Chapter 1 TRIBOLOGY 1.1. WHAT IS TRIBOLOGY ? In most simple terms, tribology is the science dealing with interacting surfaces which are in relative motion w.r.t each other and practices related to them. 1.1.1 Elements of Tribology 1. Friction. 2. Wear 3. Lubrication. a-Friction b- Wear c- Lubrication d- Tribology Fig. 1.1 : Elements of Tribology The subject ‘Tribology’ generally deals with the technology of lubrication, friction control and wear prevention of surfaces having relative motion under load. Friction is usually classified as a branch of Physics or Mechanical Engineering. Wear is often considered to be a part of Metallurgy or Mechanical Engineering. Lubrication and Lubricants, which affect friction and wear are considered to be a part of chemistry. However, the surface interaction phenomena are so closely related to all above disciplines. This makes the study of tribology a multi-disciplinary concept. Thus, “tribology is truely an interdisciplinary science and is very useful for its practitioners”. It involves, principally, Mechanical Engineering, Production Engineering, Fluid Dynamics, Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Material Science and other related topics. Refer fig. 1.2. The purpose in establishing tribology as a scientific discipline is to focus scientific and technological attention on the processes involved when surface are rubbed together. A proper understanding of these processes can provide a basic to improve standards of design and to increase engineering efficiency.aspects. Also, about one third of world's Fig. 1.2 : Various Topics Related to Tribology It is estimated that about 70% of failures in mechanical components are due to tribological 's energy resources appear as friction in one form or the other and most of these result in waste. This shows the importance of tribological study and tribological treatments in industries result in considerable savings. 1.2, HISTORY OF TRIBOLOGY S.No. Principal Investigator Theory/Laws 1. | Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) [- Deducted a scientific approach to friction, he postulated laws governing the motion of a rectangular block bearing over a flat surface. 2. | Guillaume Amontons - He rediscovered the laws based on Leonardo da Vinci's Hypothesis. First} The friction force resisting the sliding at the interface is directly proportional to the normal loads. [Second] The friction force does not depend on the apparent area of contact.Tribology 3 S.No. Principal Investigator Theory/Laws 3. | Charles-Augustin Coulomb |- Verified Amontons laws and added third law Third] The friction force is independent of velocity once motion starts 4. | Newton — Postulated essential laws of viscous flow. 3. _ | Robert Hooke “|= Suggested the use of contamination of steel shafts and bell-metal bushes as preferable to wood shod with iron for wheel bearings. 6. |N.P. Petroff = Made theoretical interpretations of principles of hydrodynamic lubrication. 7. | Beauchamp Tower = Made experimental studies of principles of hydrodynamic lubrication. 8. | Osborne Reynolds — Studied principles of _ hydrodynamic | lubrication. 1.3, BEARINGS Bearings may be defined as ‘any sort of connection between two machine parts in relative motion’. In Theory of Machines, bearings are classified as : (a) Sliding contact (lower pairing) and (6) Rolling contact (higher pairing). Bearings are further classified as : 1. Guide bearing 2. Journal bearing 3. Thrust bearing. 1.3.1 Guide Bearings Fig. 1.3ISHAN'S Fundamentais of Tribolog, In guide e : . 1.3 the relative motion between two parts ear Examples of guide bearings are - guide-ways of machine tools, piston-cylinder, cross-head steam engine, etc. 1.3.2 Journal (Sleeve) Bearings Ifthe relative motion between the two Parts is of rotation and the pressure on the bearing j Perpendicular to the axis of the shaft, the bearing is known as journal or sleeve bearing. The par which is enclosed is called the journal and the part which enclosed the journal is called bearing, Normally, the journal rotates in the fixed bearing, e.g. crankshaft rotating in main beatin: However, in some cases either the bearing rotates on the fixed-journal as in hoisting drum, or bot the journal and bearing rotate, asin crank-pin bearing, The journal bearing may be full journal bearing (as shown in Fig. 1.4) or partial journa bearing (as shown in Fig. 1.5) Fig. 1.4 : Full Journal Bearing Fig. 1.5 : Partial Journal Bearing 1.3.3 Thrust earings If the relative sliding motion between the two parts is of rotation and the pressure on the bearing is parallel to the axis of the shaft, the bearing is called thrust bearing. In the thrust bearing, if the shaft terminates at the bearing surface, as shown in Fig. 1.6. then it is called pivot bearing, whereas if the shaft extends through and beyond the bearing, as shown in Fig. 1.7 then it is called collar bearing.Fig. 1.6 : Pivot Bearing Fi 1.7 : Collar Bearing Pivot bearings are further classified as flat-pivot bearing or conical-pivot bearing. Similarly, collar bearings are further classified as single collar bearing or multi-collered bearing. 1.4 TRIBOLOGY IN DESIGN Tribology, the collective name given to the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion, is indeed one of che most basic concepts of engineering. especially of engineering design. Successful design of /machine elements depends essentially on the understanding of tribological principles. During contact of two nominally flat surfaces, contact occurs at discrete spots due to surface roughness and adhesion occurs due to intimate contact. When one solid body Moves over another, it experiences the resistance to motion called friction. The surface damage or material removal that take place in a moving contact is termed as wear. Surface coatings and treatments are provided to monitor friction and to control wear. The most effective way of friction and wear control is by using proper lubricants which can be either liquid, solid or gas. Thus, tribodesign is considered as a branch of machine design concerning all machine elements where friction, lubrication and wear play a significant role. 1. Plain sliding bearings : When a journal bearing operates in hydrodynamic regime of lubrication, a hydrodynamic film develops. Under these conditions, conformal surfaces are fully separated and a flow of lubricant is provided to prevent overheating. This is the ideal situation (which is not always achieved) where there is a complete separation of two elements having relative motion and hence mechanical wear does not take place. Sometimes misalignment, may cause metal to metal contact. Moreover, contact may occur at the instant of starting (before the hydrodynamic film has had the opportunity to develop fully), the bearing may be overloaded from time to time and foreign particles may enter the film space.: ISHAN'S Fundamentals of Tribology So ISHAN'S Fundamentals of Tribology 2. Rolling contact bearings : In ball bearings and roller bearings, although contact is basically a rolling onc, in most cases an element of sliding involved. As in most engineering applications, lubrication of a rolling Hertz contact is undertaken for two reasons - to control the friction forces and to minimise the probability of the contact’s failure. The failure control is the most important purpose of rolling contact lubrication. 3. Piston, piston rings and cylinder liners : Piston within a cylinder, such arrangements are found mainly in the engines and also in pumps, hydraulic motors, gas compressors anc vacuum exhausters. Pistons are normally lubricated although in some cases, notably in the chemical industry specially formulated piston rings are provided to function without lubrication. Materials based on polymers, having intrinsic self-lubricating properties are frequently used. A very effective lubrication of the piston assembly (i.e. thick oil film, low friction and no blow-by) could lead to high oil consumption in a internal combustion engine. On the other hand most of the wear take place in the vicinity of top-dead-centre where the combination of pressure. velocity and temperature are least favourable to the operation of a hydrodynamic film 4. Cam and cam followers : Although elastohydrodynamic lubrication theory can now help us to understand how cam-follower contact behaves, from the point of view of its lubrication, it has not yet provided an effective design criterion. The cam with the thicker film operates satisfactorily in service whereas the cam with the thinner film fails prematurely. 5. Friction drives : Friction drives, which are being used increasingly in infinitely variable gears, in which two smooth machine elements should roll together without sliding, while able to transmit a peripheral force from one to the other. Friction drives normally work in elastohydrodynamic lubrication regime. 6. Involute gears : In really compact designs, which require a high degree of reliability at high operating stresses, speeds or temperatures, the lubricant truely becomes an engineering material. Two concepts of defining adequate lubrication have received some popularity in recent years. One is the minimum film thickness concept and the other is the critical temperature criteria. Involute gears normally work iri elastohydrodynamic regime. 7. Hypoid gears : Hypoid gears are normally used in right-angled drives associated with the axles of automobiles. Tooth actions combine the rolling action characteristic of spiral-bevel gears with a degree of sliding which makes this type of gear critical from the point of view of surface loading. Successful operating of a hypoid gear is dependent on the provision of the so- called extreme pressure oils i.e. oils containing additives which form surface protective layers at elevated temperatures. 8. Worm gears : Worm gears represent a fairly critical situation in view of the very high degree of relative sliding. From the wear point of view, the only suitable combination of materials is phosphor-bronze with hardened steel. Also essential is a good surface finish and accurate, rigid positioning. Lubricants used to lubricate a worm gear usually contain surface active additives and the prevailing mode of lubrication is mixed or boundary lubrication. Thi¢refore, the wear is mild and probably corrosive as a result of the action of boundary lubricants.7 logy Thus, from all above discussions, it clearly follows that the engineer responsible for the tribological aspect of design must be expected to be able to analyze the situation with which he is confronted and bring to bear the approximate knowledge for its solution. 1.5 TRIBOLOGY IN INDUSTRY All mechanisms, machines and equipments are affected by the tribological factors. It is estimated that about 70% of failures in mechanical components are due to tribological aspects. Also, about one third of world’s energy resources appear as friction in one form or the other and most of these result in waste, This shows the importance of tribological study and tribological treatment in industries result in considerable savings. Following are the considerations : 1, Energy losses : Tribology is vital to modern machinery involving sliding and rolling surfaces. Brakes, clutches, bolts, nuts, driving wheels on automobiles etc., use friction in a productive manner. Writing with a pencil, polishing, machining and shaving, etc., use wear ina productive manner. Unproductive friction and wear take place in engines, gears, cams, bearings and seals, etc. Friction and wear usually cost money in the form of energy loss and material loss, can decrease national productivity, can affect national security and quality of life. 2. Wear : Wear can also cause accidents. Thus, knowledge of tribology can lead to various substantial and significant savings without deployment of large capital investment. Research in tribology leads to increased plant efficiency, fewer breakdowns, better performance and, above all, significant savings. 3. Control : Some amount of minor design defects are corrected at manufacturing stage and some manufacturing defects are corrected at installation and commissioning stage by use of tribology. 4. Operation and maintenance ; Operation and maintenance are probably the most important stages for use of tribology as the equipments have been designed, manufactured and installed and are supposed to work and produce as intended. Maintenance personnel have to use tribology in order to take necessary actions on ‘equipments to reduce chances of friction, wear and damages and other consequent defects/failures so that equipments can work for their intended functions trouble-free at desired effectiveness and reliability. 1.6 METHODS OF SOLUTION OF TRIBOLOGICAL PROBLEMS To introduce a problem-oriented view of any system is the most predominant effect of the introduction of the word ‘tribology’. Followin - section gives ‘the best possible solution to the problem of carrying load across the interface with acceptable friction and wear’.. ISHAN'S Fundamentals of Tribology 1.6.1 Dry Contact w | | . Surface Fig. 1.8 : Dry Contact * Selecting suitable contacting materials having low friction and wear characteristics, may have lower load-carrying capacities (when plastic materials are used). * _ In most of the cases, the materials as surface layers supported on substrates that fulfi the basic structural requirements of the particular component. e.g. This method is used in bearing shells of automotive engines, 1.6.2 Chemical Films Fig. 1.9 : Chemical Films © Chemical films protect the surfaces and it reduces the intimate contact of the base materials. © During sliding, the important aspect of the chemical films is their thermal stability due to the high local temperatures created at the points of intimate contact. 1.6.3 Lamellar Solids id ae Fig. 1.10 : Lamellar SolidsTribology £ © Solid surface coatings are employed as they possess low resistance to transverse shear e.g, graphite and molybdenum disulphide. ¢ These lamellar materials have a layered structure with strength to carry normal load and weakness along planes at right angles to facilitate sliding action. 1.6.4 Pressurised Lubricant Films Fig. 1.11 : Pressurised Lubricant Films ‘Two surfaces may be separated by a continuous film of either a liquid, a vapour or a gas. In this case, the fluid film must have a built-in pressure to withstand the effects of the applied normal load. ® Pressure may be developed by two mechanisms : — The first is to supply the fluid at a pressure generated by an external pumping system e.g. the hydrostatic or aerostatic bearings. — The second is to generate pressure by the motion of the surfaces themselves as they tend to drag the fluid into a converging gap. e.g. hydrodynamic bearing. Fluids used for these two mechanisms are water, oil, air and liquid metals in nuclear reactors. 1.6.5 Elastometers Bonded Elastometers to the two surfaces Fig. 1.12 : Elastometers * In this case, the surfaces may be separated by clectrometers bonded to the two surfaces.» ISHAN’S Fundamentals of Tribolog, * The degree of transverse displacement is of small amplitude. This offers an excelle, terminological solution, 1.6.6 Flexible Strips Ty ae led ‘ible oP i Fig. 1.13 : Flexible Strips * _ The two surfaces may be separated by flexible elastic strips bonded to the two surfaces * The degree of transverse displacement in this case is of small amplitude. thus give better tribological solution, 1.6.7 Rolling Elements —!—-+ Fig. 1.14 : Rollers © The two surfaces may be separated by rolling elements such as balls, cylinders, etc. * This is widely used for tribological solution. e.g. Rolling contact bearings. 1.6.8 Magnetic Fields ined rt VIVAOSTOATATTTTTT- Fig. 1.15 : Magnetic FieldsTribology, uD «The two stirfaces may be separated by creating magnetic field between them. Thus. Joad can be carried without mechanical contact. e.g. Such kind of bearings is to be found in the domestic electricity-supply meter. Selecting @ particular solution to a tribological problem depends om the following factors : (a) The load to be carried, (b) The speed, (c) The nature of environment and (@) Any limitations on friction and wear, 1.7. TRIBOLOGICAL SYSTEM AND SYSTEM APPROACH The tribo-system consists of surfaces of two compnents that are in moving contact with each other and their near-by surroundings too. The materials of those iwo components and their finishing along with their surroundings, lubricants and operating conditions determine the type and extent of wear. Fig. 1.16 shows a tribological system. ‘ Component No. 1 Component No, 2 Lubricant (Oil, Grease, Water etc.) ‘Surroundings Load applied Motion. i 2. 3.4 4% 5 6+ Fig. 1.16 : Tribological System- ISHAN’S Fundamentals of Tribology SHAN 'S Fundamentals of Tribology Any Engineering problem associated with product or process can be analyzed in-depth” by considering it as a system having clements, properties and their interrelationship within reasonable constraining envelopes separating the system from the environment, A system is characterized by system functions and system structure is identified by operating variables, etc. ‘Systems Functions : 1. Separate the system from environment by proper choice of envelope. 2. Compile all inputs and outputs. Describe functional Input-output relations. Methodology of Operation of the System : 1, Identify variables 2. Define structure of tribo system. 3. Functional hizrarchy 4. Agglomerate to unified picture 5. Develop convenient methodology and solve systematically function and wear problem. System Structure : 1. _ Identify the ‘elements (or material components) of the system. 2. Characterize the interrelations and interactions between the ‘elements’ (the contact, friction and wear processes). 3. Specify the relevant properties of elements. A system can be represented by the block diagram as shown in Fig. 1.17. Input System structure Use output {X} S = {A, PR, R} {Y} Loss output {2} Fig. 1.17 : System Representation Functional aspects : Monitoring {X} Monitoring {Y} Monitoring {Z}woop aM Structural aspects: Monitoring system components {A} Monitoring system properties {P} Monitoring interrelation between components {R}. 1.8 ANALYSIS OF OPERATING VARIABLES Operating variables, (Tribotest system) have been nicely depicted by Czichos in an easy-to- understand manner in Fig, 1,18. Operating Tribometer Tribometric variables test system characteristics ‘Type of motion Friction force F, 4 — Load F, | =| Friction coeff. u 5 Velocity » 7 — 1 Noise, vibrations ‘Temperature T + AT| Temperature T (1) Tribo-element (2) Tribo-element (8) Lubricant Duration ¢ [— (4) Atmosphere Wear rate o Contact conditions Fig : 1.18 : Tribometric Characteristic 1.9 SYSTEM, MODEL AND TRANSFORMATION Fig. 1.19 may be used to show the effects of multiple input parameters under a specific restrictive condition of working. We may consider that the system is constrained due to techno restriction, socioeconomic restrictions and restrictions due to environmental conditions, like temperature, pressure and humidity thereby limiting the system by creating an envelope.s ISHAN'S Fundamentals of Tribolog, ———_ TT OO“ M\_&<4<—$—ot Output Loss output Fig. 1.19 : System Envelope for Analyzing the System Now, Ya = aX + ayXo + ay3X3 +... ainXn Y) = aX, + ayXo + aX3 xXn Ya = aX + ayyX2 + 55X34... OnXn Yow = GmiX1 + agaXa + OqaX3 +... GinXn Yi] fan a2 as ain | [X Yo} faa a2 m3 Gan | |X2 LY] =| ¥3 [=Jas) asp 53 oan |X] X3 YmJ [mt Gm2 m3 °° And LXn. [Y] = [1] (X) where T is transformation matrix, independent of [X]. Thus it is necessary to identify the problem and model it in a pattern of system, classifying all input and out parameters and determine the transformation matrix or set. Afier the physical modelling is done with a specific tribosystem it is necessary to quantify the system in order to convert it into a mathematical model, develop appropriate method for solving in a systematic manner, the problem of friction wear, etc. Review Questions 1. What do you mean by the term ‘Tribology’ ? 2. Explain different elements of tribology in brief. 3. Whatare the different disciplines constituted by tribology ? 4. What is the history behind tribology ? 5. Give a brief idea about use of tribology in design. 6. How the industries use tribology ? 7. How various tribological problems are generally solved ? 8. Give a detailed system approach behind tribological system. 9. Explain the system, model and transformation.Chapter SURFACE ROUGHNESS 2.1 SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY ‘The surface of any component is finished with the help of standard operations like grinding and toning. When deeply noticed, these finished surfaces may have about 10° peaks. Statistical analysis of the undulations of a surface normally shows that a very wide range of wavelengths is present, ranging form a fraction of a micrometer to many millimetres. Indeed, it is likely that the range of wavelengths detected is limited only by the resolution of the measuring instrument and that the wavelength spectrum actually extends from atomic dimensions to the full length of the surface being measured. It has been common practice to describe different wavelength bands in different terms, referring to wavelengths of the order of micrometers as roughness and the longer wavelengths as waviness. However, such a sub-division is quite arbitrary, and the only practical necessity is to be aware of which undulations are functionally important in any particular application. In tribology, the individual points of contact between two solid surfaces have dimensions of the order of micrometers, and we are, therefore, concerned with the amplitudes of wavelengths of the same order - ie. with those wavelengths which have been conventionally described as roughness. The peaks of such surface undulations are known as asperities, and friction and wear both arise from the contacts between such asperities on opposing surfaces. It is reasonable to assume that both friction and wear will depend in some way on the stresses arising at such asperity contacts and that the stresses themselves will depend on the heights of the asperities above the general level of the surface. We can, therefore, see that the tribological behaviour of two extended surfaces in contact will depend on the statistical distributions of asperity heights relative to the general level of the surfaces, and if we are to understand such behaviour, we must be able to measure and describe these distributions. 2.2. TECHNIQUES OF SURFACE MEASUREMENT A clear understanding of the functional characteristics of compcnents needs quantitative assessment of surface roughness. Particular attention has been paid to the problems of roughness measurement since 1930 and this attention has steadily increased till date when some knowledge of the subject is available in engineering plants practice. Operational functions which are influenced by the surface condition of a component are dependent on two main characteristics of the surface :.(i) the geometrical character, and (ii) the metallurgical aspects. Greater effort has, however, been put to the assessment of the first characteristic, since it is closely and directly related to actual production techniques and in general, requires a non-destructive type of test. 15= ISHAN'S Fundamentals of Tribolog, Instruments designed to assess the geometrical attributes of a surface are of two types:, on, having an output dependent on the three-dimensional character of the surface and the othe limited to a two-dimensional analysis. To enable varied parameters, to be measured, instrumen, have been developed which incorporate different physical phenomena produced by surfac, condit‘ons (e.g. optical, electrical, hydraulic, pneumatic and mechanical). a No instrument has an infinite range of measurement. At one end the range is limited by the sensitivity and at the other end by its measuring capacity and the size of the specimen it ca, accommodate. Surface roughness measuring instruments can be broadly classified in two groups : () contacting type of instruments (tactile and stylus method), and (ii) non-contacting type, such « pneumatic and optical instruments. A brief description of important roughness measuremey, techniques is given below. { 2.3. CONTACTING TYPE INSTRUMENTS 2.3.1 Tactile Method The simplest, cheapest and oldest way to measure surface roughness is the touch methog (tactile method). Drawing an edge such as a finger nail or coin across the surface to b measure: and comparing the feel or sound with that of a reference surface, consistent estimates with goo accuracies can be obtained by skilled workers. Fig. 2.1: Tactile Method17 Surface Roughness eS ———————— Rubert has developed an instrument to perform tactile testing in which the coin or finger nail has been replaced by a thin blade which buckles at an angle depending on the roughness (Fig. 2.1.) The judgement whether the surface is rough or smooth, must be done in comparison with standard specimens. Sets of machined specimens suitable for tactile comparison test are commercially available. 2.3.2 Stylus Method This is the most common method of measuring the surface roughness. The instrument consists of a sharply pointed stylus, which slides over the surface being tested. The vertical movement of the stylus is highly magnified and can be read off on a motor or recorded on a chart whose horizontal movement can also be magnified. The fundamental requirements of an instrument are high magnification, varying light operating force and the fitness of reproducing the result. The high magnification of the stylus movement can be achieved either by mechanical, optical, pneumatic or electrical means, Instruments based on these principles are available in the market. The Tomlison surface roughness tester is based on the principle of mechanical magnification, Forster and KieseWetter surface roughness testers have optical magnification. Topograph instrument has pneumatic magnification. However, most of the popular instruments such as Rank Taylor Hobson Talysurr, Perthometer etc. have electrical magnification. One important advantage of the electricul magnification is the possibility of obtaining very high amplification in range from 103 to 105 times, The transducers used for converting the mechanical displacement of the stylus into electrical signals are mainly of two types : (i) current or potential generating devices, and (ii) carrier modulating devices (Fig, 2.2). ag rt} ® Stylu | ead 1 Leah Styh (b)18 ISHAN'S Fundamentals of Tribology ee FFF 7 © 1-amplifier, 2-filter, 3-motor, 4-piezoelectric element, 5-oscillator, 6-AC bridge circuit, 7-demodulator, 8-tracer recorder Fig. 2.2 : Schematic Illustration of Stylus Instrument (a) Current Generating (b) Potential Generating () Carrier Modulating. - ‘The current generating method is one in which the stylus is connected to a small coil whic}, moves with the stylus in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet. The current generated Proportional to the amplitude and the frequency of the stylus movement. Refer fig. 2.2(a). In the piezo-electric method (potential generating instrument) a piezo-electric crystal is stressed in tension or compression as a result of the mechanical dispiacement of the stylus. Due to these stresses,a voltage will be generated in the piezo-crystal which is proportional to the stylus movement. Refer fig. 2.2(6). The carrier modulating devices give an output signal which is dependent only on the position of the stylus. The signal remains constant while the stylus is in a given position. A high-frequency cartier signal is modulated by the variation in inductance of a differential coil arrangement in the arms of an AC bridge the output of which is amplified, demodulated and passed through « variable filter network to a roughness recording meter or directly to a trace recorder. | The representation of the surface obtained by any stylus instrument is not a true reproduction of the actual surface. The distortions are due to different vertical and horizontal magnification, (Fig. 2.3) finite size of the stylus point, dynamic response of the stylus and its lateral deflection, and effect of surface datum, plastic deformation under stylus, etc.