Plate tectonics: Theory that explains the distribution of Volcanoes, Earthquakes, Epicenters and

Mountain Ranges.
: Throughout history, the Earth has been molded and shaped by different processes and is constantly
changing through various driving forces.
: Volcanic eruptions and Earthquakes are some of the forces that caused changes to the Earth’s surface in
many ways
: A German meteorologist, Alfred Wegener is often credited as the first to develop a theory of plate
tectonics, in the form of Continental Drift. (Father of Plate tectonics)
: is a generally accepted scientific theory that considers the Earth’s lithosphere to comprise a number of
large tectonic plates which have been slowly moving since about 3.4 billion years ago.
: Our Earth has four layers: Crust, Mantle, Inner and Outer core.
7 Major Tectonic Plates (Arranged by size)
 Pacific Plate - 103,300,000 Sq Km
- The Pacific Plate is estimated to be 103,300,000 square kilometers in size.Found underneath the
Pacific Ocean
- it is the largest of all tectonic plates.
- Most of the Pacific Plate is made up of oceanic crust, except for areas around New Zealand and
parts of California.
- The nature of the Pacific Plate was notably responsible for forming the islands of Hawaii.
 North American Plate - 75,900,000 Sq Km

- The North American Plate is the world’s second-largest tectonic plate.

- It consists of both continental crust and oceanic crust.
- The plate’s continental crust is made up of most of North America and Iceland.
- The North American plate is responsible for the formation of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a mountain
chain beneath the Atlantic Ocean. 

 Eurasian Plate - 67,800,000 Sq Km

- The Eurasian Plate has an estimated area of 67,800,000 square kilometers.

- It is the third-largest of the major tectonic plates.
- Most of the continents of Europe and Asia are in the Eurasian Plate.
- Several geological formations can be found on this plate, the most prominent of which is the
Himalayan Range.

 African Plate - 61,300,000 Sq Km 

- The African plate is the fourth largest tectonic plate with an estimated area of 61,300,000 square
kilometers.
- Most of the African continent is on the African Plate.
- The African Plate also includes substantial parts of the Indian and Atlantic Oceans.
- The Plate is slowly splitting at the East African Rift Valley which runs from the Red Sea to
Kenya. Notably, the Italian island of Sicily is also a part of the African Plate.

 Antarctic Plate - 60,900,000 Sq Km 

- The Antarctic Plate encompasses the entire continent of Antarctica, as well as the nearby oceans.
It is the fifth-largest plate on earth.
- It is also the world’s southernmost plate. 

 Indo-Australian Plate - 58,900,000 Sq Km 

- The Indo-Australian Plate was formed out of a merger of the Australian and Indian plates
millions of years ago.
- When the Eurasian Plate and the Indo-Australian plates collided many many years ago, the
Himalayan mountains were formed.
- Some scientists, however, believe that the Indian Plate and the Australian Plate are separate
plates, and have been so for millions of years. 

 South American Plate - 43,600,000 Sq Km 

- The South American Plate is a major tectonic plate that covers 43 million square kilometers
including South America and the surrounding Atlantic Ocean.
- Tectonic activity at the boundary between the South American Plate and the Nazca Plate is held
responsible for the volcanic activity and orogeny in the region.

9 Minor Tectonic Plates (Arranged by size)

 Somali Plate - 16,700,000 Sq Km 

- The Somali Plate is a minor tectonic plate encompassing the African country of Somalia.
- Currently, the Somali Plate is moving away from continental Africa at a very small pace which
equates to around 20 millimeters per annum.
- At this pace, Somalia may separate from Africa after millions of years, leading to the formation
of a new continent and ocean. 

 Nazca Plate - 15,600,000 Sq Km 

- The second largest of all minor plates, the Nazca Plate, stretches for 15.6 square km off the
western coast of South America, to the south of the much smaller Cocos Plate. 

 Philippine Sea Plate - 5,500,000 Sq Km

- The Philippine Sea Plate comprises of over 5 million square km of ocean space adjacent to the
Philippines, in the Philippine Sea.
- The plate also touches upon both Taiwan and Japan in its northern reaches. 

 Arabian Plate - 5,000,000 Sq Km.

- The Arabian Plate measures 5 million square km, mostly across the Arabian Peninsula. The plate
also includes parts of the Levant.

 Caribbean Plate - 3,300,000 Sq Km 

- The Caribbean Plate is found in the Caribbean Sea, as well as the island of Hispaniola, and
Central America.
- It lies to the north of South America and south of the islands of Cuba and Jamaica. 

 Cocos Plate - 2,900,000 Sq Km 

- The Cocos Plate is a minor plate that stretches for 2.9 million square km.
- It is geographically located off the coast of western Central America.
- The plate is around 23 million years old, which is relatively young in tectonic plate terms. The
formation of the Cocos Plate can be traced to seafloor spreading, which generally occurs at mid-
ocean ranges.
- The shifting of the Cocos Plate underneath the North American Plate (these movements are called
subduction) led to several earthquakes in recent times.

 Caroline Plate - 1,700,000 Sq Km

- The Caroline Plate is a minor plate found in South Asia.

- It is moving at a speed of around 87 mm every year.

 Scotia Plate - 1,600,000 Sq Km

- The Scotia Plate stretches for 1.6 square km just north of the Antarctic Plate.
- The majority of the plate is deeply submerged beneath the Scotia Sea.

 Burma Plate - 1,100,000 Sq Km

- As its name suggests, the Burma Plate encompasses the country of Burma (Myanmar).

 New Hebrides Plate - 1,100,000 Sq Km

 - The New Hebrides Plate is found in the south Pacific Ocean, where it stretches for 1,100,000
square km.
- It is closest to the country of Vanuatu.

Major Plates: >20,000,000 Sq Km

Minor Plates: >1,000,000 Sq Km

Micro Plates: <1,000,000 Sq Km

Lithosphere: The outermost part of the Earth’s structure.

: consists of the crust and a small portion of the upper mantle.

Types of Crust: The Crust is made up of a variety of solid rocks like sedimentary, metamorphic, and
igneous. The crust is thickest where relatively young mountains is present and thinnest along the ocean
floor.

Continental crust

 Approx. 20-50Km thick

 Less dense (2.7g/cm3) than oceanic crust
 Basaltic

Oceanic crust

 Approx. 5-10Km thick

 Denser (3g/cm3) than continental crust
 Much older than Continental crust
 Granitic
 What is the difference between the two types of crust?

Their main differences are in thickness, composition, density and age.

- Oceanic crust is thinner (5-10 km thick) than continental crust (20-70 km thick).
- Oceanic crust is composed of minerals that have higher concentrations of iron and magnesium
(Mafic minerals) than those of the continental crust (which is richer in aluminum and silica -
Felsic minerals).
- The rocks that make up the oceanic crust are typically more dense (3300 kg/m3) than those that
make up the continental crust (2700 kg/m3).
- Oceanic crust is as a rule much younger than continental crust; the oldest oceanic crust is rarely
over 200 million years in age, whereas the continental crust can exceed 3 billion years in age.
 What if the crust didn’t exist at all, what do you think will happen? Is crust important to human
life? Why?

- The Earth’s crust is the outermost layer of the Earth (not including the atmosphere). It is
important to us because it is the layer that we live on. It’s where the plants grow and where water
is found. Its main function is to act as the layer of human existence and all the natural resources
are available in this layer. If we didn’t have the crust, there would be no place for plants, the
photosynthesis cycle won’t be able to take place therefore no oxygen will be provided.

Lithospheric plates: The entire lithosphere of the Earth is broken into numerous rigid sections that move
as a unit called lithospheric or tectonic plates.

Oceanic/oceanic convergent boundaries

- Different oceanic plates run into each other

- Older=denser; one dives beneath the other which causes it to subduct.
- The forearc basin between the trench and the island arc are backarc basin on the opposite side of
the arc.

Oceanic/continental convergent boundaries

- Wherein oceanic and continental plates collide.

- Oceanic crust subducts beneath the continental crust

Continental/continental convergent boundaries

 - Continental lithosphere is too buoyant to subduct deeply, so rather than a subduction zone and
trench these boundaries encompass a thick mess of folded, piled-up crust. This compression
results in massive mountain belts rather than volcanic arcs.

Convergent Plate Boundary (Destructive type)

This occurs in:

a) Oceanic-continental
b) Two oceanic plates
c) Two continental plates

 Oceanic plates sinks because it is denser than the continental plate. In this case of convergence of
two oceanic plates, the older plate sinks whereas in the convergence of two continental plates
they collide and buckle up forming mountain ranges, no subduction occurs in continental-
continental convergence.

Facts about oceanic-continental convergence:

- The convergence of an oceanic plate and a continental plate

- Tsunamis may occur
- Earthquakes may happen
- There is subduction since the oceanic plate is denser than the continental plate therefore it will
subduct under the continental plate and melt into magma once it reaches the uppermost part of the
mantle or the Asthenosphere.
- It could also form a volcano and cause volcanic activity

Result of Oceanic-continental convergence:

- Volcanoes
- Earthquakes
- Tsunamis
- Deep ocean trench

Facts about oceanic-oceanic convergence:

- The convergence of two oceanic crusts results in some similar events compared to the first type
of convergence
- Tsunamis may occur
- Earthquakes may happen
- There is also subduction because when an oceanic plate is older, it is denser. The front part of the
subducting plate becomes magma upon reaching the mantle
- Then it builds up pressure due to heat, pushes the crust above it, forming a volcano.
- Since the plates are moving, the volcano will move with the plate. It becomes extinct when it is
no longer above the magma deposit in the mantle.
- A new volcano will then form. This series of volcanos is called the volcanic island arc

Result of oceanic-oceanic convergence:

- Progressively deeper earthquakes

- An oceanic trench
- A chain of volcanic islands
- Destruction of oceanic lithosphere

Examples:

- The Mariana Trench

- Aleutian Islands
- Eastern Caribbean Islands
- Japan
- St. Lucia and St. Vincent Grenadines

Facts about continental-continental plate convergence:

- Intense compression can cause: intensive folding of the crust, faulting of rocks, thickening and
shortening of plates within the colliding plates.
- Folded crust-> mountain ranges/mountain belts
- This type of convergence will cause no subduction
- There would be no volcanoes and tsunamis formed
- The convergence will also result in mountain ranges
 - Shallow earthquakes are also associated since subduction impossible between the two colliding
plates therefore pressure is released upwards.
- An example of a landform created by this convergence: the Himalayas; convergence of the Indian
and the Eurasian plate.

Convection currents in the Mantle

- A process by which heat is transferred by a movement of a heated fluid such as air or water.
- Lighter (less dense), warm material rises while heavier (more dense) cool material sinks.
- Continuous loop of sinking and rising hot, soft rocks caused by energy transfer in the
asthenosphere (upper mantle) of Earth.
- Heat for convection comes from deep within the Earth, it is a very hot layer because of the heat
generated by the core due to the decay or breakdown of radioactive elements.
- Will stop when all of the material has reached the same temperature.
- Mantle convection is the process by which heat from the Earth’s core is transferred upwards to
the surface.
- It is thought that heating of the mantle by the core creates convection cells in which hot mantle
rises, cooling as it goes toward the crust until it reaches less dense material, at which point it
spreads out then descends.
- A theory of mantle convection must explain the variable chemical composition of the mantle
material while agreeing with other observations, and physical constraints as to the mantle’s
structure
- In some models, there are distinct layers, with convection taking place in the upper layer and
plumes of material rising.

Divergent Plate Boundary (Constructive type)

- Wherein plates move away from each other

- Occurs above a rising convection current (Asthenosphere) soft and weak layer
- Plates that separate and move apart in opposite directions forming new lithosphere- the young
seafloor.
- This either occurs at rifted continental margins (rift/valley) or at mid-ocean ridges (seafloor
spreading)
- Mostly happens under the oceans
- As plates pull away from each other, a vertical space that may expected deep down into the
lowest layer of the crust is created. It is a rift valley. The force of separation creates a tension
zone
- A shallow earthquake may happen with this plate movement
- Slow continuous process, as the plates move away, the gap between them increases. while this
happens, materials from the mantle may rise up, filling up the space. These materials may pile up
near the tension zone forming mountain like structures called oceanic ridges. New materials from
the mantle may push the old ones. This filled-up space between the plates becomes a new
seafloor. This process is called seafloor spreading.

Continental- continental divergence

- Due to convection currents in the mantle, divergent occurs beneath the thick continental plate
pulling apart is not rigorous enough to create a clean single break through the thick plate
materials.
- Earthquakes occur as a result of this fracturing boundaries
- As the two plates pull apart, normal fault develops on both sides of the rift and the central block
slide downwards creating a faulted valley called rift valley.
- Due to the convection current two oceanic plates move away from each other.
- The magma rises from the mantle to fill up the gap between the plates as they diverge.
- As it cools down, this lava creates new crust at the plate boundary.

Result:

- Rift valley
- Numerous normal faults
- Shallow earthquake
- Forms volcanoes
- Lava flows in rift valleys

Examples:

- East African rift valley

- The Red Sea
- Atlantic ocean
 - The constant flow of magma causes new crust to form continuously
- The old crust will be pushed further away from the plate boundary. This is known as the sea floor
spreading.
- Overtime, the cooling magma piles up to form a raised ridge called mid ocean ridge

Effects/ results

- Mid-ridge
- Submarine mountain ridge
- Fissure eruptions
- Shallow earthquake
- Creation of new seafloor
- Widening ocean basin
- Volcanic islands
- Submarine lava flow

Example: mid-ocean ridge

 Millions of years ago, the landmasses were once connected. Because of the different plate
tectonic boundaries in different directions, some plates separate in opposite direction, move
toward and away from each other and slide past against each other. If plate tectonics
suddenly stopped, what do you think would happen to Earth? Would anything survive?
Why or why not?

- Many natural disasters occur yearly and continuously wear down variations of landforms and
without tectonic movement, nothing would be able to refresh these landforms and they would
eventually flatten. Moreover, these landforms are crucial to living organisms since it is where
habitats are situated and where greenery is planted which is our source of food and oxygen. In
conclusion I think it would be greatly harming if plate tectonics stopped moving and I find it hard
to believe that we humans will survive without tectonic movement.

Hotspot

- A portion of the Earth’s surface which experiences volcanism

- It is where lava pushes up from under the mantle and creates a volcano
- Hotspots may be far from tectonic boundaries, it is caused by a rising mantle plume

 The origins of the concept of hotspots lie in the work of J. Tuzo Wilson.

- Hotspots are fed by narrow streams of hot mantle rising from the Earth’s core-mantle boundary in
a structure called mantle plume.
- Hotspots are intensely hot area in the mantle below Earth’s crust.
- Hotspot volcanism is a type of volcanism that typically occurs at the interior/middle parts of the
lithospheric plates rather than at the zones of convergence and divergence (plate margins).
Hotspot volcanism is due to mantle plumes
- Most of the mantle plumes lie far away from tectonic plate boundaries
- Most hotspot volcanoes are basaltic
- Hotspot volcanoes are considered to have fundamentally different origin from island arc.

5 examples of hotspots:

- Hawaiian hotspot
- Reunion hotspot
- Yellowstone hotspot
- Galapagos hotspot
- Iceland hotspot

 Hotspot volcanism explains the so called anomalous volcanism – the type that occurs far from
the plate boundaries, like in Hawaii and Yellowstone, or in excessive amounts along mid-ocean
ridges, as in Iceland.
 The Iceland hotspot and Afar hotspot which are situated at the divergent boundary are exceptions.
 The Hawaiian islands are the youngest volcanic mountains in a long chain of volcanoes that
formed over a hotspot. They are still forming to this day.
  Age of volcano increases linearly away from current hotspot.

Continental Drift Theory

 Developed in the early part of the 20th century

 Proposed by Alfred Wegener ( 1880-1930)
 States that all continents were once joined together in a single mass called Pangaea or the
supercontinent
 1900s a German polar researcher,geophysicists and meteorologist (Alfred Wegener) proposed the
Continental Drift Theory. (1912) He found evidence for PANGAEA and proposed the theory of
continental drift.

 He proposed that there was once a single “super continent” called Pangaea (pan JEE uh), which is
Greek for “all earth.”
 Surrounded by Panthalassa “all sea”
 He believed that the continent floated on the oceanic crust (like an iceberg in the ocean).
 Most scientist rejected his theory due to lack of evidence.
 Scientists thought this theory was outrageous because even though Wegener had evidence of one
large land mass, he didn’t have the answers to what force (engine) “floated the plates”. He was
laughed at and did not live to see his theory accepted.

Evidences

- The continents, especially South America and Africa, seemed to fit together like a puzzle.
- FOSSIL EVIDENCE: Wegener did not collected the fossils he only gathered and used the
scientific documents to prove his theory. He noticed that plant and animal fossils were found on
different continents.
- . ROCK EVIDENCE and MOUNTAINS
- Huge belts of rocks found in Africa and South America were identical. Not only were they the
same, but they would match up (age, thickness, types) if the continents were put together.
- Sequence of RocksSame rock patterns found in South America, India, Africa, Antarctica and
Australia
- CLIMATE EVIDENCE: Warm weather plants have been found in the Arctic… but it’s not warm
there. Glacier deposits have been discovered in tropical and desert locations…it’s not cold there,
either. The continents had to have been at different locations in the geological past.
- Glacial Striations: Scratches, having lines or mark leave on rocks as they travel

 Now we know they did 250 million years ago after the Triassic period and then drifted apart
 It was rejected by the scientists because Wegener could not explain clearly why the plates moved
to where it is now.

Seafloor spreading

• Sonars and submersibles- Scientist had clearer view of the ocean floor and help them discovered
underwater features within the ocean.
• An American scientist named Harry Hammond Hess ,a geologist from Princeton University
proposed the seafloor spreading theory in 1962.
 • The Sea floor spreading theory states that new ocean crust is being created at mid-ocean ridges
(which are large mountain chains underwater) and destroyed at deep-sea trenches.
• This is proof that the plates are moving along on a “conveyor belt” so Wegener’s idea on
continent drift was correct. For example,the Red sea created by African and Arabian plateThe
most active site of seafloor spreading is the East Pacific Rise,with more than 14 cm/yr
• Harry Hess in the 1960’s; the process that continually adds new material to the ocean floor while
pushing older rocks away from the ridge

Mid-Ocean Ridge – the longest

chain of mountains in the world---these are divergent plate boundaries.

 New ocean floor forms along cracks in the ocean crust as molten material erupts from the mantle
spreading out and pushing older rocks to the sides of the crack. New ocean floor is continually
added by the process of sea-floor spreading
 When the magma hardens, a small amount of new ocean floor is added to the Earth’s crust. As
more magma rises and cools it pushes the new sea floor away from the ridge. This process is
called sea floor spreading.
PROOF THAT THE SEA FLOOR IS SPREADING
1. The oldest ocean floor rocks ever found are 180 million years old. Remember the Earth is 4.6
billion years old. This proves that ocean floor is being destroyed therefore all ocean floor rocks
are young compared to the age of Earth.
2. The rocks closest to the ocean ridge were younger than the rocks found further from the ridge.
This means that new rocks are formed at the ridges and push the older rocks away from the ridge.
– Core samples from the ocean floor show that older rocks are found farther from the ridge; youngest
rocks are in the center of the ridge
What constitute the strongest evidence in support of seafloor spreading?
When the Earth's magnetic field reverses, a new stripe, with the new polarity, begins. Such magnetic
patterns led to recognition of the occurrence of sea-floor spreading, and they remain some of the strongest
evidence for the theory of plate tectonics

Magnetic Reversal
- A geomagnetic reversal is a change in a planet's magnetic field such that the positions
of magnetic north and magnetic south are interchanged, while geographic north and geographic
south remain the same.
- last reversal-780,000 years ago
• Magnetic Polarity: An electric charge can have either positive or negativepolarity. A voltage or
potential difference between two points of an electric circuit has a polarity, describing which of
the two points has the higher electric potential. A magnet has a polarity, in that it has two poles
described as "north" and "south" pole.
:The north-seeking pole of such a magnet, or any similar pole, is called a north magnetic pole. The
south-seeking pole, or any pole similar to it, is called a south magnetic pole. Unlike poles of different
magnets attract each other; like poles repel each other.
 :A magnetic polarity reversal is a change of the earth's magnetic field to the opposite polarity. This
has occurred at irregular intervals during geologic time.
:The 'North pole' of any magnet is the one that would be attracted to the earth's North magnetic pole.
In that sense, they are just labels that identify the oppositemagnetic force produced at each end of
the magnet. The earth's magnetic field also has poles, North and South
: A magnetic reversal occurs when the north and south poles of the Earth's magnetic field flip or switch
positions. This is called a geomagnetic reversal. The history of geomagnetic reversals is preserved in
older and younger rock.
: It is not well understood why the Earth’s magnetic field reverses itself. 
:If geologic history repeats itself, Earth’s magnetic poles should eventually swap places. This much is
undeniable. Based on the magnetic fingerprints locked onto ancient rocks, we know that over the last 20
million years, magnetic north and south have flipped roughly every 200,000 to 300,000 years (this rate
has not been constant over the planet’s lifetime, though). 
How does magnetic reversal prove seafloor spreading?
- Seafloor spreading is a process that occurs at mid-ocean ridges. These ridges mark the boundaries
between two plates that are diverging, or moving away from one another. As the plates move
apart, the crust is stressed and weakened. This allows magma from under the surface to break up
through the crust, coming out and creating new sea floor. The plates move apart, carrying the
“new” sea floor with it. The idea that this happens was proposed in the 1960s.
- Magnetic stripes provide evidence of sea floor spreading -striped magnetic patterns developed
,because oceanic crust pulls apart , magma rises to the surface at mid- ocean ridges.

When magma cools, the iron cools into the mineral magnetite. It lines up parallel to the Earth’s
present magnetic field. This iron is like compass needles, pointing north. So when the rock hardens,
a record of the Earth’s magnetic field at that time is locked in stone

-Studies of these magma flows have showed a magnetic reversal over geologic time.
-A magnetic reversal (called a FLIP) is a change in Earth’s magnetic field. North pole becomes south
pole and south becomes north.
- The Earth's magnetic field is thought to be generated by fluid motions in the liquid, outer part of the
Earth's core, which is mainly composed of iron. The fluid motions are driven by buoyancy forces that
develop at the base of the outer core as the Earth slowly cools and iron condenses onto the solid, inner
solid core below.
- Scientists do not really know what causes the reversals of the magnetic field, although they
have duplicated the phenomenon in laboratory experiments with molten metals, which also will
spontaneously change the direction of their magnetic fields. Some theorists believe that magnetic
field reversals may be caused by tangible events, such as tectonic plate collisions or impacts from
large meteors or asteroids, but this theory is discounted by others. It is known that leading up to a
magnetic reversal, the strength of the field declines, and since the strength of our current magnetic
field is now in steady decline, some scientists believe we will see another magnetic reversal in about
2,000 years. 
- As a matter of geological record, the Earth's magnetic field has undergone numerous reversals of
polarity. We can see this in the magnetic patterns found in volcanic rocks, especially those recovered
from the ocean floors. In the last 10 million years, there have been, on average, 4 or 5 reversals per
million years. At other times in Earth's history, for example during the Cretaceous era, there have
been much longer periods when no reversals occurred. Reversals are not predictable and are certainly
not periodic in nature. Hence we can only speak about the average reversal interval.
- The Earth's magnetic field protects the life on Earth from life-killing ultraviolet radiation from the
Sun and from cosmic radiation. Over the history of the Earth, the magnetic field has reversed every
several hundred thousand years. It has been about 780 thousand years since the last reversal and the
present magnetic field is showing some signs that a reversal is due. There is a lot of debate if a magnetic
reversal is dangerous to life on Earth. Some evidence suggests there is little impact on life. Other
evidence suggests that there may be a relationship between life extinctions and magnetic reversals.
Assuming humans have not led to our extinction before the next reversal, the next magnetic reversal will
be quite exciting for life on Earth.

Seismic waves
- These are vibrations generated by an earthquake, explosion, or similar energetic source and
propagated within the Earth or along its surface.
- They are energy that travels through the earth and it’s recorded on SEISMOGRAPHS.
- Studied by geophysicists called SEISMOLOGISTS
Seismometers: instruments that detect seismic waves.
Seismographs: Records intensity, height and amplitude of seismic waves.

Types of Waves
BODY WAVES
a) Primary or P-wave
Compression wave
b) Secondary or S-wave
Transverse wave
SURFACE WAVES
Love wave
Rayleigh wave
P-waves

P-waves, also known as primary waves or pressure waves, travel at the greatest velocity through the
Earth. When they travel through air, they take the form of sound waves – they travel at the speed of sound
(330 ms-1) through air but may travel at 5000 ms-1 in granite. Because of their speed, they are the first
waves to be recorded by a seismograph during an earthquake.

They differ from S-waves in that they propagate through a material by alternately compressing and
expanding the medium, where particle motion is parallel to the direction of wave propagation – this is
rather like a slinky that is partially stretched and laid flat and its coils are compressed at one end and then
released.

S-waves

S-waves, also known as secondary waves, shear waves or shaking waves, are transverse waves that travel
slower than P-waves. In this case, particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation.
Again, imagine a slinky partially stretched, except this time, lift a section and then release it, a transverse
wave will travel along the length of the slinky.
Seismic waves are waves that travel through or over Earth. They are usually generated by movements of
the Earth's tectonic plates (earthquakes) but may also be caused by explosions, volcanoes and landslides.
They can tell us much about the Earth's structure.

S-waves cannot travel through air or water but are more destructive than P-waves because of their larger
amplitudes

Surface waves

Surface waves are similar in nature to water waves and travel just under the Earth’s surface. They are
typically generated when the source of the earthquake is close to the Earth’s surface. Although surface
waves travel more slowly than S-waves, they can be much larger in amplitude and can be the most
destructive type of seismic wave. There are two basic kinds of surface waves:

 Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, travel as ripples similar to those on the surface of water.
People have claimed to have observed Rayleigh waves during an earthquake in open spaces, such
as parking lots where the cars move up and down with the waves.
 Love waves cause horizontal shearing of the ground. They usually travel slightly faster than
Rayleigh waves

Discontinuity: A zone in the earth where a sudden

change in physical properties, such as the
velocity of earthquake
waves, occurs.
Mohorovičić discontinuity
Andrija Mohorovičić
: found out that the velocity of seismic waves changes and increases at a distance of about 50 km below
earth’s surface.
:Led to the idea that there is a difference in density b/n the earth’s outermost layer (crust) and the layer
that lies below it (mantle)
Gutenberg discontinuity Mantle-core boundary
Beno Gutenberg
German seismologist
- The existence of shadow zone, could only be explained if the Earth contained a core composed of
a material different from that of the mantle causing the bending of the P-waves
- is the boundary, as detected by changes in seismic waves, b/n the Earth’s lower mantle and the
outer core about 1800 miles below surface.
New Region of Seismic Reflection
Inge Lehmann
Danish seismologist
discovered a new region of seismic reflection w/in the core. So earth has a core w/in a core.
The size of the inner core was accurately calculated through nuclear underground tests. Echoes from
seismic waves provided accurate data in determining its size.
Layer Thickness in Km
Crust 40
Mantle 2900
Outer core 2200
Inner core 1278