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    23 views8 pages

    Hallan, S. - Musicality

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    Esteban Algora Aguilar
    Hallan, S._Musicality

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    CHAPTERS MUSICALITY SUSAN HALLAM ‘What do we mean by musRality? # “Thetis no consnnas among nade eaing the meaning of the ems: ‘Anobjecive source the Oo Disionary ert it a thew bing musa, which, in tari dened bing fd of o led in, music. Te adjectives is en ced toa range of ee ems, for example silty (dened a c4pay O Powe) ‘ptde (natural propensty or tle) alent asec pide ox fc), ad pote {Coming im being or scion, ten) In the Verte thee terms ae en wed inter changebly although there has been tendency for the tert saly’ tobe adopted jn coidernton of whether bring masa i sper speci character of nan being This ives speciation sbost the evoltanty bai of musical bebavou (ae, forinstacs, Hodge 1996) nd consideration ofevisence tat exmines whether he ear fracas tht fiat the perepon and appreciion of mac and be delopment of ‘il kl areal. Phere ten to be adopted when india ference ‘oer coniered Mow sil often, although nt caches wed to fer to the cutent le of stile hte individ exhib wheter ssid thowgh geet inberiane oF Icarning, whe spit, lent and potent tnd fo eet mal le perce be bse on inher facon, Ther are 0 Univeral ated definition of hte terms. ‘Thee meanings ar conrad by ech author who adopt end ret the ala, politcal economia soil for pening in thane tha ine (Blckng, 971, Forinance, ihe Wexern word hii stlesof ral elitr foo he developer tt sess potential or engaging in sic Thee termined tal apport or ilren in he ume way that tet of nlgencedetersned general ‘eatin oportants, In ths chapter the erainolgy adopted wil ec that ofthe sect owe refers. ‘The development ofthe testing of musicalityat the ime more usually refered toas‘musial ability, paralleled the development of the testing of icelignce. fn the early and mid- twentieth century, there was an agsumption that individual were endowed with diferent levels of Yineligenc’ chat were genetically based, relatively immutable and unchanging Early tests, to ident those children who trly ‘were unable to prof fom he istration ; & sa THE CHILD As MUSICIAN viewpoint (knowledge and experience) and a reflective viewpoint (th importance of good mental management). Perkins suggest hat earning leading to deep understanding, high levee of retention ad he ablity to apply knowledge ina Wide range o frome choughtfl, active engagement with the content being learned. Learning is argued to require reorganization, which is divided into five broad categories strategies (strategies that redirect thinking), metacogntion (monitoring and directing thinking), dispositions (a tendency in thinking), distributed cognition (we of cultural artefacts, ebooks, com- puters, diagrams), and transfer (arrying learning from one context to another) (Goodrich 2 aly 1998). These all have relevance to the consideration ofthe development of musical skill, ‘onto consider the challenges thar ve been made to traditional con- czptions of musialiy, itis worth noting that Western concerns with the nature and meaturement of inelignce are not shared universally In some Eastern cultures chil- reas atginmentis seen wo depend on effort not inate ability (Stevenaon & Lee 1990). In those cltaes, there hasbeen litle concer with sues relating to inteligence ands meas ‘arement. This relnfoross postmodern discourse, which acknowledges thar human thinking 's rooted in specific historical and cultura situations, that knowledge is open, ambiguous, ‘nd based on different perspectives and tha ti validated through cultural practices (Kvae, 1992), \ \ Recent conceptions of the nature of musicality A In peat with he challenges to traditional views ofthe nature of ntligence, the concept ‘of musicality as been severely ciczed in recent years. Focusing onthe iiportance of «effort, some have proposed that iti time spent practising that underpins the deelopment ‘of expert performance, not inherited ability. Ericson ea. (1983) suggested # monotonic relationship between ‘deliberate practice’ and an individual’ acqueed performance arla- 'Nonship supported by Sicboda eral (1996) who, comparing five groups of young musicians of diferent capabilites, found greater levels of practice at all ges from the ‘beat’ group, Increasing overtime to lead to large cumulative differences. nterviews with the parents of thete children revealed that singing bythe chifdat am eary age was the only sign that distin- ished those children who later succeeded in being acepted bya high status music school ‘These results reinforce the practice explanation (Howe et al, 1995). However not all the evidence is supportive. Sloboda and Howe (1991 found that students identified as having treater bility by ther teachers had undertaken les practice in their main instrument thelr practice time having been spread more equally across thee instruments Wagner (1975) found that increased practice didnot ead to any greater improvement in performance over an 8-week period and Zurcher (1972) found no relationship between total practice time tnd performance achievement, Reported correlations between achievement atime spent practising also vary considerably and are only moderate (Sloboda etal, 1996), It may be {hat iti the overall length of time over which learning has taken place rather than the ‘specific amount of practice tha is important (Hallam, 1998, 204). In addition, sks can be developed through playfl practice and playing in groups, not only through deliberate Musicaury Soci aor sch urea wpport ache peronaliy ad pee nteracos roca ben shown tobe ore mportnt thn amount of pac time in achieving igh lel of mul peroomans (Moore 200) a hos ubecrsendeayinmach of hiresarh to neg the ofp out— shone toy have unaraon ent prc ren esucesfl and dropped ot Me Sb eta (930) demented xt those who had dropped ot had wderalen Pen eter iodciee la thn thos wh contin in mud ofthe search on > se sngh cpanel has embrged. Rather urbe oft inchding soo cae ata eomept in mii rein achievement chlee aiiy, mesoed see iy, ath aeheegpent and otaen ae al vad redo of consinving > sors musa nrument ean. 97: My, 1973: eCard 90; Kein, 191, a. are (960) fund sigan ferences brwes misc achiever, atin ahiewerent sete towards musa periciptionbetneen depot. =0- eect an partis in muse acti, Dropouts perceived themes 88 rehired tly encourage, odd el masta inadequate ed anc tap and be ue nde nse of msi Pek conladed tht poste ‘Riepeczpons of muse sil were inked the dee to ontinve muse edueon aCe Supporting tis Harley (195) fond that dents ho droped ou viewed caeretny wo boys Semaning to grat Gime cnt fo the elie mall eval ‘tered ee eee “ype hn Sine Wa erence a we gate mien nee wine ke cc et ec rece en nig ga eae cooper merce re eet a Fenn ta sr ead Cte ete Se erie Seg mai en tec Wie ners ees li opto Sei toga mmrr pe ehi Pe aa ane tc fe gaa meme at ci nee eng aaa icra egede et eae 5 { d 4 100 THE CHILD As MUSICIAN. snaybe preived soo ret and th invdul may give up plying Such icles may be srt to nck of masa bt ean x os fv estee, fs of maiation, dese practic, and a downward spiral leading tthe verination of lessons (Chandler al, 1987; Asm 199), (On the bss of range of evidence, Sloboda (1996) hs arued for the deconstruction of musical aby indicating tat the "le secount of individual dierencesin maa expresivity shold ot v0 much be ‘igroved mdse into a whole vet of complex interacting factors tnd canes, each of which as its own logic and determining condone 123) He and callenuer eve argued that the et comepion of mus ety that poste inntly deterined diienencs betwen invuals in tee eapecy for ‘mosealacomplahment Yolk peycholgy (Sloboda a, 194). Findings om asrvey that indicated that more han 75% of «spl of educational profesional belived that paying an instrument, singing, nd composing reused «spec gif or maura taent oppor ths argument (Dai 1990. ‘ther have ao eogblnd the contebutin of wide range of ils to mos wtin- rent In 1979, Gilbert devised sts of motor sills prfomance on which was Big correed with musa asinment (ber, 1981). The importance of creativity in mic tas Deen acknowiedged and wap of aseig it vied (Vaughan, 1977 Webs, 1988), ‘he evidence geting ht general, ula creat or sexmed tbe diced ‘hoac asesed by msl aby ts (Sat, 1983)-[n elation we eatrumental aking, MePherson (1985, 198) ene five dstne ss aight eading performing rhea sie plying from memory: paying by ea and improvising while Hallam (198) sog- {eed that ‘Youle inclned aural, cognitive techie asco perfomance, fd learning sil. There ha ala ben an Increwing snowlederent that inva ‘scan ve diflering senghs und weaknesses within der role of mca sl ‘The socal construction of musical ability Although there have ben challenges to the very existence of musical ability in ccent years td some consideration of the ned to broaden is conception to explain different mosial ‘end states (Hallam, 1998), the concept itself has not received the stine level of theoretical development axineligence However, a numberof researchers have exporedityconceptoal- {nation by iflemnt groups in society Haroutounl (2000) analysed the ee of importance tached to patcalar rita in identifying musically able children. General behaviours of “Joutuined interest and se discipline recived higher mean responses than music-specifi formance, dynamic contrasts and technical fluency. Originality received the lowet rating However interviews with experts across the sical feldsof researc, performance, peycho- logyand education teachers involved in gifed education programmes arc others cegulaly Involved inthe entiation of gifted children revealed categories of perceptual awareness snd discrimination; met-perceptin; creative interpretation behaviou/prformance; and ‘motivation. The most decisive factor perecived to determine musical potenti in children musicaurY 10 resto on criteria lated othe he’s crentivexpresive involvement in music activites ‘This cantata with the queonnaire survey that found that crethity wes fund to bea inadequate measure reinforeing the completiy and dificult of ding and iin ‘sical potential. "na series of sues Malem at colleagues (Pall & Prince, 2003; Hallam & Sha 21; Hallam &e Woods, 2003) explored she coeeptions of musica by a croa section of the population including adults and children, ‘nd nomic bsg both qualitative and quanta resaich methods. fn quaftative sod url al receptive sponses ta malcaenersiv aces tb inteeaton ofa range of lls gona quale, andthe exten 10 wgibh msl si ity was perceived as being letrned ihered. Overly 28% of ted mentione url sis as indicative of musica ably 324 included Gnening and undervandin 24% having an apprecistion of musi, and 15% being response to msc. By fr largest response inary category was tht musical abity was beng ble to pay & music insrament or ting (Gied by 71% of the sample). This response was highest in chi dre who di ot tae art in extracurcalar usc (86%), and dts not ivored ‘ducaton (83), The integration of «rage of sk was cited by 9% of respondent Personal qualities including motivation, persona expression, immersion in msi tot commitment, and meacogitin (being able 0 eam olor) wee ced cox by Gen. The Bindings didnot indicate oneal conception of musea ably os gneicl é ‘Overall dhe musicians gave more complex responses, ncloding many more elements ‘hele scements. The caegory mort frequen ced by musicians was ubared with oth groups in that it focused on being able wo sing or pay an instrament (56%). This followed by listening and understanding (47%), emotional expeston (41%), having ‘mosical ear (39%), mativation (31%), communication ad inerpretation (30%), hig; sense of hythm (253) being able to compose (29%), personal enmitment and express (28%), techniclT ks (27), appreciation of music (249), respomiveness to musi (233 ‘nd progrsion and development (20%), ‘A allow-op study (Hallam & Shaw, 205), based on responses to ating sales der, fiom the qualitative research indicated that musical abiliy was mos strongly concept inelation o rhytme bility organization of sound, communicaon, motivation perto ‘characteris, integration of a range of complex sills and peroming in group. Hey musica ear came lower in the ist than might have been expeted given it promin postion with regard wo musical ability hisarically (see Figure 51). The conception ‘rhythm 2 being most rmportant may reflect its central role in noch popular mus statistically sigalicanydiflerencey were fovad between respondent from diferent gro. {nrlation to the total sore for musical ea, rhythmic ability; listening and understand! ‘response te mosic being able to play 2 musi instrument or sing being able to read mu ‘metacognlton oF relating to the origins of musical ability. Sipifcantdiferences w ‘Sand in eacon to alle other categories. Mosiiansexpresed the strongest agrees ‘hat musica bity was related to communication being able w playin group, emetic ‘eastvty and the orginizaton of sound indicating that theve dare crocial atthe big Teves of expert 102 THE CHILD AS MUSICIAN . “ fu ; ts ts 5 SW ure Mem ig net at iy heal ont erie on he conception finatrunenl chr Hala Wood 209 ith cine sar thease bow, Mow ofthe ece 6) concpiled th tem mene sy eco sry ofls ngt cod ‘eld that mn ai depere on ering adap beled Shatsome ppd ant lent formas Specialy enone neon it weeieedet ining nd conmncton silk es ver techn por enon {at lent they nerd a wl note wiotcnsesere Slat sd Brands (1999) sted Swen mae aches ey ems ot move Two major cgi ea an seven sgetng ht money oar ology iaheied and «mor rv on th ature eu maa poser foreveryne All cnideed muta tsa bee aul ofa re kere face extonmentalppartaee vel he concpion of al sity egated by his rec are comple wold und eet he wide geo cpr e-toc Yrfelon. Thy do et compan ihe boaeing conertons online icone ere. Key gueons het emer en tse track concen es ‘mcd f rcorat ost conception uy or wahr Gasser) ‘putin linc pain mul rng to ens eet musicaurry 193 [Relationships between conceptions of multiple intelligences and musicality ‘The research exploring peoplés conceptions of musical airy sgpess that for many i la defined by an end-tate—Belng able to play. sing, improvise, oF compose. Analysis of the emergent concepaul categories agunst Gardner's multiple inteligences suggest that tmost end-tates and setvties can be accounted for by the operation of other inteli- igencts apart fom music. Gardner, himel, acknowledges that fo ‘what i-invohed in particular musical tes, ike conducting, peforming, or composing musica tingle con. ‘trvet of “musical italigence is far t90 gis’ (Gardner, 1995 p. 103). The end-tates 6f msi itligence draw on combinations of seer inteligences a Jo all complex ‘Allof the inteigences are implicated in musica activity, alehough ats intelligence, hich i concerned with oar understanding of che natal world, ay onty be applied in {elton to the making and maintenance of instruments, Spatial intligence i calmed by ‘Gardner tobe relevant in the compositional process and alo in the structural analysis of ‘matic Verba intelligence appeace tobe linked t labeling skills i elation to aatation, ‘denying the names and styles of music and understanding the historical and cultural frameworks within which music was writen and wil be performed. There has alzo been a Alot telatinshipbetween mathematics und music sine he time of Pythagoras In media) times and in some non-Western cultures, the stady of music has shared many features th the study of mathematic, ineoding an iteest in proportions, ratios and recurring Patterns. Twebe-tone music, computer generated and computer-mediated composition has sustained these links. The performance of mic in particular in relation to ehythm tlso fs close links with matheriatics,Bodly-kinaesthetic intligenc i involved inthe learning and performance of technical sillsand intrapersona sks payan important part in the emotional aspects of performance, in enabling the performer or composer to be ‘sal-avare, providing arch source of emotional material on which daw inthe develop ‘ent of ideas for imposition or interpretation. Interpersonal intligence is important {Sr communicating with an audience and aso where musicians need w work together i preparing for performance. Table 5.2 indicates how each imeligence might be implicated tthe proeesional lee. What dhe theory af zuliple jatellgences (Gerdes, 1999) fal 0 addeess ig che issue ‘of motivation nd commitment to music and the relationship berween these, thé various Intligences and thelr end-ates. To lean to play an instrument, sng, or compoge requltes Practice and dedicatinn Thos involved ta teaching music are very oe of thB Foy cn0>- ‘mitment obe sustained, this motivation need oe generated from within the individual, not derived from external presures (Hallam, 1998) Gardner argues that an individual ‘may be motivated in «domain unrelated to his or he bites in that domain. Individual, may have high levels of measured musical ability and no interest in music or vce veri, “Hlowever, those who are intereted in music and spend more time engaged with it wil Increase their'abilit:Inadtion, lack of progres in leaening musi and interpretation of ‘hie as perctived lack of bility often leads to a reduction in motivation and pupil giving 1p playing. Thee findings have important implications for the ways in which pupils art selected to participate in musical activities. toe THE CHILD AS MUSICIAN ‘le. Carnes aie pedo muse a Logemteneial —Anipinreeemanc snd uh dng hn tl ce mos ongaion Sait Rog nen Hein deg he aca ma Solimesheic ete il nore ili crema fires sewed eran ein deren ta ern ra fr ‘devepnginerreaton, sao gn, ‘eeunpiton curl aniey nin ‘Soman itn oan hig ing wither mo Urpin sng recite taf ened Pe ong "jen nd el tet wae ere ny miata mo parma ough ordeedng owed mr sprinting arom et mee Setaeyeens They ena orb eal wt sb ne erie Gardner also has litle to say about the processes involved inthe acquisition of ausical stils and che wry chat the various inteigences operate together. Hs original che ero- Posed no ‘executive processing system that would ov-rdinae, monitor, and evaluat the functioning ofthe other inteligenes although in response to criticism Gardner has Bed ‘tha the intrapersonafinteligence takes on this oe The ores of Ceci (1990) and rkins (1995), with their greater focus on leaning, Anderson (192) and Demeriow (1983) which ‘ake account of development changes within and acres domains and research focusing on the development of expertise (Ericson etal, 193) may be mare help in this respect. The challenge ito develop an integrated theory that an take account ofthe many factors that ‘contribute toward range of exert musical end-ates, Whether this shoold be framed in reli to music aa singe ineligence’ or should draw on a range oinelligences is a rmatter for debate. Is musicality inherited or larnedt Underlying much ofthe controversy about mnsicaty ae questions celaing tite origins. ‘There are two debates relating to the heritability of musicality. The first focuses on whether humans asa species have a capacity for musi; the second is concerned with individual ferences The two are often confused, In elation tothe fist debate there is an increasing ‘body of evidence that all humans have the potential 19 make rausic and that musicality {sas universal as Linguine silty (Messenger, 1958; Blacking, 1971; Wallin etal, 2000) ‘Recent nearologicl research supports this view sugartig that there ae two key elements to musical processing one concerned with the encoding of pitch along musical sales, and, cone ascribing reglar beat to incoming events. The universal capacty fot appreciation of ‘music its well withthe notion of specialized municalstruraresin the bran hat are present and function early i human development (Peretz, 2003), Mustcauity 10s ‘The second debate fcateson whether there ae neil determined individual ite nce in msi ability. This paral sia eterno ineigence. Early wdies focused on comparisons of metsared musical sity between decal and fatal wins and other fury eltionships. The evidence from this racarch mined (Shote- Dyson Gari, 198; Shute-Dyon, 1999: Hodges 1996; Garner, 1999). Whie lite recent rrench has focused specify on muskal bility itis now cepted that there isa rong eviranmestlinfoence on meapureditligne indeed hissthe ony posible explana Son forthe evidence that IQ scves hve den dramatically in rece yeas (7, 1987) ‘Advances in racarc on geet o date, hae increased or knowlege ide in lation tothe heriabityof imagen o masa! ils, Few human behars of tas have been traced to specie gene paca andi i likly dat dhe who gibt emia kt ate drovng on range of diferent gene combintons, which xr a nence on out physi makeup in sdtion to our engntive and emotion development. Fare, inter {elie athe han aie modes te euonhlp between he erirgnen and netic inheritance are aw being proponed (Ceci, 199) supported by evidence fom atten of cxperia that demons tt the clon of knowledge intel atthe eiceney nd eeciverest ofthe process by which more knowledge acquire. "This supported by evidence tht the cerebral cortex ht an mating silty wo sel organize in response 1 ouside wil incuding music Raschecker, 2003), Cort sctvaton during muse procesig reflec persona! musa epeienee accamlate oer time. Litering to mse Ieerning to pay an instument, Formal instruction, and pr- fesiona taining result in multiple retentions of muse that seem 1 be, in at, Interchangeable nd reply adptve Aten, 2903)-Schlg (2008) args that whe selsletion for musicianship by individual with inate fucional und structural Brin Sifrence cannot be completely ed out there is ever inereming evidence hat mos tcsning tel lends to changes in rain function and rucare, This sugges that whatever {etic aberace an indvdual ay bres realy eahaeed by aus enced eironment™ “The most dificuk phenomenon t explain without resrtingto some notion of inhi erences in musicality sth evidence of dn savant and cil prodigies, The former we ‘Bildren whose genera copie Fnconing is below normal eves but whe nevertheless fie sble tw undertaken some activites for tance, drawing, calculating calendar dt, ‘Playing rie, with apparent eae and outstanding sl. The evidence fom hee cle agg tat some cognitive fnctios operat independent (Sods ea 985 Young & Netiebeck 195) Mile (1989) aver thatone ofthe outtanding characters of many ‘musical sans was absolute pth, which enabled soni ofthe svans to make confident ad api judgement of pc and complex chords. On some ass they were ableto perform ‘similar evel competent adult masickns, They were alo sensv ores reflecting harmonic eatonsips and the stuctre of musical compositions. It is dificult exin the kl without esortngo yeneticexplantions, though many ofthese children bre limited sight and language lores, which may have le toncreased development of ad inryprocesing sills andthe ue of music 258 means of communication They ko apn a seat dea of tie praising ter sl in pat because the ecrve considerable posine ‘enforcement for thelr masta expert. Willams syndrome invigoals pretentanobet intriguing problern. With 1Qs typical in the range 66-70 their gutve asymmetry is casey ni ae nian on cmon 7) nc ory ve hem ‘very poor at thematic nd patil soning but more adept than might be expecedin sameeren lcm i ere having appropriate opportunites fr acquisition, ‘There are remarkable imiaitce between many of the character of the svants and child prodigies. Recently, Ruthstz and Detterman (2003) reported a case of musa prodigy who had no formal ution on an instrument, id no formal practice and bad fined his sls by istening to ther performers and improving his own musica pier. is family had o parce musical backgrovnd although his mothe played the piano. He coud sng in two languages and had taught himzel to play numerous instrument. His musical behaviours seemed self: motivated—~he engaged in them spontaneously and with pleasure, in particular entertaining people. He spent a great deal of ime in plafa imitation of eter musicians but the improvement in his performance wes «by-product ofthis practice not the product of i. He had extremely high cores on tet of mil Abily aed inteligence, the ater revealing an extraordinary memory as memured within is cognitive prof. Any theoretical explanations of mutica bility ned tae account of these factors Conclusions \ Currept methodologies and technologies do nt enable us to stat beyond doubs whether observed differences in rascal bin children are the sol reault of genetic inheritance, learning or an interaction between the two. There i abundant evidence that butane at 4 species are ‘musical that we shore similar bran structure that reapond to musi and hat ‘exposure to mosic and engagement with it improve measured mica. Evidence so far from the sud of genetics uggs tat thre ar nil tbe singe gets responsible fot any complex behaviors including those relating to music and that diferencia muscl anainvent ae likely to depend on complex interactions between a range of sks and experiences that ar likely to have an equally complex geveic bak. It may be that we will never beable to establish, beyond doubt, © what extent individual mosia ably s learned or inherited Pragmatic, we sould provieal chiles with opportunities fom the eatest age wo deel thei ual kil If resources ae limited and selection has to be made, intrest in music and motivation to engage with t may prove be better

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