprociamed trvant of the Caliph suns usally chase {tried ther wee apt non Mab Seslogil toy er w Ba {tes beroc were onthe, Malin oer, os dy, sings or ‘ampains to expand the dar am, the sone of Mei over ‘Anata an, and nd mow ofthese independentneal rer were Tks, Siioog rains and Alghans also formed dae in hee resins Dunng thee centuries the Islamic word as so character by ‘elise conplcaiy: ovo mor sci Evsios of Semis and Shes, tinct deren aitdes toward sation athe relative mporance of ‘mths pasties individual pity. Sunni comprised the major of12 Mi pie ofthe Oromia, Sis and Mapas the Musi population andthe ‘Abbasid Cais were Suni ax were ‘most egonal ues. Suanisuadioonalits” in Arabi) recogsied the Teptimacy ofthe fist four Caliph, the igh guided pita succes fore to the Prophet Muhammad) and rgurded these men and their tecestors~ the Umayyad Calipte of Damascus (661-750) and the ‘Abas Caliph of Baghdad ~ a guardians ofthe pls interity of ‘he Miner In Sun Muslin ees Mal or ips were ordinary ‘ort and emphatically not individuals wh pesesedunigue igus ‘Hans or divinely inspired insight. Sunni worshipers usualy adhered ‘one of four Islamic legal school ~ sometimes the source of ecaran ‘tension, bur these differences pale in comparison with the disineon ‘etween Sunnisand Sat ‘Shas were fund inthe Yemen, Lebanon, esy and Ian and com wll some titres, most notably Bypt wher dhe manly Si Fatimid nasty nei wy since the le teh etry CE and rad sul IIT Fatimid sultans ke her Shi di not econ the legacy of thes thee Caliph, te ‘Abbaridso ther Su er, since dey held Wat only descendant of Al the Propet Mubaanad' frst cousin and on-i-aw and the fourth “ity guided” Cap, could [eauthentc leaders of he Musi uma, Si’ Bele the oe legit ‘acy ofA and is descendents, known st Iti flected tai eli ‘hat ‘AN’: Moodlin inher the unique bili to ate the exner ‘meaning of God's al revelaon, the Qurun, The st portant ue ving Sh Mastine was the question ofthe numberof legitimate Imam, with mou Shas evenly agreeing there were twelve, while [sil uch ab he Fain, aaerted there wee ony seven” ‘erween dhe ‘Abbasi clipe and thers ofthe Orontn, Safavid, nd Mughal empire, popular form of am, Sit, spread doug! the Sunni and Si Llamie world and profound infuenced Orman Safvd, nd Mughalsocieser” Supposedly named ae thea woolen shite worn by some of te early ascetic practioner Sus taught orm of Tslamie “proestantsn.” Ie wes protean in the seve that Sur de ‘emphasized wdtional pubic worship in aie or moague a favor af individual sud witha religious teacher, a pro shy who could guide >Re ln mi i ty a a Ebadh sine el et eS oe “ust 209) on ne nen 200 Cat Eat Tan of Sn Bc Semin Pub, {Sen me Se. ef ups tea, ena Ana eth seendh etary 3 orinspize in them apssonae love for God eading tsps union and persona salvation, Ths teciprocllove~of mankind for God and God for ‘ankind~ was the signature ait of Suh worship. Mans ps oe sats tered tet dscipes a deeply sting pe they didnot experience in ‘mosque secs, and Sus relist can be undestoed fom their poems which epresen some of te most Beauful verses inthe slamic ‘erld. As many Sufi intended these poets tobe sung, they coletiey ‘epresent a lind of Musi hymnal. Two ofthe most important Sus, ‘whose ides an wetingsinuenced Muss ip Anata anand Init, Sree the Andalsian Mohamad Toa a Arab (1165-1240), geerall own uss Ibo “Arabi and the Hapan Jl al-Din Muhammad Rumi (4207-73). Tha “Arabi aso Known as asath ababbay, "ihe greaest, ‘mase," os intent or his Bele hae God isthe sole ely, summa [aed in the phase wahdara-ajud,“he uty beng” wile Rum was dis best own for his exquste Persian-languagedevrional poet ‘Some members ofthe cle css the deoogins, mosque pesoa- caches and religious judges, collectively known a6 the those Temes? in Islamic knowledge and pracice~ wee Sais timer Many ams, however, viewed Sum with diaste or een ‘api condemned tar uTlami, ether because ofthe extraoinay ‘enerasonSufsofen showed to dhe encers which seemed woes {oem of polyhesm,orsimply because they used music inter devoons, ‘which most ‘dana held ob exp condemned inthe Quran Int, ‘he practic of individual Sus orders anged rom conservative, reszained ‘ea peajer to ees, emotional vong and dance, Yet despite orhox ‘cam ovarious especs of usm, ths form of devotion spread reply ‘voughouthe slam wer inthe orm of independent spiral ineags ‘or orders, many of whose leaders ha lose personal relationships with Maslin monarchs: i also exerted power toil and even politcal inuence among both the ral and the urban Slim popslaons ‘Sometimes, a [nthe Safivid ease, these spt Uneapesevaved into polial dass many Muslin ceri were suspicious of openly hostile to Sufism, most ulna were also deeply oppose to philosophy that might in CChrisian Europe, implicily or explicitly challenge the assumptions of revealed lion. Many Greek Indian, and Traian philosophical snd Scien texts had been wansated into Arabic during the regs ofthe “Als Caliph al-Mansur (7754-75), Haran al-Rashid (786-809) "Sa Sees thts hry and nnn Poon Pe ‘St artbao On Was aiwas 205) "14 Mastin Eire of te Oxoany, Sf and Mughals snd al Mansur’ grandson l-Ma'mun (813-33). While medial an ‘Sctonomicl ets were fen fred fe tscpraccal wes, many works fof Pleo, Aristotle, Galen, and others lo were tansited and Bema (Ganian minister serving the “Abbasi Were parol infact a thier Tranians had peeiouly been exposed to Gesk iospiy, especially afer Christin closed the Patni academy in Aen, promping many Grek thinkers co migrate ro Tran; and Tanin necro alno Became ‘he nuleral leaders in tranamiting and advancing Gree ioropical ‘hous! Nea all he pein itletul hts of pre Mongl Gres Islami philosophical and sientic though were aan, and Iranians also set hs intleculinertance in the Seed period to crete Sophstcued Shi theology The princi! exception ots Iian dom nace was the Spanish Masti scholar Ton Rus (1198), whowe summaries of Arstole's woka were stdied bythe loop historian Tn Koa, ‘Philosophy was oly one aspect offranianinfuence tha shaped the ars cure, and thought of the lame world in gees aad that of the ‘Ocomans Satis, and Moghats in pal. thee century fo long the death ofthe Prope Muhammad, Islas had been overcli- ingly an. Amb and Arsbiclanguage emerpiss but in ifort wae Teanians and Turks begn wo pay poet ros i the Islamic world folowing the revolution eat Broa the ‘Abbasids to power in 750 Traian Muslims, such as the Barmalids, who wet later ofthe spi ticated preTsamie Sasanian empire (226-051, became a conpicuows presence a highly wained administrators a the Abid court ae the “Abbasids moved the Musisy capil from Damascus to Baghdad, the ner iy being located in region ofhitoi Ista iperalconl end clural presence, Later Inne performed thie ical bureaucrat fanetion for many regional Ture dynes. Then, the "Abbasid Clips’ power azopbied ia the Inte ninth and tet centuries, some runian fais established independent dyna. ‘One of the most infuenial of tere ery Perla dynasties was the Stmanis of Bukhara in Mavarannah the region af Cental Asa Ison in Wester sources a Tranonana ‘The dynasty wi founded by sm Iranian Muslim land-owning family, whose ters fit served {rerors under the ‘Abbasid Caliph during thecal ath cent by 190 they had beoome fly independent ruler, "Te ele inte * Rr summay ato cin of ra mph he Maa ‘yf Ha Psp tor Yas Caen Cay Pas te 30 ‘he oe pevied in Mawarsnathe and Iean snemorably characterized = the Persian atmo," 2 period precoding the Tuscan Mongo = sloas of lan, during which there as a enasance of Iranian care produced by Musins and expressed ip “new Persia,” tht Penian ‘renin the Arabic serpe* Prominent lel Ianins, administrators, ‘hola fmiies, and nanan poet and painters developed anew Peo aan culture, and om the enh to the scent centryIenians and ‘hei cultural surrogates produced an iucnial corpus of pal and InsovcalIertue, srs, a and eigios and scenic teases thet onsite fundamental eaces for Ouomans, Safavids and Mughals tis diiculoexaggrate te degree of Iranian prestige and influences sl spect of incleral snd cultural ie smnong Indian, Central Asan, fed Ouoman Muslims. Bven Mehmet Tl the Ottoman congueror af ‘Constantinople, “sbowed his marked predecion fr the Persian la ‘guage and Merrure and in general forthe Persian spit His peer fence for Persians, whom he distinguished with important goverment posts and who to the end were hs favored stokes court nator ‘roused envy and dation among native Tula" “AC the same ne dat ann began eascrting themselves as Persian Musing, Turks merged othe eds and nuit presence {nthe Islamic word, Ar with Iranian influence in culual od ineecna ‘Mf, isdificul to overstate the itary ad plea enprtance af Turks {in Mosim estos Hom te tenth century onward, forthe ald auch ‘of Anacoli, ran, an India for centuries Inthe view ofthe at sateen enmuyOtoman bucaucet and historian Mustla Aly “Turks and “Tatas [Mongols” dominated the tid phase of wold history, lowing ‘he demise ofthe “Abbasid Clipac.A wees dbourthis epoch Sacre Dances * spi aero nate nly the Renin ig hl Vin no SL Sen eB asf Se ry + Fie snl Cnt iy of ow Sots angen of ro a ‘lei ey rte ie a ngre itr ec 2s Pea a eee acre Con ‘ln Soa a Co Une a vero iii ng nd ein reap Main. Wan16 Masini ofthe Onomans, Sato nd Ma ‘Blame hs peer one bo arth Ooan Hou ‘Ar Osomans dey developed Orzoman Turkish into the thi tray Innguage of Middle Eastern Mastin afer Arabic ad ne Pesan, ‘Cental Asan Twi had been absorbed inn the Islamic word fwing «he Muslim conquest of Mavaranaabr in the eighth century, and many “Turks converted sam over the next entries, uti ott later ‘Abbasid pod tht they Bese a sifcane presence i the cena "amic Inds "Trts entered the aie wor ino ways! eliary shes and ns pastoral nomads. As easy a the ninth cnnry Tue slaves became a sgicant Muslin nity force, when the fur “Asbasid Caliph a-st'si 853-42) founded «cope of appro 3,000 “Torta sles in ghd, hoping they wou fom he ules of loa, icine army o complement and par suppanc the bal organized sn ably unelable Arabia rcs, whch alee Acts Mun, Emqus. In ler cones Tuskic slave Iw ae ctr ghulmy ot ‘mamas, were equey tained wo perform the wae faction for lca ‘yma, whose rules Sought enganze a dependable nop wy ‘othe reigning ulm. Yetin vey eave where they were employe, such sles enulybecame threat othe dass tha ned the, ad by ‘hela en century mtr saves ofthe nian Saran ete te ‘ashes Mii "sve senate ia the eastern Aan cy of Ghazni, ‘hing theca hae forthe Mua conquest of on Indias Simultaneossly withthe founding of the Ghazvid state, Turkic nomads begin migeating ic the Mile Eset fom Mawaruanahe in large numbers as party slazed Turi pastoraies These ies, co sing = spawing, oosel ai confederation of semilelaiaed Oghns ‘Turks, began making invads into Ghamavd tetris in norhestem Ian and quik overlie the Sultan's defenses, During the ate ten and early eleventh cetcy they poured on tothe Tela plata, ‘nominally Ted by one of their dominant mbes, the Slugs. Wilkin ‘enury Sage Oguz bes established ae in ay ad descend sts of dese tes were not only precursors of the Suid state Bet frovided the principal miliary fares ofthe Safuvid dase Some (Oguz tres so bepan riding the Byzantine bowl cry the tenth cenary, and in 1071 2 Sadugded Ogi ight carly stay ‘eisted the Breanne Emperor Romanus IV" Diogenes Awards, {S qusety Mecher gc ad e278 ‘mamas Expt se Hall onl, “Gur” Ensen aa rs Orne (Opin Tarks begun setting in lange numbers in Anata, where one of ‘het fas eventually founded the Osman Empire.” "Mongol abo invaded, raged, and raed par of ran ane Antolin he thitent and ured centuries, tts the Terk fet Ture slaves, thea the Oghurtibesmen, and later nthe fourcenv and fleets ‘ents, the Turk Tends and Ra descendants own as Tims 0 ‘himely had he mos: profound and lng pod nfisnce in Is, ‘Anatoli nd lia If anne were important inthe pe-imprial er or ‘hes administrate nd elu inuence, various Tutte neages cons ‘ute the dominant may and pli ein Ansa, ra, an Indian {he predeperil er and later. Tur, orin the Sab eae pay Ture pany, rled Iran fom the ents cour unl 1921, Anat om the ‘els century to he present and narhem Inia beginning in the ate teh cnniy sad conenng iene unl 1526 ee wich Tur, ‘the orm of Timards but eammonty own im nin ae Mughal rod the nord Indian hes for a ater to hanced yer. “The Ghasnavide and the origins of Mastin role in India ‘The Ghumnavid dynasty (¢ 998-1040) represents the east example ofa Turki sultanate whose Muslim rulers pawonied Suns Im and Persianat culture sues, who originated dans or mtr slave sublshed a ste covering pars of Mawaranahe, Ia, and India “They were also response forthe examen of Mastin ral nor ‘reste Ind five centres before the founding of the Mughal Expire "Malmo, te founder ofthe Gaze ae, began hs ea Tuc hada seeing the Pesr-Iami Seman yeasty of Burs, deren ‘Bukra he Sunni Samanid traded the boundary ofthe rnin tc “Turke orld in Mawaransabr, where We obtained Turks ak expen sary campaigs or purchased thom ia local sve markets. The =i {© coma and tx thse slave makes aso gave thm substan ncome ‘Semanid rulers convened thee Tura to Sua Io tap them the comm language, Pelan, abd wail them ab soldcs. Lik the la fon te, Th ante yf a The Sgt Mone Pa {embed Une P os) Se Ree, fe Ta Shan Gera cache Uns) Pw ‘cr mate uy hugh Ra vd fr Mon Br he and o MagdBnt a dade Teresita (Coben drogen ero te mean a sn mae cay vs TRE die nay oh ay by Cle und Bewet,Te Ghose ‘Tat ne ligand Ear a, 91040 (Bamps, 83)1S Moin Hopi ofthe Ooms Si ad Mapa om eS acter ea evar [== ‘Onoman sve woop the Jnisare, Samant poms soon bec 8 powerful seml-autanomous acon within the tat. 12962 Alpen, one te Suman Terese commanders ¢ Maston boca by is pel Tastoc Reo name meaning “bold crn,” supported he ig candidate in «Sami wcceson sl a hea fe wa is woop ode dant Samar oarpon of hone, aba’ ‘march southtst of Kabul At Ste and hi cers const «pe, ‘ic oligarchy of Tulse soldier, butn 97 when Subuegn cne ok ‘Alpegin’sucstos, did he founded» dasybybegucthig poet fo his two sas. One of them, Mahmud, became the sole Gama rl by 958, nd he personaly exempted mom ofthe tend of hie prod in he nomial ‘Abbasid erate to the eat of Bupha Conemporais eo zed him and his descendants at ukans ae ter Ghamarlr se ‘on thi cois. Not only ad thee mia slaves onde ad) butte foc hat the new rules name, Mami, war Arabi and sanie ho iusraes the importance a the Obama’ Tami entity to yay ‘whose members posed lite legtimary beyond hi lity poe ‘Whe in pia terms Matimad (998-1030) presided ver what ‘became highly conrad Turi tary despot, he rpaded bins incur terms a Pecso-Isamic i tothe Seman Ae a uric ‘nomadic confederation tbe Qarakhanisoverean Maaranna doce ‘ied the Samani apt of Bars in 999, Makan focused ere lmbisoor on the aparan and than center of nortcatern and ctl Iran He caloed the wealth of es Inn ound sri conquests bycarying out asses of plandenng expeditions inthe subconaenn te tenth and eal leven entry, aging the Pun ad ate in is Iie, penetrating at frst Kanna inthe westem Ganged aly. Eve ‘howbh Malm ever ete set do mor thn ot a, byte hd fbi he ad ental » Grid parson inthe Pat of {tore the fe mor Mim setement in not nin. ‘Matin and hie gla companions were profesional waits snd WAR Gy Pe Tone a Bana A. 12-1254 Cai Diy Pom